Eulerian and Lagrangian

cavitation related simulations

using OpenFOAM

Aurelia Vallier

Division of Fluid Mechanics

Department of Energy Sciences
Faculty of Engineering
Lund University , Sweden

2010-11-10
Introduction
Inception
Development
Undesirable effects
Multiphase flow modeling
VOF
LPT
Cavitation modeling
Mass transfer model of Sauer and Schnerr
Modeling of rising bubbles - Studies and results
Volume conservation
Comparisons
Hydrofoil NACA0015 - Studies and results
Nuclei distribution
Future work
Outline
Introduction
Inception
Development
Undesirable effects
Multiphase flow modeling
VOF
LPT
Cavitation modeling
Mass transfer model of Sauer and Schnerr
Modeling of rising bubbles - Studies and results
Volume conservation
Comparisons
Hydrofoil NACA0015 - Studies and results
Nuclei distribution
Future work
Definition
Cavitation is the formation of vapor bubbles in a liquid due to a
local reduction in pressure.

Pressure

Solid
phase
Liquid
phase

Gaseous phase

Temperature

Figure: Phase diagram.

Setting of a turbine
I Construction costs.
I Maintenance costs.
I Understand and predict cavitation.

Draft tube
Nuclei
Nuclei: small bubbles of gas and vapor (1 to 100 µm).
I Nuclei grow in low pressure region
σst
pg + pv − p = 2 .
R
I Surface roughness.
I Turbulence.
Development
The cavitation number
p∞ − pv
σ= 1 2
.
2 ρU∞

The angle of attack.

Development
The cavitation number
p∞ − pv
σ= 1 2
.
2 ρU∞

The angle of attack.

I Bubble cavitation
I Sheet cavitation
I Cloud cavitation
I Tip and hub
vortex cavitation
I Tip clearance
cavitation
Noise, vibrations and efficiency drop

η
η0 -

| |
σc σp σ
Erosion
Erosion
Erosion
Erosion
Outline
Introduction
Inception
Development
Undesirable effects
Multiphase flow modeling
VOF
LPT
Cavitation modeling
Mass transfer model of Sauer and Schnerr
Modeling of rising bubbles - Studies and results
Volume conservation
Comparisons
Hydrofoil NACA0015 - Studies and results
Nuclei distribution
Future work
Multiphase flow
A continuous phase and a disperse phase.
Multiphase flow
A continuous phase and a disperse phase.

I Bubbles smaller than the

grid size
I Low volume fraction

LPT (Lagrangian Particle

Tracking)
Multiphase flow
A continuous phase and a disperse phase.

I Bubbles smaller than the I Bubbles larger than the

grid size grid size
I Low volume fraction I Interface

LPT (Lagrangian Particle VOF (Volume Of Fluid)

Tracking)
The VOF method

volume of fluid i in the cell

αi = .
volume of the cell

αi = 0
 if the cell is filled with fluid j,
αi = 1 if the cell is filled with fluid i,

0 < αi < 1 if the cell is cut by the interface between fluid i and j.


αi + αj = 1
ρ = αi ρi + (1 − αi )ρj ,
µ = αi µi + (1 − αi )µj ,
Transport equation
∂αi
+ ∇ · (αi U) = 0,
∂t
Mass and momentum equations
∇ · U = 0,
∂ρU
+ ∇ · (ρU ⊗ U) = −∇p + µ∇2 U + ρg − Sst .
∂t
Transport equation
∂αi
+ ∇ · (αi U) = 0,
∂t
Mass and momentum equations
∇ · U = 0,
∂ρU
+ ∇ · (ρU ⊗ U) = −∇p + µ∇2 U + ρg − Sst .
∂t
Surface tension forces (CSF method of Brackbill)
2ρ
Sst = σst κδn.
ρi + ρj
Normal vector at the interface
∇αi
n=
|∇αi |
Curvature at the interface
κ = ∇n
Advection term : Interface Tracking methods
Explicitly reconstruct the interface.

(a) original interface (b) PLIC

(c) SLIC (Horizontal) (d) SLIC (Vertical)

Advection term : Interface Capturing methods
A suitable scheme keeps the interface sharp.
I Upwind scheme (stable, diffusive) : smear the interface.
I Downwind scheme (unstable, compressive) : sharpen the
interface.
Advection term : Interface Capturing methods
A suitable scheme keeps the interface sharp.
I Upwind scheme (stable, diffusive) : smear the interface.
I Downwind scheme (unstable, compressive) : sharpen the
interface.
A blending strategy based on the angle θ
n
θ

U C f D U C f D U C f D

θ=0 θ = 90 Blending
Downwind scheme Upwind scheme
Multiphase flow
A continuous phase and a disperse phase.

I Bubbles smaller than the I Bubbles larger than the

grid size grid size
I Low volume fraction I Interface

LPT (Lagrangian Particle VOF (Volume Of Fluid)

Tracking)
The LPT method
Particle P: position xP , diameter DP , velocity UP and density ρP .
dxP
= UP ,
dt
dUP X
mP = F.
dt
X
F = Fa + FD + Fp + Fvol + Flift + Fbuoy + Fh ,
The LPT method
Particle P: position xP , diameter DP , velocity UP and density ρP .
dxP
= UP ,
dt
dUP X
mP = F.
dt
X
F = Fa + FD + Fp + Fvol + Flift + Fbuoy + Fh ,
Mass and momentum equation for the fluid phase

∇ · U = 0,
∂U
ρ + ρ(U · ∇)U = −∇p + µ∇2 U + ρg − SP .
∂t
Influence of the particles on the fluid phase

SP ∝ mP ((Up )tout − (Up )tin )

Random Walk model
Account for effect of turbulent dispersion of the particle for RANS
simulations.
I Local fluctuating component to the fluid velocity
r
fluct 2
U@P = ψ k,
3
I Eddy life time,
1.5
Cµ0.63 k 
te = ,
|Ufluct
@P |
I Transit time.
le
ttr = −τP ln(1 − ).
τP |Ũ@P − UP |

U@P becomes Ũ@P = U@P + Ufluct

@P during min(te , ttr ).
Outline
Introduction
Inception
Development
Undesirable effects
Multiphase flow modeling
VOF
LPT
Cavitation modeling
Mass transfer model of Sauer and Schnerr
Modeling of rising bubbles - Studies and results
Volume conservation
Comparisons
Hydrofoil NACA0015 - Studies and results
Nuclei distribution
Future work
Cavitation models
Bubble model: The Rayleigh-Plesset equation describes the
dynamics of a bubble of radius R

d 2R 3 dR 2 4µ dR
 
pB − p∞ 2σst
=R 2 + + + .
ρ dt 2 dt R dt ρR
Cavitation models
Bubble model: The Rayleigh-Plesset equation describes the
dynamics of a bubble of radius R

d 2R 3 dR 2 4µ dR
 
pB − p∞ 2σst
=R 2 + + + .
ρ dt 2 dt R dt ρR

Mixture model: Homogeneous mixture of vapor and liquid.

Transport equation for the volume fraction
∂α
+ ∇ · (αU) = Sα .
∂t
Sα = − ρṁv accounts for the destruction and
production of vapor.
ṁ is the mass transfer rate between the liquid and
the vapor phase.
Mass transfer model of Sauer and Schnerr
I Vapor volume fraction = n0 nuclei of radius R.
4 3
3 πR n0
α= ,
1 + 34 πR 3 n0

I Simplified Rayleigh-Plesset equation

s
2 |pv − p|
Ṙ = .
3 ρl

Mass transfer rate ṁ

s
ρv ρl 3 2 |pv − p|
ṁ = (1 − α)α sign(pv − p) .
ρ R 3 ρl
Outline
Introduction
Inception
Development
Undesirable effects
Multiphase flow modeling
VOF
LPT
Cavitation modeling
Mass transfer model of Sauer and Schnerr
Modeling of rising bubbles - Studies and results
Volume conservation
Comparisons
Hydrofoil NACA0015 - Studies and results
Nuclei distribution
Future work
Problem set-up

Air

Interface

20D Water

17.5D
Inlet diameter D

z 00
11
y 11
00
00
11 3D
x
3D
Problem set-up
Experiments
I Detachment : pinch-off method

I 2D projections captured with a mirror.

Air

Interface

20D Water

17.5D
Inlet diameter D

z 00
11
y 11
00
00
11 3D
x
3D
Problem set-up
Experiments
I Detachment : pinch-off method

I 2D projections captured with a mirror.

Air Simulations
I Inlet (D=2R=4 mm)
Interface
  r 2 
Water
Uinlet = U0 1 −
20D R
17.5D
Inlet diameter D I 2D and 3D features
z 00
11
y 11
00
00
11 3D
x
3D
Problem set-up
Experiments
I Detachment : pinch-off method

I 2D projections captured with a mirror.

Air Simulations
I Inlet (D=2R=4 mm)
Interface
  r 2 
Water
Uinlet = U0 1 −
20D R
17.5D
Inlet diameter D I 2D and 3D features
z 00
11
y 11
00
Simulations with in-house code: shorter
00
11 3D
x channel (height= 9D, interface at z=6D)
3D
Detachment

Figure: OpenFoam solver, long channel, for the bubble 11 and 29.
Volume conservation

0.15
Box 1mm
0.14 Box 5mm

0.13

0.12

Volume
R of the bubble
Time [s]
0.11

0.1
V = Ω (1 − α) dΩ 0.09

0.08

0.07

0.06
0.1 0.105 0.11 0.115 0.12 0.125 0.13 0.135 0.14 0.145
Volume [cm3]
Spurious current

0.15
CSF
0.14 CSF modified

0.13

0.12
Time [s]

0.11

0.1

0.09

0.08

0.07

0.06
0.1 0.105 0.11 0.115 0.12 0.125 0.13 0.135 0.14 0.145
Volume [cm3]

Figure: Volume of the first bubble.

Figure: CSF (left) and CSF

modified with density correction
(right)
Comparisons 3D bubbles - OpenFOAM and in-house code

Position in-house OpenFOAM

z=21mm

z=16mm

z=11mm
Comparisons 3D bubbles - OpenFOAM and in-house code

Position in-house OpenFOAM

z=21mm

z=16mm

z=11mm
Comparisons 3D bubbles - OpenFOAM and in-house code
3D centroid position integrated over the whole volume of the
bubble (Ω) R
3D (1 − α) xdΩ
Cx = RΩ
Ω (1 − α) dΩ

24 Sim OF mean (long)

Sim OF rms (long)
Sim OF mean (short)
22 Sim OF rms (short)
interpolated [mm]

Sim inH mean (short)

20 Sim inH rms (short)

18
Centroid position C3D

16
z

14

12

10

−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Centroid position C3D [mm]
x
OpenFOAM with more bubbles

40

35
interpolated [mm]

30

25
Centroid position C3D
z

20 Sim OF mean (long 30 bubbles)

Sim OF rms (long 30 bubbles)
Sim OF mean (long 20 bubbles)
15
Sim OF rms (long 20 bubbles)
Sim OF mean (short 20 bubbles)
10 Sim OF rms (short 20 bubbles)

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Centroid position C3D [mm]
x
Method for 2D bubbles with OpenFOAM
2D centroid position:
I version 1: the centre of the
major axis (experiments)

d mi B(x,y,z)=xmax

d ma
A(x,y,z)=xmin

Centroid (x,z)
Method for 2D bubbles with OpenFOAM
2D centroid position:
I version 1: the centre of the
major axis (experiments)

d mi B(x,y,z)=xmax

d ma
A(x,y,z)=xmin

Centroid (x,z)

I version 2: integration of α over

the projected surface Γ.
R
2D (1 − α)xdΓ
Cx = RΓ
Γ (1 − α)dΓ
Method for 2D bubbles with OpenFOAM
2D centroid position:
I version 1: the centre of the
major axis (experiments)
40

35

interpolated [mm]
30
d mi B(x,y,z)=xmax

25
d ma

Centroid position C2D,2

A(x,y,z)=xmin

z
20 Sim OF mean (version 1)

Centroid (x,z) Sim OF rms (version 1)

Sim OF mean (version 2)
15
Sim OF rms (version 2)

10

I version 2: integration of α over 5

−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Centroid position Cx2D [mm]

the projected surface Γ.

R
2D (1 − α)xdΓ
Cx = RΓ
Γ (1 − α)dΓ
Method for 2D bubbles with OpenFOAM
2D centroid position:
I version 1: the centre of the
major axis (experiments)
40

35

interpolated [mm]
30
d mi B(x,y,z)=xmax

25
d ma

Centroid position C2D,2

A(x,y,z)=xmin

z
20 Sim OF mean (version 1)

Centroid (x,z) Sim OF rms (version 1)

Sim OF mean (version 2)
15
Sim OF rms (version 2)

10

I version 2: integration of α over 5

−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Centroid position Cx2D [mm]

the projected surface Γ.

R
2D (1 − α)xdΓ
Cx = RΓ B(x,y,z)

Γ (1 − α)dΓ
xmin xmax

A(x,y,z)
Comparisons 2D bubbles - OpenFOAM and experiments

30 30
Sim OF mean (version 1) Sim OF mean (version 1)
Sim OF rms (version 1) Sim OF rms (version 1)
Exp mean Exp mean
Exp rms Exp rms
Centroid position C2D,2 interpolated [mm]

interpolated [mm]
25 25

20 20

Centroid position C2D,2

z

z
15 15

10 10

5 5
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Centroid position C2D
x
[mm] Centroid position C2D
y
[mm]
Comparisons 2D and 3D bubbles - OpenFOAM and
experiments
2D aspect ratio
dmi
E2D =
dma
dma is the major axis and dmi is
the minor axis.

30
Sim OF mean
Sim OF rms
Exp mean
interpolated [mm]

Exp rms
25

20
Centroid position C2D,2
z

15

10

5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Aspect ratio E2D [mm]
xz
Comparisons 2D and 3D bubbles - OpenFOAM and
experiments
2D aspect ratio 3D aspect ratio
dmi 1 A3/2
E2D = E3D = √
dma 6 π V
dma is the major axis and dmi is R  ∂α 
the minor axis. A = Ω  ∂x i
 dΩ is the surface
area.

30 30
Sim OF mean Sim OF mean (long)
Sim OF rms Sim OF rms (long)
Exp mean Sim OF mean (short)
Sim OF rms (short)
interpolated [mm]

Exp rms

interpolated [mm]
25 25

20 20
Centroid position C2D,2

Centroid position C3D

z
z

15 15

10 10

5 5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
Aspect ratio E2D [mm] Aspect ratio E3D
xz
Conclusions
I Choice of a short channel valid only for the first 9 bubbles.
I The method used in the experiments limited to bubbles which
are not tilted.
I A larger number of numerical bubbles are required to get
comparable statistics.
I Limitations of the volume of fluid method implemented in
OpenFOAM: unphysical volume loss in the wake of the
bubbles.
I Density correction in the CSF model decreases the volume
loss but influence the shape and the rise velocity.
Outline
Introduction
Inception
Development
Undesirable effects
Multiphase flow modeling
VOF
LPT
Cavitation modeling
Mass transfer model of Sauer and Schnerr
Modeling of rising bubbles - Studies and results
Volume conservation
Comparisons
Hydrofoil NACA0015 - Studies and results
Nuclei distribution
Future work
Problem set-up
I Chord length c0 =0.15m
I Angle of attack 8 degrees.
Nuclei distribution
I Sauer and Schnerr model: constant nuclei number n0 .
I Compute the nuclei distribution with a LPT method.
I 500 particles (DP ∈ [1, 50]µm) injected per time step at a
distance 1.5c0 in front of the hydrofoil.
I Average of the positions and sample
Sensitivity to particle size

5000
D=1 µm
D=10 µm
D=20 µm
Average number of particles [cm ]
-3

4000 D=30 µm
D=40 µm
D=50 µm
far field
3000

2000

1000

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Distance from the hydrofoil [mm]
Sensitivity to turbulent dispersion

5000
LPT with Random Walk
LPT without Random Walk
far field
Average number of particles [cm ]
-3

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance from the hydrofoil [mm]
Sensitivity to forces
5000
solver for gas bubble
LPT solver for hard particle
far field
Average number of particles [cm ]
-3

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance from the hydrofoil [mm]

Figure: The solver for gas bubble account for all forces and the solver for
hard particle account only for drag and gravity.
Conclusions
I Non-homogeneity of the nuclei distribution
I Nuclei with DP > 20µm accumulate on the leading edge close
to the low pressure region.
I No nuclei on average in the boundary layer whithout
turbulence mixing.
I Importance of the surface nuclei for cavitation inception.
2D cases
I High nuclei concentration N=108 in a layer attached to the
surface and low concentration (102 or 104 ) everywhere else.
I Thickness of the layer δN .
δN =0.5 δN =1 δN =2 δN =4
N=102 case 1 case 2 case 3 case 4
N=104 case 5 case 6 case 7 case 8

6
n0 uniform
case 1
case 2
5 case 3
Total volume of vapor [cm3]

case 4
case 5
4 case 6
case 7
case 8
3

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Time [s]
N = 108 N = 104 N = 102
Uniform δN =2 mm δN =2 mm

0.02 s

0.03 s
0.05 s

0.06 s

0.07 s
3D cases
I High nuclei concentration N=108 in a layer attached to the
surface and low concentration (102 ) everywhere else.
I Thickness of the layer δN =2 mm.

160
n0 uniform
n0 non uniform (10e2 / 2 mm)
140
Total volume of vapor [cm3]

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
Time [s]

Figure: Total volume of vapor for cavitating flow with different nuclei
distribution (3D simulations).
t= 0.013 s

t= 0.021 s

t=0.028 s
t= 0.034 s

t= 0.047 s

t=0.052 s
Conclusions
I Higher nuclei concentration near the surface influence the size
and shape of the attached cavity and cloud.
I With 3D simulations, formation of several small structures
instead of a large coherent structure.
Importance of the nuclei distribution when modeling cavitation
inception and development.
Outline
Introduction
Inception
Development
Undesirable effects
Multiphase flow modeling
VOF
LPT
Cavitation modeling
Mass transfer model of Sauer and Schnerr
Modeling of rising bubbles - Studies and results
Volume conservation
Comparisons
Hydrofoil NACA0015 - Studies and results
Nuclei distribution
Future work
Future work
Mass transfer models succeeds in describing the mechanisms of the
cavitation inceptions on cavitating hydrofoils.
I attached sheet cavity,
I the re-entrant jet,
I the break-off of the sheet,
I the shedding of the cloud of vapor.
Future work
Mass transfer models succeeds in describing the mechanisms of the
cavitation inceptions on cavitating hydrofoils.
I attached sheet cavity,
I the re-entrant jet,
I the break-off of the sheet,
I the shedding of the cloud of vapor.
The models fail to resolve the transition between the attached
sheet cavity and the cloud of vapor.
I sharp transition in simulations,
I presence of higtly mixed vapor and gas bubbles in
experimental observations .
Future work
Mass transfer models succeeds in describing the mechanisms of the
cavitation inceptions on cavitating hydrofoils.
I attached sheet cavity,
I the re-entrant jet,
I the break-off of the sheet,
I the shedding of the cloud of vapor.
The models fail to resolve the transition between the attached
sheet cavity and the cloud of vapor.
I sharp transition in simulations,
I presence of higtly mixed vapor and gas bubbles in
experimental observations .
Improvement : switch model in the transition region
(Rayleigh-Plesset equation).
An entertaining movie with bubbles