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Abstract: Engineers in geotechnical practice work on increasingly complex problems with increasingly powerful nu-
merical tools. Effective solutions to design problems need good information about the site and parameters (or func-
tions) that describe how the soil will behave under the proposed loadings. These loadings can include heating, drying
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or wetting, time effects, and chemical changes as well as the more common structural loads. This paper outlines issues
that need to be considered when laboratory tests are used to produce soil properties for use in numerical analyses. The
focus is on soft to moderately stiff saturated clays. Similar considerations for in situ tests, stiff clays, and sands are not
considered.
Key words: clay, testing, characterization, properties, constitutive modeling.
Résumé : Les ingénieurs en pratique géotechnique travaillent sur des problèmes de plus en plus complexes avec des
outils numériques de plus en plus puissants. Les solutions efficaces aux problèmes de conception nécessitent aussi une
information adéquate au sujet du site ainsi que des paramètres (ou fonctions) qui décrivent comment le sol se compor-
tera sous les charges anticipées. Ces charges peuvent inclure le chauffage, séchage ou l’augmentation de teneur en eau,
les effets du temps et les changements chimiques ainsi que les charges structurales plus courantes. Cet article décrit
des questions qui doivent être considérées quand les essais en laboratoire sont employés pour produire les propriétés
des sols pour l’utilisation en analyse numérique. Les argiles saturées molles à modérément raides sont visées par cet
For personal use only.
article. Des considérations semblables pour des essais in situ, des argiles raides et des sables, seront discutées une pro-
chaine fois.
Mots clés : argile, essais, caractérisation, propriétés, modélisation du comportement.
Graham 209
Introduction tions and analyse problems that were research problems only
a few years ago. Guidance is needed if the “driving” is to
Measuring soil properties in the laboratory is a necessary draw on past experience and reach useful outcomes.
complement to numerical analysis. There is little point in
In contrast, and with exceptions, there seems to be less
doing refined analysis if the material properties cannot be
confidence in assessing material properties effectively. The
identified clearly. Conversely, extensive laboratory testing is
gap between practice and research may now be higher in this
unwarranted if the problem in not amenable to analysis.
area than in numerical modeling. At times, also, there ap-
Costs of testing have to be recovered in terms of increased
pears to be a lack of communication (almost a lack of com-
confidence during design. Together, the testing costs and in-
prehension) between the testing laboratory and the computer
creased design confidence should result in savings during
desk. Laboratory engineers find it difficult to express what
construction and (or) improved performance.
they see in the laboratory in terms that can be used by ana-
Recent efforts in improving numerical modeling may have
lysts. In turn, analysts sometimes appear to have idealized
outstripped abilities to characterize soils at reasonable cost
views of the complex behaviour of real soils.
and in reasonable time. While computing has limitations
(Krahn 2003), competent computer programs are readily The two groups (laboratory engineers and analysts) may
available for problems such as stress-deformation analysis, benefit from the following observations.
seepage, slope stability, and contaminant transport, among “Sit down before the facts as a little child; be prepared to
others (Cleall et al. 2002). Increasingly, doctoral, masters, give up every preconceived notion, follow humbly to what-
and now bachelors graduates can “drive” computer applica- ever abysses nature leads, or you shall learn nothing.”
Thomas Huxley
“Let us not say ‘Let us begin by inventing principles
Received 6 May 2004. Accepted 15 November 2005. whereby we may be able to explain everything’: rather we
Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at
must say ‘Let us make an exact analysis of the matter, and
http://cgj.nrc.ca on 1 February 2006.
then we shall try to see, with much diffidence, if it fits any
J. Graham. Department of Civil Engineering, 342 principle’.” Voltaire.
Engineering Building, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, In the present context, Huxley brings to mind the need for
MB R3T 5V6, Canada. (e-mail: cgs@cc.umanitoba.ca). a sound understanding of the nature of the site as reflected,
1
Presented as the R.M. Hardy Address at the 56th Canadian for example in its geology, hydrogeology, and material prop-
Geotechnical Conference, Winnipeg, Man., September 2003. erties. Voltaire recalls the need for good analysis accompa-
nied by a critical examination of its validity. Together, they of test results; and some elements of the influence of tem-
direct attention to the inherent interdependence of good data perature, viscosity, incomplete saturation, and chemistry.
and good modeling. Well-known papers by Peck (1980) and
Burland (1987) discuss the importance of geology and
judgement, and these issues also need to be included in good Sampling–testing and in situ tests
geotechnical design. It is hoped that this paper on selecting
In a broad sense, there are two separate, but often comple-
soil parameters will be seen as a complement to the paper by
mentary, components of site characterization. One compo-
Krahn (2003) on the thoughtful use of computer applica-
nent involves taking samples from the site, transporting them
tions.
to the laboratory, storing them until needed for testing, trim-
For reasons of length, this paper deals mainly with inter- ming test specimens to size, and then testing the specimens
preting laboratory tests for characterizing the behaviour of under controlled conditions. The second component inserts
soft to medium-stiff saturated clays. The purpose of such test probes into the ground, applies force, pressure, deforma-
laboratory tests is to produce calibrations of constitutive
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Fig. 2. Effect of sampling disturbance on oedometer results: Fig. 3. Reduction of unconfined compression strengths due to
(a) schematic, (b) disturbance due to sampling, softening, and sampling disturbance (modified from Terzaghi et al. 1996). (Un-
freezing–thawing (Graham and Au 1985). confined compression strength = 2 × undrained shear strength Suo.)
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Fig. 5. Isotropic compression, 1D compression, and critical state Fig. 6. Postyield oedometer compression in natural clay speci-
lines for natural and reconstituted Winnipeg plastic clay (modi- mens: (a) Winnipeg clay (modified from Graham and Li 1985),
fied from Graham and Li 1985). (b) Bothkennar clay (modified from Burland 1990).
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the stress-deformation curve moved below the SCL and ap- Table 1. Tools for measuring shear strength.
proached the ICL.
Total Effective
Preserving the in situ structure of the clay can have signif-
Equipment stress stress
icant implications for field applications. Good sampling and
trimming will often identify greater regions of stiff (elastic) Thumb, heel No No
behaviour that can be used for higher foundation or embank- Pocket penetrometer, lab vane, torvane No No
ment loadings. However, if the yield stress (or preconsolida- Field vane (FV) Yes No
tion pressure) is exceeded, then the settlements (and possible Piezocone (CPTU) Yes Perhaps
pore-water pressure increases) associated with destructuring Pressuremeter (PMT) Yes Perhaps
will be larger than would be predicted from partially dis- Direct shear (DS) No Yes*
turbed specimens and safety factors against shear failure UU triaxial Yes No
may be lower. CIU, CK0U triaxial No Yes
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In many proglacial clays in Canada, mineralogy and parti- which laboratory engineers interpret test data and convey
cle sizes, as represented for example by the plasticity index, this information to analysts. After some years, when numeri-
vary systematically with depth, depending on proximity to cal modeling has received considerable attention, it may be
the parent ice at the time of deposition. In this case, global time to give increased attention to the importance of careful
soil properties may also have a local component. In Fig. 1, testing and interpretation of test data. In a different context,
for example, water contents, liquid and plastic limits, and an author recently said:
their reduced parameters (plasticity index and liquidity in- “Historians, it seems, do not merely discover new things
dex) give rapid, easy, and inexpensive information about the about the past, but forget what they already knew.”2
variation of localized soil properties with depth. Additional
localized information may include particle size distributions, Conceptual models
CPT data, overburden pressures, ground water pressures, hy- Sometimes, the results of laboratory tests do not fit pre-
draulic conductivities, undrained shear strengths from field conceptions of how the soil should behave, nor do they pro-
vane or UU tests, and preconsolidation pressures from duce values needed to make simulations agree with
oedometer tests. While these tests are simple and low-cost, measured performance. It is tempting, then, to (i) blame
they provide valuable insights into how the geology of the sampling, transportation, storage, trimming, or testing proce-
site developed. Multiple borings and insertions of in situ dures; (ii) discount the test results; and (iii) retreat to history
tools are needed to examine the variation of soil properties matching. Yet for many advanced projects where there is lit-
in the horizontal direction. Table 1 reviews the usefulness of tle previous experience, it is important to ensure good sam-
a variety of identification, in situ, and laboratory tests for pling and testing, and pay close attention to the results.
evaluating shear strength. Understanding the reasons for observed behaviour can come
Numerical analysis requires the use of overall or global from reviewing what others have observed, though gaining
properties in the various natural depositional layers in the adequate confidence in this way can be time-consuming and
soil profile, or in layers that can be assumed substantially frustrating.
homogeneous by the analyst. Examples of these global prop- Strong conceptual models of soil behaviour are the first
erties (in layers that are naturally homogeneous or are as- step in preparing test data for use by numerical modelers.
sumed homogeneous) include the unload–reload coefficient Even simplified conceptual models can be helpful. Once a
Cr (or κ), the compression index Cc (or λ), the normally con- conceptual model has been established, it is relatively easy
solidated or critical state strength envelope φ ′nc (Mcs), and the to move forward to using corresponding constitutive models
residual strength envelope φ ′r . (All of these vary with clay in finite element computing codes. As an example, critical
chemistry and pore fluid chemistry, as expressed for exam- state soil mechanics can provide a qualitative framework for
ple by the plasticity index.) Peak strengths from triaxial tests anticipating the effects of overconsolidation and drainage
depend on preconsolidation pressure (and on the chosen lab- conditions. There are other relatively simple, related models
oratory consolidation pressure) and are therefore local in na- that provide assistance with strain rate, temperature, pore
2
A.T.Q. Stewart. The Shape of Irish History. Blackstaff Press, Belfast, 2001.
fluid chemistry, and the effects of incomplete saturation. Fig. 7. Alternative curve-fittings of laboratory data.
Using conceptual ideas allows for better planning of testing
programs and for a better understanding of the results, which
now fit an expected framework. If they do not, then it is nec-
essary to look for faulty test procedures or unusual features
DISCONTINUOUS
of the soil behaviour that are not included in the model be-
ing used. In either case, the engineer is in a stronger position
BILINEAR
than simply doubting the data and resorting to assumed pa- 'ELASTIC-PLASTIC'
rameters.
STRESS,
In determining soil parameters for a given project, there
should be dialogue between the laboratory engineer and the
computer modeler so that each knows the limitations of the
testing and modeling programs. Constitutive models should NONLINEAR
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be selected that capture the behaviour of the soils that will HYPERBOLIC
be affected by the proposed project, but they should be as
simple as possible. Obviously, if the application is isother-
mal, the selected model need not include temperature ef-
fects.
Before the model can be selected, it is necessary to de-
velop at least a qualitative understanding of the loadings that
will be generated and how the soil will behave. Once a suit-
able constitutive model has been identified, a laboratory pro- evations in the profile where the overconsolidation ratio is
gram can then be designed that will produce the soil different requires repeated calibration testing for each depth.
parameters needed for the numerical modeling. For example, Separate calibration is required for loading and unloading
modelers might want values of hydraulic conductivity in the (Yin et al. 1990; Schanz and Vermeer 1998).
field under low hydraulic gradients and low stress incre- In contrast, assume that the bilinear modeling in Fig. 7
For personal use only.
ments. These cannot be reliably found from oedometer tests can be extended into an elastic-plastic framework in which
(Yuen et al. 1998). Similarly, common triaxial testing gives (with the benefit of an additional unload–reload cycle), the
little useful information about stiffnesses, especially at small first linear section represents fully recoverable straining,
strains (Tatsuoka et al. 1999; Clayton and Heymann 2001) while the second represents straining that is only partly re-
unless high quality in-cell deformation transducers are fitted coverable. Elastic-plastic models require more testing than
directly to the specimens. simple hypoelastic models to determine calibration parame-
We will now look briefly at several ideas that are based on ters for elasticity, yielding, volumetric hardening, failure,
simple conceptual models and can help with interpreting and plastic flow, all of which are essentially global. Once
laboratory data. the global parameters (and the local preconsolidation pres-
sure) have been established, the calibration can then be used
“Nonlinear” or “discontinuous behaviour”? at all depths (and preconsolidation pressures) in a deposit
Figure 7 shows some imaginary stress–strain data; the that is uniform. Further calibration is unnecessary.
type of test is unimportant. The figure shows two models.
One fits the data with a hyperbola, the curve-fitting approach Oedometer tests
proposed for example by Duncan and Chang (1970) and Some ways of presenting data from soil tests seem more
used quite widely for sands and granular soils. The second traditional than logical. For example, commonly used semi-
approximates the data with two straight lines, representing, logarithmic bilinear models for 1D clay compressibility rely
for example, a change in stiffness at a yield point. (This fig- on straight unload–reload (Cr) lines and normal consolida-
ure, by itself gives no evidence of elasticity or plasticity. Ad- tion (Cc) lines. However laboratory data are often curved and
ditional information would be needed about reversibility most foundations avoid stressing clay beyond its preconsoli-
along the two straight fitted lines.) Neither model is exact; dation pressure. Semilogarithmic plotting seems to come
both deviate locally from the data. Which is better? from an early preoccupation with first-time consolidation of
If the testing was done with specimens that were fully reconstituted slurries in which the compression behaviour is
representative of field conditions (density, voids ratio, over- exponential. Many lightly overconsolidated natural clays
consolidation ratio, in situ stresses, nature of the applied show structured behaviour that is broadly linearly elastic in
stress increment tensor, isothermal and constant chemistry the range of working stresses up to yielding at the pre-
conditions, etc.), then either modeling will produce good an- consolidation pressure (Fig. 6). The behaviour is then
swers. Calibration of the hyperbolic model is relatively broadly linear again during further stress increases associ-
straightforward. Mostly, however, clay profiles exhibit dif- ated with destructuring and convergence to Burland’s ICL.
ferent preconsolidation pressures with depth (Fig. 1), differ- Figure 8 shows results from anisotropic consolidation in a
ent overconsolidation ratios, and therefore different stress– triaxial cell on a natural (undisturbed) specimen of Lake
strain relationships. Hyperbolic calibrations of stress–strain Agassiz clay. (Mean effective stress p′ = (σ 1′ + 2σ ′3)/3.) In
behaviour like the one in Fig. 6 apply only to the elevation the arithmetic plotting in Fig. 8a, linear preyield compres-
from which the specimen was taken. That is, the calibration sion AB1 is followed by approximately linear postyield
is local in nature. Applying hyperbolic modeling to other el- destructuring B1B2, and then by exponential hardening B2C.
Fig. 8. Plotting of triaxial compression data from natural (struc- Fig. 9. Yielding of Kinnegar clay from different depths (modi-
tured) Winnipeg clay: (a) p′ vs. volume strain ν, (b) log p′ vs. fied from Bell 1977).
volume strain ν (modified from Graham et al. 1988).
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Fig. 10. Typical yield curves showing preyield linearity: (a) Belfast, Northern Ireland (T1604), (b) Lyndhurst, Ontario (T106),
(c) Mastemyr, Norway (T101), and (d) reconstituted gypsum-rich Agassiz clay from Seven Sisters, Manitoba (AMRI-T10, CID).
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For personal use only.
Linearity is more readily apparent when ∆q/∆p′ is small. Returning to the yield loci in Fig. 9, it is common to say
In general, when ∆q/∆p′ is larger, linearity may be less ap- they are symmetric about the Ko-line in p′–q space. However
parent, though there is often still an early linear section in q this depends on the plotting that is used (Graham et al.
versus εs plots, supporting the idea of several stages of elas- 1988). Figure 11a from tests on Lake Agassiz clay from
ticity before true yield is reached (Jardine 1992). There is Winnipeg provides further insight into yielding by introduc-
also evidence of preyield linearity in some of the full-scale ing specific volumes at yield and defining p′–q–V yield
loading tests that were a feature of field research in the “states.” Here, behaviour inside the 3D yield surface is
1960s (for example Höeg et al. 1969; Clausen et al. 1984). It small-strain (100) and “elastic.” Larger stress states on the
should be said that most of the work has been done with state boundary surface involve larger nonrecoverable (plas-
monotonically increasing stresses, so evidence of reversibil- tic) straining. It is interesting to note in Fig. 11b that the
ity, which is a prerequisite of elasticity, is sparse. Unload–re- state boundary surface in the Winnipeg clay, and a small
load cycles in 1D compression and triaxial shear produce number of other natural clays that have been examined in
some hysteresis. However in well-sampled structured or ce- this way, is approximately symmetric about the p′–V plane.
mented clays, the hysteresis tends to be small. Unloading of In this figure (Fig. 11b), results have been normalized by the
test fills tends to produce rapid recovery of pore-water pres- “equivalent pressure” p e′ , the pressure on the NCL at the
sures. Thus, for monotonic loading or unloading, pseudo- same specific volume as the yield state. This behaviour is
elastic solutions may be acceptable for monotonically seen in Fig. 11a as the bold lines in constant-V planes.
changing preyield stress states. The validity of assuming One of the best known of the elastic-plastic models is
preyield elasticity in soft to firm natural clays merits further modified Cam clay (Roscoe and Burland 1968), which is
attention. probably most easily accessed through Wood (1990)
© 2006 NRC Canada
196 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 43, 2006
Fig. 11. (a) State boundary surface in p′–q–V space for natural metric state boundary surfaces. Further discussion of aniso-
Winnipeg clay. (b) Symmetry of normalized state boundary tropy can be found in a later section.
surace for anisotropic natural Winnipeg clay in qy/ p e′ vs. p y′ / p e′
(modified from Graham et al. 1988). Normalization of localized data to produce global
parameters
Figures 9b and 11b used the idea of normalization to ra-
tionalize localized test data from different depths to a global-
ized equivalent. (This requires the material to be essentially
homogeneous with depth, having for example, essentially
constant plasticity index.) Quite often, for practical reasons,
laboratory engineers are faced with developing effective
strength parameters from specimens from different depths in
the same deposit. Common sampling practices (and costs)
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Fig. 12. Volumetric hardening elastic-plastic models: (a) Cam clay for isotropic elasticity, (b) anisotropic elasticity.
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If the conceptual model is correct, peak strength data nor- lopes does not negate the value of the simpler conceptual
For personal use only.
malized by the preconsolidation pressure will lie on a single modeling for synthesizing complex and confusing data.
envelope, and the post-peak and normally consolidated data Once strength envelopes have been produced, decisions
will cluster round a point that represents post-peak or critical must be made concerning whether the peak strength c ′oc –φ ′oc
states (Fig. 15b). We can therefore draw the peak strength envelopes can in fact be used for design. Generally, in fis-
envelope for 5 m through specimens 2 and 4 in Fig. 15a, and sured clays, the peak strength envelope should not be used
a parallel (lower) peak strength envelope through specimen (Lo 1970; Rivard and Lu 1978). Experience in Canada, par-
3. The post-peak (critical state) strengths should lie close to ticularly in western Canada, where proglacial clays are usu-
the envelope c′ ≈ 0, φ ′nc through the normally consolidated ally plastic and quite deeply weathered, suggests that most
specimens 4 and 5. With its low confining pressure, speci- lightly overconsolidated, firm clays are fissured and may
men 1 moved close to the “no tension” envelope σ 3′ = 0 and even be slickensided. Field and laboratory engineers carry
failed at lower stresses than would otherwise be expected. considerable responsibility for assessing if fissures are pres-
The “no tension” condition causes the results for specimen 1 ent, and therefore for the selection of appropriate strength
to lie below the overconsolidated envelopes. This can be im- parameters for slope stability problems.
portant in shallow slope failures, especially in unsaturated or
residual soils.
The artificial data in Figs. 13–15 have been arranged to Anisotropy of natural clays
demonstrate the usefulness of normalization and qualitative
Most of the tests that strongly influence our understanding
conceptual modeling. More scatter can be expected with real
of clay behaviour were done on isotropically consolidated
data, but the model will often be found useful for sorting out
reconstituted specimens. “Aged” natural clays seem to be
confusing laboratory data from different depths. This ap-
initially stiffer, linear, and anisotropic than these “young” re-
proach is similar in some ways to the procedures proposed
constituted clays. This was seen in the small linear settle-
by Ladd and Foott (1974). However their consolidation pro-
ments observed in the various test fills constructed in the
cedures inhibit the “de-structuring” that happens in many late 1960s and 1970s on sensitive marine clays in Scandina-
aged (and perhaps cemented) natural clays when they have via (for example Höeg et al. 1969; Clausen et al. 1984). It
been consolidated past their preconsolidation pressure. has also been seen in anisotropically consolidated laboratory
Figure 16 shows normalized results of an extensive re- tests on samples of many soft, lightly overconsolidated natu-
search investigation that studied natural and reconstituted ral clays taken by piston sampler or block sampler. Results
specimens of Lake Agassiz clay from depths of 5 m to 10 m show that well-sampled natural clays are much stiffer and
(Graham and Li 1985). Here, the “low stress” envelope lies more linear (Fig. 10) than would be expected from test re-
somewhat to the right of the locus of σ 3′ = 0, with a slope of sults on reconstituted specimens of the same clays.
approximately 2Mcs), and the peak strength envelope appears Linear isotropic elasticity can be expressed by
to be curved, not straight, as in the simple (Hvorslev) con-
ceptual model used in Figs. 12–14. Broadly similar results ⎧ p& ′⎫ ⎡K 0 ⎤ ⎧ε& v ⎫
have been shown by Lefebvre (1981), and others, for struc- [1a] ⎨ ⎬= ⎢ 0 3G ⎥ ⎨ ⎬
tured Champlain Sea clay. This observation of curved enve- ⎩q ⎭ ⎣ ⎦ ⎩ε& s ⎭
Fig. 13. Schematic diagram interpreting idealized results from or orthotropic. In natural clays, changes in principal stress
triaxial compression tests: (a) strength data, (b) possible curve- produce nonuniform straining, and therefore shear strains.
fitting for effects of depth. Similarly, changes in shear stress produce volumetric strains
(positive or negative dilatancy).
(a) By making what is probably a reasonable approximation,
Graham and Houlsby (1983) reduced the five parameters of
5 transverse anisotropic elasticity (Ez, Ex = Ey, νzx, νxx, and
4 Gzx) to three: a bulk modulus K*, a shear modulus G* and a
third modulus J that describes the coupling of shear strain
DEVIATOR STRESS
3
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⎧ p& ′⎫ ⎡K * J ⎤ ⎧ε& v ⎫
[1b] ⎨ ⎬=⎢ ⎥ ⎨ ⎬
1 ⎩ q ⎭ ⎣ J 3G ⎦ ⎩ε& s ⎭
Fig. 14. Schematic diagram of (a) q and ∆u vs. ε1, and (b) q vs. p′ stress paths.
(a)
5
5
2
2
POST-PEAK3
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3
1
1
(b)
PEAK STRENGTH
For personal use only.
5
DEVIATOR STRESS
4
2
3 POST-PEAK
3
1
1 DEPTH PEAK POST-PEAK
5m
10 m
MEAN EFFECTIVE STRESS
Fig. 15. (a) Peak strength envelopes for different depths. Fig. 16. Normalized peak strength and critical state data for nat-
(b) Normalized strength envelope in plot of q/σ′zc vs. p′/σ′zc. The ural and reconstituted Winnipeg clay (modified from Graham and
normalizing stress σ′zc is the vertical 1D preconsolidation pres- Li 1985).
sure.
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balance for liquid water, mass balance for vapour, mass bal-
ance for dry air, and heat energy balance. The soils may be
unsaturated. Examples of solutions of this type with differ-
ent levels of coupling are given by Detournay and Cheng
(1993), Thomas and Sansom (1995), Zhou et al. (1998),
Cleall et al. (2002), and Murray (2002). These so-called
thermo-hygro-mechanical (THM) models allow for thermo-
dynamically coupled fluid and heat flow, changing material
properties, compressibility and thermal expansion of constit-
uents, substantial temperature changes, and convective heat
flow. Models of this type are now being developed for heat
transfer problems, for example in the safe disposal of nu-
clear fuel waste.
Many of the effects dealt with in the equations cited in
Table 2 are quite strongly coupled and the parameters de-
scribing the relationships are multivariate functionals. The
called Philip and deVries (1957) equations. Water will move question is how to calibrate the equations before moving to
down the temperature gradient from a warmer boundary to a validation and prediction. In most cases, tests for calibration
colder boundary and energy lost in hydraulic mass transport information will themselves include coupled processes. So-
will produce a small amount of heating. The latter is small lutions for the various calibration parameters depend on the
and is frequently ignored. Water movements induced by algorithms that are used by the laboratory engineer to ana-
temperature gradients have other effects that can be signifi- lyse the behaviour of the specimens. Evaluation of the pa-
cant. Drying and wetting cause volume and density changes rameters is therefore not unique but is intimately related to
that alter the thermal, advective fluid flow and suction prop- the same equations that will be used later for analysis or pre-
erties of the soil. These in turn affect the thermal environ- diction of the design problem. If the equations are incom-
ment and thus influence temperatures, causing further plete, or not applicable to the new problem, then the quality
changes to moisture distribution. Under undrained condi- of the calibration will be inadequate.
tions, heating can cause increased pore-water pressures, in- Similar comments can be made about the influence of
creased values of q/p′, decreased stability, and localized changes in pore fluid chemistry. These are known to produce
failure (Graham et al. 2001). Also involved of course, are strong changes in compressibility, strength, and hydraulic
mechanical changes to the soil structure resulting from these conductivity, often through modifications to the extent and
loadings. They can involve volume strains, shear strains, re- magnitude of potential fields in diffuse double layers
organization of the microstructure of the clay, and changes (DDLs) (Barbour and Yang 1993; Graham et al. 2005). Less
in strength. work has been done on chemical-hygro-mechanical (CHM)
Where loadings are more complex (and usually coupled), modeling and to the further complication of combined ther-
Fig. 17. Linearity of ∆u vs. ∆p relationships for anisotropic clays (modified from Graham et al. 1989): (a) Winnipeg natural clay,
(b) 1D reconstituted illite, and (c) 1D compacted sand–bentonite.
mal and chemical changes. Interested readers can refer to re- ment with observed pore-water pressure distributions. This
search presented by Loret et al. (2002). approach is suited to large projects where time and money
Determining calibration functions requires carefully de- may be available for prototype testing. An example would
signed testing programs. These tend to be somewhat simpler be dam construction, where an agency may have used simi-
and more direct for semi-empirical constitutive models than lar materials, sites, and construction practices previously,
for physics-based models. As a result, elastic-plastic models and where good measurements were taken during construc-
have been developed that can handle temperature (Graham et tion (Paré et al. 1984). Unless the analogues are closely sim-
al. 2001), creep (Zhu et al. 2001), and incomplete saturation ilar, some doubt must be expressed about the uniqueness of
(Blatz and Graham 2003). history matching and therefore its ability to predict future
Difficulties with designing and interpreting suitable cali- behaviour. The method should only be used in conjunction
bration programs have led to the idea of “history matching.” with field instrumentation and the observational method
Here, computer modeling is done with material properties (Peck 1969).
selected to lie within likely ranges for the application. Com-
puted values of displacements, pore-water pressures, temper- Consolidation and settlements: time and
atures, etc. from a similar preceding project are then strain-rate effects
compared with measurements. The range of parameters that
give the best agreement with the observations is chosen for Calculating the magnitudes and durations of settlements
predicting the behaviour of the new full-scale project. For was central in defining the discipline of soil mechanics. This
example, remedial design of failed slopes is sometimes done central position may produce a perception that available so-
using a series of values of c′, φ′, and pore-water pressure pa- lutions are uniquely correct and no further work is neces-
rameters that give safety factors of unity and good agree- sary. This is untrue. Predicting the magnitudes and times of
Fig. 18. Common interpretation of Cα varying with vertical Fig. 19. Variation of Cα/Cc with σ′z: (a) Winnipeg, (b) Belfast
stress (modified from Crooks and Graham 1976). (modified from Graham and Yin 2001).
10-1
10-2
10-3
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by Merced (UCM) on 05/06/14
10-4
10 100 1000
VERTICAL STRESS (kPa)
Fig. 20. Influence of strain rate on compression curves and pre- Chemical changes
consolidation pressures, Bäckebol (modified from Sällfors 1975).
Compressibility, strength, and hydraulic conductivity of
clays are controlled by mineralogy, interparticle forces, soil
structure, geological and climatic history, and physico-
chemical interactions between adjacent clay particles
(Barbour and Yang 1993). Changes in pore fluid chemistry
can influence the overall geotechnical behaviour of the soil
and may therefore affect the parameters that are needed for
modeling.
Some dyke instabilities in eastern Manitoba have been re-
lated to changes in pore fluid chemistry (Man et al. 2003;
Garinger et al. 2004). The plastic postglacial lake clays that
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by Merced (UCM) on 05/06/14
Fig. 21. Elastic viscoplastic (EVP) modelling of settlements and pore-water pressures at Chek Lap Kok International Airport (Zhu et
al. 2001).
(a) 3.5
POINTS - MEASURED
3.0 LINES - CALCULATED
SETTLEMENT (m ) 2.5 1
2.0
1.5
2
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by Merced (UCM) on 05/06/14
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
CONTRACT DAYS
(b) 10
POINTS - MEASURED
E - WATER PRESSURE
8 LINES - CALCULATED
For personal use only.
6
P35
4
2
PORE
P41
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
CONTRACT DAYS
ground section that has not experienced dyke loading or neath the dykes (Table 4). Through weathering of the parent
slow seepage beneath the dyke. The clay has very low peak, shale, calcium and sulphate ions were likely present in the
post-peak, and residual friction angles (Table 3). Traditional sediment load brought into Lake Agassiz at the time of de-
stability analyses for steady-state seepage show that if post- position. The ion activity product (IAP) was calculated using
peak strengths were operating, both the stable and unstable the law of mass action with the equilibrium equation for
sections should have been stable with safety factors of 1.15– gypsum dissolution
1.22 (Garinger et al. 2004). If residual strengths were operat-
ing, both sections should have been unstable. Some other [5] [Ca2+] [SO42–] = IAP
mechanism must have been operating to influence the rate at The results in Fig. 23 for the background section show
which strengths could deteriorate from post-peak to residual that the local clay is super-saturated with gypsum, probably
values. in the form of cementation bonding. The cementation con-
Finite element analysis showed that the reductions in tributes to the brittleness of the material seen in Fig. 22.
strength could have come from shear strains associated with Gypsum concentrations increase with depth at all three sec-
addition of extra fill to the initial dykes. More likely, how- tions shown in Table 4, but are noticeably lower at the unsta-
ever, are changes in clay properties brought about by natural ble and stable sections beneath the dykes than at the
slow seepage through the foundation soil from the reservoir. background section. Undersaturated conditions are noted
The seepage is the normal response of water to differences throughout the entire unstable and stable sections with re-
in hydraulic potential and is not associated with any “leak- spect to gypsum, with the unstable section apparently having
age” problem. lost rather more gypsum than the stable section.
Chemical analyses of pore fluid showed significant Most glacio-lacustrine clays contain irregular, and often
changes in concentrations of Ca2+ and SO42– (gypsum) be- discontinuous, sand and silt partings. Nonuniform seepage
Fig. 22. Undrained triaxial compression stress paths in q–p′ Table 3. Strength parameters for dyke project, eastern Manitoba.
space for (a) background, (b) stable, and (c) unstable locations at
water retention dykes in eastern Manitoba (modified from Man Peak Post-peak Residual
et al. 2003). Section strength (°) strength (°) strength (°)
(a) 300 Unstable 15 13 10
Stable 15 14 11
Background 15 13 11
200
q (kPa)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Note: SI, saturation index.
p' (kPa)
(c) 300 jects. Testing programs and the resulting soil models should
match the numerical analysis that will be used and the needs
of the project. This paper has provided an overview of some
200 conceptual and constitutive models that can be useful in
q (kPa)
Fig. 23. Ion activity product (IAP) with depth at dyke on Lake tion of material properties, and numerical analysis generally
Agassiz clay in eastern Manitoba (modified from Man et al. produce acceptable predictions of project performance under
2003). working loadings at a reasonable cost and in an acceptable
268.0 time frame. The ongoing existence of consulting companies
and their undertaking of new topic areas reflect well on their
267.5 ability to produce valuable recommendations.
Elevation (m)
2 4 6 8 10 proceed with such projects. This care will often use the “ob-
servational method” (Peck 1969), which involves perfor-
-log IAP
mance monitoring to compare how well predictions are
Background Forebay water being matched during the course of construction. This re-
Unstable Gypsum saturation quires close collaboration and cooperation among (i) manag-
Stable
ers of well designed and executed laboratory programs,
including good sampling, storage, trimming, and testing
where there are often large ranges of temperature; techniques; (ii) field engineers who can assess site condi-
where an underlying aquifer can produce upwards or tions with insight and perform in situ tests; (iii) numerical
downwards hydraulic gradients at different times; analysts who concentrate on developing modeling skills
where prolonged heavy rainfall may degrade stabiliz- while still understanding the mathematics of the solutions
ing suction pressures; or where strain-softening may they use; and (iv) instrumentation engineers who will install
occur. appropriate instrumentation, collect data during construction
For personal use only.
(3) Overconsolidated parameters c ′oc , φ ′oc should only be and afterwards, review the data, and compare the results
used in intact clays for first-time slides. with predicted performance.
(4) In some regions where weathering is extreme, plastic We have seen in recent years a valuable and rewarding
clays, in particular, appear to be almost always fis- move from computer analysis (coding) to design by com-
sured. Deciding if a deposit is intact or fissured re- puter (modeling) that is now a widely used part of modern
quires close attention. When the clay is fissured and geotechnical practice. These strengths in modeling require a
(or) expansive, the normally consolidated parameters similar effort in developing procedures for acquiring the ma-
c ′nc , φ ′nc should be used for first-time slides. terial properties needed for predicting project performance.
(5) In remediation of failed slopes, whether of geological
age or recent, residual strength parameters c ′, r φ ′r are Acknowledgements
needed. A small residual cohesion c ′r of perhaps 3–
7 kPa may assist in modeling the residual failure enve- This paper reflects the personal, and doubtless biased
lope for relatively shallow slides in plastic clays. In nu- views of the author. Many of them come from time spent
merical analysis, it also helps to drop the failure with Laurits Bjerrum in Oslo and with Peter Wroth in Ox-
surface into the deposit in a way that can be a better re- ford. They have been influenced by ongoing collaborations
flection of actual failures. with Malcolm Gray and David Dixon at Atomic Energy of
(6) Increasingly, soil stiffnesses (in both compression and Canada Limited (AECL); and by Gordon Stuart, Gregg
shear) are needed for calculating deformations under Doran, and V. Sivakumar in Queen’s University, Belfast. The
working stress conditions. Additional care is needed Journal’s reviewers provided useful comments that have
during sampling, trimming, and testing if adequate val- been incorporated in a revised version of the original paper.
ues are to be measured. Better values are found using The research was funded by the Natural Sciences and Engi-
on-specimen instrumentation. These parameters are not neering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), AECL, and
constants for a given soil, but vary with stress level, Manitoba Hydro. It was possible through the diligent and
strain level, and stress history. Stiffnesses are not nec- supportive efforts of the many graduate students who are
essarily better if measured by in situ tests (or inferred recognized in the text as co-authors. Conversations with col-
from empirical relationships). leagues James Blatz and Marolo Alfaro helped form the
(7) Parameters recommended for analysis should come structure of the paper. Technical support was provided by
from tests on specimens with “worst case” pore fluid Narong Piamsalee and Kerry Lynch. Kendall Thiessen and
chemistry. Greg Siemens prepared the figures.
(8) In important projects, it is wise to incorporate both lab-
oratory and in situ tests.
Geotechnical engineers are essential to the successful
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Zhu, G., Yin, J.-H., and Graham, J. 2001. Consolidation modeling Subscripts and superscripts:
of soils under the test embankment at Chek Lap Kok Interna-
tional Airport in Hong Kong using a simplified finite element v, s volumetric, shear
method. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 38: 349–363. nc, oc, r normally consolidated, overconsolidated,
residual
z, zc, 1, 3 vertical, vertical preconsolidation, major,
List of symbols minor
c′ cohesion intercept (effective stresses) e, vp elastic, viscoplastic
1. Zapata-Medina David G., Finno Richard J., Vega-Posada Carlos A.. Stress history and sampling disturbance effects on monotonic
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For personal use only.