DRYING

• Removal of relatively small amounts of liquid

material (usually water) from a solid material by
thermal vaporization
• Aims to reduce a solid’s moisture content to an
acceptably low value
• Usually the final step in a series of operation prior
to packaging
DRYING VS EVAPORATION

Drying Evaporation
Removal of SMALL Removal of LARGE
amounts of water from amounts of water from
material material

Water removed as vapor Water removed as vapor

by introducing AIR at its BOILING POINT
IMPORTANCE

•Allows easier handling of solids since it

reduces solid’s weight and volume
•Acts as preservation technique
➢microorganism are inactive at less than 10%
moisture content
➢enzymes causing chemical changes can’t
function w/o water
•Lengthens storage capability of solids
CLASSIFICATIONS
• According Operating Cycle
1. Batch
2. Continuous
• According to the Physical Conditions used to heat
and remove water vapor
1. Direct contact with air heated at atmospheric pressure
2. Vacuum Drying
➢heat is added indirectly by contact with a metal wall or
by radiation
➢makes use of low temperature
➢applied to materials that tend to decompose/discolor
at high temperature
3. Freeze Drying
➢water is sublimed from a frozen material
APPLICABLE TERMS

•Bound Moisture
➢liquid that exerts a vapor pressure less
than that of the pure liquid at a given
temperature
➢the moisture that is difficult to remove
(but can be removed under special
conditions)
•Unbound moisture
➢moisture in excess of the equilibrium
moisture content
APPLICABLE TERMS

• Equilibrium moisture content (Xeq)

• limiting moisture to w/c a given material can be dried under specific
conditions
• equal to bound moisture
• non-porous and non-hygroscopic material = 0
• Free Moisture Content
• liquid w/c is removable at a given T and H
• contain unbound moisture
• Xinitial – Xequilibrium
• Critical Moisture Content(Xc)
• moisture content when const. rate period ends and falling rate period begins
• See Tables 12-7 and 12-15 (Perry, 7th ed)
APPLICABLE TERMS
APPLICABLE TERMS
• Moisture Content
• Amount of moisture per unit weight of dry or wet solid
a) Dry – weight basis
𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
=
𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
b) Wet – weight basis
𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
=
𝑘𝑔 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
APPLICATION OF PSYCHROMETRY TO DRYING

•In any drying process, if an adequate supply

of heat is assumed, the temperature and rate
at which liquid vaporization occurs will
depend on the vapor concentration in the
surrounding atmosphere.
•In most drying operations, water is the liquid
evaporated and air is the normally employed
purge gas. For drying purposes, a
psychrometric chart found very useful is that
reproduced in Fig. 12-36.
APPLICATION OF PSYCHROMETRY TO DRYING
Terms to remember
Wet-bulb temperature , Tw
➢gives the maximum weight of water vapor that 1 kg of dry air can
carry
➢can be found at saturation temperature line

Dry bulb temperature, T

➢the actual gas temperature, T is measured with uncovered
thermometer

Dew point temperature, Td

➢temperature to which vapour-gas mixture must be cooled to become
saturated
APPLICATION OF PSYCHROMETRY TO DRYING

Saturation Humidity, Hs
➢partial pressure of gas equals the vapour pressure of liquid at gas
temperature
M A p' A
Hs 
M B ( P  p' A )
where p' A  vapour pressure of the liquid

Relative Humidity, HR
• ratio of the partial pressure of vapour to the vapour pressure of the liquid at
gas temperature
pA
H R  100
p' A
APPLICATION OF PSYCHROMETRY TO DRYING

Humid Volume, vH
• total volume of a unit mass of vapour-free gas with vapour at P=1atm and
gas temperature

H m /g 
3

0.0224T ( K )  1
 
H 

273 MB MA 

H  
ft / g lb 
3 359T ( R)  1
 
H 
492  M B M A 

APPLICATION OF PSYCHROMETRY TO DRYING

Humid Heat, cS
• the heat needed to increase the temperature of 1 g or 1lb of gas with vapour
by 1oC or 1oF

cs  c pB  c pA H
where c pB & c pA are specific heats of gas and vapour
APPLICATION OF PSYCHROMETRY TO DRYING

Total Enthalpy, Hy
• enthalpy of a unit mass of gas with vapour

H y  c pB T  To   Ho  c pA H T  To 
H y  cs T  To   Ho
Where: Sensible heat
To- datum of
temperature (32 oF)heat of
Latent Sensible heat of
the vapor
T- free gas
temperature liquid
of the gas the vapor

Source: McCabe et al., 2001

APPLICATION OF PSYCHROMETRY TO
DRYING

Source: Perry 7th Ed

DRYING PROCESS

• consists of 2 processes occurring

simultaneously
1. Heat is transferred to evaporate the
liquid
= temperature gradient from air to solid
2. Mass is transferred as liquid/vapor from
within solid to surface and as vapor from
exposed surface
RATE OF DRYING CURVES

•Obtained experimentally by drying a slab of

solid of certain thickness and monitoring the
decrease in moisture content with respect to
time
•Used to determine:
1. size of dryer needed
2. operating conditions of air (humidity and
temperature)
3. time of drying
4. equilibrium moisture content
PERIODS OF DRYING

Period A-B
Warming-up period
• Unsteady-state operation
A
• Slab is adjusting to the drying
conditions
• Short and sometimes unobservable
• Rate can increase or decrease
depending on initial temperature of
slab
• Not observed if:
Tslab = Twet bulb air
Xo
PERIODS OF DRYING

Period B-C
Constant-Rate period
• Continuous film of water covers the
entire solid
• Continues as long as rate of water
supplied at slab’s surface ≥
evaporation rate (slab’s surface is
saturated with water
• Tslab’s surface = Twet bulb air
• Not observed if Xo < Xc

Xc
 PERIODS OF DRYING

Period C-E
First Falling Rate period
• Zone of unsaturated surface drying
• Decreased drying rate
• Amount of water at slab’s surface <
evaporation rate

• Exposed surface becomes

unsaturated
• Second critical point
signifying change in drying
mechanism
 PERIODS OF DRYING

Period E-D
Second Falling Rate period
• Drying rate controlled by rate of
internal moisture movement
• External factors is not anymore a
factor

Xeq
DRYING TIME

• Constant Drying Period (Xo Xc)

𝑠𝜌𝑠 (𝑋𝑜 − 𝑋)
𝑡𝑐 =
𝑅𝑐
tc = drying time at constant rate period
s = solid’s half - thickness
s = solid’s density
Xo =initial moisture content at const. rate period
X = final moisture content at const. rate period
Rc = constant drying rate
DRYING TIME

• Falling Rate Period (Xc Xeq)

𝑠𝜌𝑠 𝑋𝑐 𝑋𝑐
𝑡𝑐 = ln
𝑅𝑐 𝑋
tf = drying time at falling rate period
s = solid’s half - thickness
ρs = solid’s density
Xc =critical moisture content at const. rate period
X = final moisture content at falling rate period
Rc = constant drying rate
DRYING TIME

• Cases wherein Xo is in the constant rate period and X is in the falling

rate period
𝑠𝜌𝑠 𝑋𝑐
𝑡𝑐 = 𝑋𝑜 − 𝑋𝑐 + 𝑋𝑐 ln = 𝑡𝑐 + 𝑡𝑓
𝑅𝑐 𝑋
tT = total drying time
s = solid’s half - thickness
ρs = solid’s density
Xc =critical moisture content at const. rate period
Rc = constant drying rate
DRYING RATE (Rc)

hy T  Ti 
Rc 

T = dry bulb temperature of air
i
Ti = wet bulb temperature of air
I = latent heat of vaporization at Ti
hy = heat transfer coefficient
= 0.0128G0.8 (if air is flowing parallel to solid’s surface)
= 0.37G0.37 (if air is flowing perpendicular to solid’s surface)
G = mass velocity of air (lb/ft2-h)
EQUIPMENT FOR DRYING

Classifications based on:

•Method of transferring heat
to the wet solids
•Handling and characteristics
of wet material
How heat is transferred
How material is handled
SAMPLE EQUIPMENT
• TRAY DRYER
• shelf, cabinet or compartment dryer
• solid is spread uniformly on a removable metal tray to a depth of10 – 100
mm.
• steam – heated air is re-circulated by a fan over and parallel to the surface of
the trays
• Vacuum Shelf Indirect Dryer
• consists of cabinet made from steel or cast – iron plates fitted with tightly fit
doors
• heat conducted through metal walls plus radiation from above
• used in drying expensive, temperature – sensitive or easy oxidizable
materials
• useful in handling materials w/toxic or valuable solvents
• Continuous Tunnel Dryer
• consists of several sections in series, each with a fan and heating coils
• wet solids are conveyed as a layer 25 – 150 mm deep on a screen while
heated air is blown upward through the bed
• Rotary Dryers
• consists of a hollow cylinder which is rotated and usually slightly inclined
towards the outlet
• heating can be by direct contact with hot gases in a countercurrent flow
• heating can also be by indirect contact through heated wall of cylinder
• Drum Dryers
• consists of a heated metal roll on the outside of w/c a thin layer of liquid or
slurry is evaporated to dryness
• final solid is scraped off from the slowly revolving roll
• can handle slurries or pastes of solids
• used in producing potato flakes from potato slurry
• Spray Dryers
• liquid or slurry solution is sprayed into a hot gas stream in the form of a mist
of fine droplets
• there is rapid vaporization of the water component
• flow of gas and liquid in the spray chamber can be countercurrent, cocurrent
or combination of both
• used in producing dried milk powder from milk solution