Session 1/18
Stresses in a Saturated Soil Mass During Electro-Osmosis
Contraintes exercées dans une masse de sol saturé au cours de l’électro-osmose
by W. S. W a n g , M assachusetts Institute o f Technology, Cambridge, Mass. U .S .A ., and E. V e y , Illinois Institute o f Technology,
C hicago, Illinois U .S .A .
Summary
Based on the theory of electro-osmosis and the principle of fluid
flow, the forces created in a saturated soil mass by the combined
hydraulic and electro-osmotic action are analyzed. The force which
will affect the intergranular stresses is the resultant of the electric
force and hydraulic drag upon the soil particles. Under steady state
flow conditions, this force is shown to be equal to the seepage force
which is determined only by the hydraulic gradient in the pore water.
Equations are developed to correlate the pore water heads (hydraulic
potentials) and the applied electric potentials. These equations were
found to be in good agreement with experiment.
The nature of the mechanical effects o f electro-osmosis in pro­
ducing consolidation is explained by reference to the above relation­
ships.
Forces Acting upon Soil Particles in Electro-Osmosis
W hen an external electric potential is applied to a saturated
soil mass, which possesses a network o f electrical double layers
at the water-soil interface, tw o equal and opposite systems o f
electric forces are created sim ultaneously. One system o f the
electric forces acting upon the negatively charged adsorbed
layer tends to m ove the soil particles toward the anode, and
the other system acting upon the positively charged m ovable
layer m oves the pore water toward the cathode. For a closely
packed soil mass, the m otion o f the soil particles is restrained,
but the pore water is free to m ove. The flow o f pore water
thus produced is known as electro-osm osis. D u e to the rela­
tive m otion between the water and soil a pair o f resistant forces
are developed which are proportional to the velocity o f flow.
After the resistant forces grow large enough to counterbalance
the electric forces, the pore water flow becom es steady and the
resultant force upon the soil particles due to electro-osm otic
action reduces to zero.
I f the hydraulic potential or pore water head, H , is n ot a
constant throughout the soil mass (i. e. grad H ^ 0), the see­
page flow caused by the hydraulic gradient must be superposed
on the electro-osm otic flow. In this general case, it is not
difficult to see that under the steady state flow conditions the
76
Sommaire
Se basant sur la théorie de l’électro-osmose et sur les principes
de l’écoulement des fluides, les auteurs analysent les forces produites
dans une masse de sol saturé par la combinaison des actions hydrau­
lique et électro-osmotique. La force qui agit sur les contraintes inter­
granulaires est la résultante d’une force électrique et de la trainée
hydraulique sur les particules du sol. En cas d’écoulement sta-
tionnaire, cette force se trouve être égale à la force de filtration qui
est déterminée uniquement par le gradient de la pression de l’eau
interstitielle, Les auteurs exposent des équations établissants la cor­
rélation entre la pression de l’eau interstitielle (potentiel hydraulique)
et le potentiel électrique appliqué et trouvent un bon accord avec
l’expérience.
La nature des actions mécaniques de l’électro-osmose sur la con­
solidation est exposée sur la base des relations citées plus haut.
resultant force, A Fs, acting upon the soil particles by the com ­
bined hydraulic and electro-osm otic action is equal to the
hydraulic seepage force, A Fw, alone. This is demonstrated in
Fig. 1.
" 7 y/.ßn
V AFef\_
H + AH
'AFr.-AFw-aFcr
EQ U IPO TEN T1AL SU R FA C ES F O R C E S ON PORE W A TER F O R C E S ON SO IL P A R T IC LE S
A F W = - w grad H AV = HYDRAULIC S E EP A G E FO RCE
A Fe m 3 - ®grad E • A V " E L E C T R IC FO R C E ON M OVABLE L A Y E R IN PO RE W A TER
A Fe( • e grad E - AV= E L E C T R IC FO R C E ON A D SO R B E D L A Y E R ON S O IL P A R T IC L E S
A F, c R E S IS T A N T F O R C E A G A IN S T P O R E W A TER FLOW
A F d = DRAG F O R C E UPON S O IL P A R T IC L E S
A F. = R E S U L T A N T F O R C E ON S O IL P A R T IC L E S DUE TO COM BIN ED H Y D R A U LIC
AND E L E C T R O -O S M O T IC A C TIO N . A F e ) + & F , = A F „
= R E S U L T A N T O F IN T ER G R A N U LA R P R E S S U R E S O VER BOUNDARY SU R FA C E OF
T H E E L E M E N T WHICH IS R EQ U IR ED TO B A L A N C E A F .
F ig. 1 F orces U n d er Stead y F lo w C on d ition s
F orces dans le cas d ’écou lem en t station naire
 The unit weight o f water, the electric charge o f the adsorbed For electric current O hm ’s law can be written as
layer on the soil particles per unit volum e o f the soil mass, and
1 dE
the electric potential are denoted by w, (— e), and E respec­ jx =
tively. Then, upon the soil particles in the elementary volum e, Qx dx
A V, the electric force is 1 dE
h =
dy
(5)
A Fef = e grad E ■A V .. (1) Qy
and the resultant force is 1 dE
iz =
A Fs = — w grad H ■A V (2) Qz dz
The force A Fs will affect the intergranular pressures over the A nd the continuity equation o f electric current is
boundary o f the element.
^ + -fi _ 0 (6 )
ox oy dz
Equations o f Combined Hydraulic and Electro-Osmotic
Flow The above eight equations o f com bined flow contain eight
A lthough jt has already been pointed out that the force unknowns: three velocity com ponents (vxl vy, vz), three com ­
which affects the intergranular pressures between soil particles ponents o f electric current density (j x, j y, j -), one hydraulic
under the com bined hydraulic and electro-osm otic action is potential or pore water head ( / / ) , and one electric potential
the actual hydraulic seepage force alone, the distribution o f (£ ) . The other nine physical quantities, permeabilities and
pore water pressure that determines the m agnitude and direction resistivities, must be determined experimentally.
o f the seepage force is nevertheless related to the applied
electric potential. The relationship between the pore water One Dimensional Electro-Osmosis
head (hydraulic potential) and the electric potential can be
Fig. 2 show s the general one dim ensional case o f combined
show n by writing the equations o f com bined hydraulic and
hydraulic and electro-osm otic flow through a soil prism o f
electro-osm otic flow. These equations are established on the
cross sectional area A. A t any section (x), the hydraulic per­
follow ing basic assum ptions:
m eability, the electro-osm otic permeability, and the electrical
(1) T he soil is perfectly saturated;
resistivity o f the soil are denoted by k h, k e, and q respectively.
(2) The hydraulic flow obeys D arcy’s law, i.e. a linear re­
lationship exists between velocity and hydraulic gradient;
(3) The electro-osm otic flow obeys a similar law, i.e. a linear
relationship exists between velocity and electric potential gra­
dient ;
(4) The electric current obeys O hm ’s law, i.e. a linear rela­
tionship exists between current density and electric potential
gradient ;
(5) Both the pore water flow and the electric current obey
the law o f continuity.
Referred to Cartesian coordinates, the follow ing notations
are used: F ig. 2 G en eral O ne D im en sio n a l C om b in ed H ydraulic and E lectro-
y, z coordinates o f a position within the soil; O sm otic F low
v,„ velocity (apparent) com ponents o f the combined C as général d ’éco u lem en t à une dim en sion ; éco u lem en ts hydrau­
liq ue et é lectro -o sm o tiq u e com bin és
flow at (x , y , z) ;
^hy hydraulic permeabilities at (x, y , z) in the direc­
tions o f the three coordinate axes respectively; The pore water head, H , the velocity o f flow, v, the electric
If If electro-osm otic perméabilités at (x , y , z) in the potential, E, and the electric current, I, are then determined
n ex» n e y
directions o f the three coordinate axes respec­ by equations (3) to ( 6) to be:
tively;
com ponents o f electric current density at H = Hh + (0 < x < x j
Jx* Jy> Jz
(x, y, z);
Qx> Qw> apparent electrical resistivities at (x , y , z ) in the H = Hh + ( * ! < x < j:2) (7)
directions o f the three coordinate axes respec­ Qa Ly a \B a Kl
tively. E(
W ithin the flow system, at any position (x, y , z) the velocity H = H„ + (x 2 < x Sg L )
o f flow can be expressed by its com ponents as
_ Ho —H l Ea Ba
. dH .d E ' (8)
dx dx
V~ Kl ~^T a T I

dH BE Eg
'— Kfty Key ~Z (3) E = Ea Qx (* - * 1) (*! < X < X2) (9)
dy dy Qa Ea
dH BE Ea
V; = — k h ( 10)
dz c~ Bz Qa Ea
The law o f continuity o f flow gives wherein
dvx BVy dv:
+ + = 0 (4) H„ = H o - 4 ^ - (Ho - H l ),
dx dy dz K-L

77
 0 0
x xt
Bx = e dx, Ba Q dx,
*1 X i
X X i
-^— j g d x , ga = J e dx.
Qx =
In equation (7) it is indicated that the pore water head H
in the com bined hydraulic and electro-osm otic flow is generally
different from the head H h which w ould be the pore water
head at the sam e section, if the external electric potential were
not applied (i.e., E a = 0). Since Ea, e a, L a, B a, Bx, K L, and K x
are all positive quantities, and Bx < B a and K x < K L, the pore
water head upstream from the anode is always reduced and
that downstream from the cathode is always increased by the
electro-osm otic effect; there may, however, be both an in­
crease and a decrease between the electrodes.
The constant B a, which involves the ratio o f k e to k h and
appears in both equations (7) and ( 8), is the predominating
factor influencing the am ount o f change in pore water head
and velocity o f flow for a given applied electric potential Ea.
It is clear therefore that the mechanical effectiveness o f electro­
osm osis is primarily dependent upon the relative m agnitude o f
the hydraulic and electro-osm otic permeabilities.
Experimental Results
The preliminary results o f a quick critical hydraulic gradient
test on a soil sam ple o f sandy loam with and w ithout electro-
osm otic influence, given in Fig. 3, indicates that the critical
hydraulic gradient o f the soil is solely dependent on the actual
apparent hydraulic gradient and is independent o f the electro-
osm otic action. This confirms the theory stated previously.
However, the above test alone is not sufficient to dem on­
strate whether or not there w ould be any change in the pore
water pressures within the soil prism. Therefore, direct mea­
surements o f pore water heads and electric potentials along soil
prisms o f silty loam during prolonged periods o f electro­
osm osis were made. The remolded soil was com pacted into
a cylindrical transparent lucite testing chamber with an inside
diameter o f 7.6 centimeters, and was arranged between two
perforated electrodes, steel anode and copper cathode, about
50 centimeters apart. The water heads at both ends o f the soil
prism were kept on the same level. T he pore water heads were
measured by means o f hypodermic needles, which were con ­
Fig. 4 P ore W ater H ead s and E lectrical R e sistiv ities D u rin g E lectro-O sm osis
Pression de l’eau interstitielle et résistivité électriq ue durant l’électro-osm ose
78
a-
4
ANODE
§ £
* 6—
to
11
F ig. 3 R esults o f a Q u ick C ritical H ydraulic G rad ien t T est
R ésultats d ’un essai rapide du gradient hyd rau lique critiqu e
nected to a pressure balancing device for instantaneous pres­
sure measurements. The results o f a com plete test are given
in Fig. 4.
It was discovered that the electrical resistivity along the soil
prism changed continuously with tim e and was far from uni­
form after prolonged electro-osm otic treatment. The pore
water heads were also observed to vary correspondingly. These
observations suggested that a relationship existed between the
electrical and mechanical properties o f the soil, and this led to
the developm ent o f the general equations o f com bined hydrau­
lic and electro-osm otic flow. T he close agreement between the
measured pore water heads and the values com puted from
equation (7) based on the independently determined physical
quantities, k h, k e, and g, o f a soil prism after a 3-day electro-
osm otic treatment is show n in Fig. 5.
Besides the relationship between the electrical resistivity and
pore water pressures, tw o other phenom ena were noted:
( 1 ) the developm ent o f fissures and cracks, and ( 2 ) the accum u­
lation o f gas in the soil. They are show n in Fig. 6 . The fissures
and cracks, when not closed up by com paction, increased the
hydraulic permeability o f the soil as indicated in the figure.
The effect o f gas accum ulation in the soil upon b oth the pore
pressure and the electrical resistance, becam e noticeable in the
later stage o f electro-osm osis (after the third day, in Fig. 4).
This, o f course, w ould alter the original theory that was de­
rived for the saturated soil only. This discrepancy between the
theoretical and experimental results appearing in Fig. 5 is likely
due to this effect.
Soil Consolidation under Electro-Osmosis
Three typical types o f soil consolidation under electro­
osm osis are discussed in the follow ing paragraphs.
□ n ___ r u ru n.
J
j
40 0 40 0 40 O 40
E L E C T R IC A L R E S IS T IV IT Y , ohm m
 from which the increment o f intergranular pressure A p created
by electro-osm otic rise is found to be

ap = wF ( i —y ) = w^~e° (i—r ) (15)

This increase o f intergranular pressure will cause consolidation

P
o f the soil prism as under a body force o f w — per unit volum e

o f the soil mass.

If instead o f the water level at the cathode being raised, the
anode is m ade o f a solid im pervious plate so that no water can
flow into the soil through the anode, the pore water head in
the soil im m ediately downstream from the anode will decrease
to an am ount equal to (H L- P ). The pore water head and the
induced intergranular pressure along the soil prism are shown
F ig. 5 C o m p a riso n o f M easured and C om p u ted P o re W ater H eads in Fig. 7 (6 ). This gives the sam e consolidation effect upon the
C o m p a ra iso n des valeurs m esurées et ca lcu lées de la pression de
soil as that given by the electro-osm otic rise.
l’eau interstitielle
(2) Consolidation due to pore water tension induced b y the
effect o f non-uniform distribution o f electrical resistivity in soil:
k h , 1 0 “ 5 cm /sec
S EC TIO N
BEFO RE A FTER D uring the early stages o f electro-osm otic treatment, pore
SETTLEM EN T
6 —S(S') 0 .0 9 9 6 4 8 .4 water tensions (decrease o f pore water head) develop within
p a r a llel f is s u r e s
5 -6 0 .3 7 3 1 .9 8
the soil prism. These tensions are related to the change o f
W ITHOUT GAS
electrical resistivity o f the soil (Fig. 4), and the forces created
4-5 2 ,0 9 1 .8 0

SIN G U LA R L A R G E CRACK
Ol
1

WITH EN T R A PPED G AS 0 ,4 0 6 5 .2 9
*

2 -3 0 .2 4 8 9 .2 0
E R R A T IC CR A C KS
WITH GAS P O C K E T S
1 -2 0.1 7 2 6 .3 5

+- 1 0 .0 7 9 0 2 .5 0
APPARENT 0 .2 1 4 3 .1 2

F ig. 6 S oil A fter E lectro -O sm o tic T reatm ent

Sol après traitem ent électro -o sm o tiq u e F ig. 7 E ffect o f E lectro-O sm otic R ise
Effet de l’ascen sion electro-osm otiq u e

(1) Consolidation due to electro-osm otic rise : Fig. 7 (a) shows

a prism o f a hom ogeneous soil o f cross sectional area A and by the inward hydraulic gradients from both ends o f the soil
length L between tw o electrodes, with an applied electric poten­ prism are sufficient to bring about a consolidation o f the soil
tial E a. If the water level at the cathode is raised relative to prism.
the water level at the anode to such a height P, so that the for­ (3) Sudden settlem ent o f silt due to electric shock: It has al­
ward electro-osm otic flow is just counter-balanced by the back­ ready been pointed out that the tw o equal and opposite systems
ward hydraulic flow, the apparent (but not actual) velocity o f o f electric forces produced upon the pore water and soil par­
flow w ill be zero. The electro-osm otic rise P can be com puted ticles by an externally applied electric potential w ill balance
from equation ( 8 ) each other because o f the resistance induced between them,
after the pore water flow becom es steady. H ow ever, before
p = - r E a ( 11) this steady condition is reached, those tw o forces system s are
kh n ot in static equilibrium. The unbalanced electric force on the
From equation (7) m oveable layer accelerates the pore water flow, and that acting
on the soil particles may cause consolidation o f the soil. H ow ­
H = H0 + y P ( 12) ever, for the com pacted soil or cohesive soil with low hydraulic
permeability this initial consolidation is very sm all. But for a
A nd the force acting upon the soil particles in any elementary
loose silt the initial unbalanced electric force may be sufficient
volum e A d x , by equation (2 ), is
to produce a rapid settlement.
dH P
A Fs = — w —— A a x = — w — A d x (13)
ox L References
A Fs must be balanced by the difference o f intergranular pres­ B ern a tzik , W. (1948): C on trib u tion to the S eep age Pressure in E lectro-
sures at tw o ends o f the elem ent, that i s : O sm osis. P roc. o f Sec. Int. C o n f. on S o il M echan ics and F o u n d a tio n
E ngineering, R otterd am , V ol. 7, pp . 6 3 -6 6 .
d Ap C asagrande, L . (1949): E lectro-O sm osis in S oils. G eo tech n iq u e, V ol. 1,
A dx = A F,
dx N o . 3, L o n d o n , June, pp. 159-177.
C asagran de, L . (1952): E lectro-O sm otic Stab ilization o f S oils. Journal
or (14) o f th e B o sto n S o c ie ty o f C ivil E ngineers, V o l. 39, January, pp. 5 1 -8 3 .
W ang, W. S . (1952): P ore W ater Pressures in S o il during E lectro-O s-
9Ap P
m osis. Ph. D . T h esis con d u cted at Illin ois Institute o f T ech n ology,
dx T February. U n p u b lish ed .

79