ASSOCIATION FRANÇAISE DES TUNNELS

ET DE L’ESPACE SOUTERRAIN

Organization member of the AFTES

www.aftes.asso.fr

AFTES
Recommendations
Geometry, concrete,
formwork and concreting of
tunnel linings :
Construction defects
GT36R1A1 - Appendix 1
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AFTES RECOMMENDATION No GT36.R1A1 M

Geometry, concrete, formwork and

concreting of tunnel linings
Appendix 1
Construction defects: faults, bad workmanship and imperfections

Text presented by A. MERCUSOT (CETU Tunnels Study Centre) Leader of Working Group (GT36)
and A. BOERI (ALTER) Assistant leader

With the assistance of:

G. ABOU SLEIMAN (CHANTIERS MODERNES) - JP. ALBRECHT (RAZEL-BEC) - V. AVRIL (RAZEL-BEC) - H. BATAILLE (SEMI)
L. BEREND (SETEC TPI) - F. CUSSIGH (GTM CONSTRUCTION) - S. FRACHON (CETU) - C. HENAULT (BOUYGUES CONSTRUCTION) - P. HINGANT (EGIS Tunnels)
M. IMBARD (CETU) - R. MARUCCO (MECSIDER SPA) - M. MELKONIAN (MELKONIAN CONSEIL) - R. PARRA (CMC/CERP)
S. SELLIER (CAMPENON BERNARD) - H. SOURON (TRACTEBEL)

This recommendation has been approved by the AFTES Technical Committee following a critical review by:
P. GOYET (RAZEL-BEC-FAYAT) - M. PRE (SETEC-TPI)

The recommendation N° GT36.R1A1 - “Geometry, concrete, formwork and concreting of tunnel linings” has been published in TES No 202 (July/August 2007).
L'AFTES recueillera avec intérêt toute suggestion relative à ce texte.

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441 3.3 - Offset lining sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453

1 - Faults 442-
1.1 - Major failure of reinforced or non-reinforced
ring segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .442
1.2 - Curved cracks in non-reinforced structures . . . . . . . . . . . .443
1.3 - Local failure of side ledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444
1.4 - Water inrush in lining with waterproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . .444
1.5 - Waterproofing membrane fold in concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
2 - Poor workmanship 446-
2.1 - Air gap between the waterproofing membrane and
the support or between the lining and the membrane . . . .446
2.2 - Honeycombing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .447
2.3 - Laitance leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448
2.4 - Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448
2.5 - Bursts around reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
2.6 - Spalling on slab supports or transverse beams . . . . . . . . .450
3.4 - Rebar patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
3.5 - Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454
3.6 - Hydraulic and thermal shrinkage cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
3.7 - Bug holes or blisters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
3.8 - Black spots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
3.9 - Efflorescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
3.10 - Rust traces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
3.11 - Surface cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458
3.12 - Aggregate transparency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458
3.13 - Changes in hue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .459
4 - Other defects 459-
4.1 - Decomposition of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .459
4.2 - Shear crack in a lining section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
4.3 - Concretions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460

3 - Imperfections 451-
3.1 - Recessed joints between lining sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . .451
3.2 - Deformed lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452

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AFTES RECOMMENDATION No GT36.R1A1
Foreword
Tunnels lined with concrete formed on site are subject to ageing and deve-
lopments that may endanger their stability, functions, safety and the required
level of service. A certain number of defects are inevitably noted during or
after tunnel construction. Moreover, depending on the age of the structure,
construction methods and the passage of time, a wide variety of defects
may be observed. In older, non-waterproofed tunnels, water inrush is often
at the origin of other defects.
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
Appropriate tunnel design work, correct construction procedures and best
practice should make it possible to eliminate or minimise defects in lining
work.
However, carrying out regular inspection of tunnel structures after construc-
tion and throughout operation remains vital in order to monitor construction
defects, evaluate their seriousness and, where possible, prevent them
worsening and becoming more harmful such that they become a danger to
the structure or its users. Development of defects not dealt with at the time
of construction can require major repair work, the cost of which is borne by
the operator.
In the appendix to GT36 R1A1, the term construction “Defect” has been
adopted. Once such defects have been detected, systematic or accidental
causes must quickly be investigated to establish whether the defect is tole-
rable or if it must be repaired.
A/ General terminology
The following 3 terms have been taken from SETRA Document Reference F
9775 – Appendix 2: Quality Assurance Policies.
• The term “Defect” is defined in general terms by ISO standard 8402-1994:
“non-fulfilment of a requirement or a reasonable expectation related to
an intended use, including in relation to safety”
• The term “Anomaly” is defined in French standard NFX50-125 (1995) as
follows: “The discrepancy between the actual and expected situation”
• The term “Risk” is defined as a potential, more or less foreseeable
danger
However, the term “Fault” has no official definition.
B/ Particular terminology relating to formwork lining of tunnels
and classification of defects
In this document, an appendix to Recommendation GT36 R1F1, the
term “Construction Defect” has been chosen, broken down into three
sub-categories:
• Severe construction defects: Faults detected immediately during
formwork, concreting or falsework striking affecting part of a structure or a
component thereof. Such faults may develop gradually or suddenly. The
phase of work in progress must be halted and the construction process
recommenced. Detailed analysis of the defective component must be
performed as a matter of urgency, in order to repair or demolish and rebuild
for the safety of the structure and its users. If this defect is not made good,
the principal sources of future faults are degradation of materials and
structures, the behaviour of the surrounding terrain and water action.
• Moderate construction defects: Bad workmanship characterised by an
improperly performed task or failure to observe specifications. Bad work-
manship is often immediately apparent on construction, and may lead to
faults. A revision of the construction process must be carried out as soon as
defects become apparent. Defective sections can be repaired subsequently,
since they do not represent an immediate danger.
• Minor construction defects: Imperfections, either systematic or occasional,
that generally become apparent after construction and that are without
consequence. No repairs are necessary except to improve the aesthetic
appearance of the lining.
An undue insistence on correcting imperfections should be avoided since
they are not all of equal importance and may be very costly to remedy. Not
all such defects can be seen by tunnel users even when they are travelling
slowly.
In this addition to these construction defects, three specific defects known
as “progressive” defects are discussed in this appendix. They are not related
to lining construction itself but to changes over time.
In the appendix to GT36 R1A1, 24 “construction defects” and 3 “progressive
defects” have been drawn up to define the best-known and most typical
defects.
For each defect, the section is set out in the same way:
- Definition
- Usual symptoms after concreting
- Interpretation
- Precautions to be taken during construction
- External inspection
- Repair
Any diagnosis of the state of the structure or any part affected by the defect
detected must be able to supply answers to the following key questions in
very short order, so as to decide whether or not to halt construction works:
- what happened?
- what are the reasons for the defect?
- had the construction process and the quality of materials used been
validated?
- is the defect liable to develop?
- how urgently is action required?
- what work must be done immediately?
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AFTES RECOMMENDATION No GT36.R1A1 M

1 - Faults-

1.1 - Major failure of reinforced or non-reinforced 1.1.6 - Repair

ring segments
Reconstruction of defective area or entire ring if necessary, if the concrete has
1.1.1 - Definition passed behind the waterproofing membrane.
In this case the main formwork must be used.
A non-reinforced ring segment is cracked and appears unstable, but holds Injection to seal cracks is not recommended.
together after formwork striking. The defect may develop into a major structural
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

risk.
The non-reinforced ring is badly cracked and fails to hold up. Some parts of
the section may collapse immediately on formwork striking.
The reinforced ring is not cracked, appears stable and holds up on formwork
striking, but is much thinner than it should be. The defect may develop into a
major risk to the structure.

1.1.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking

In the case of fissured or cracked non-reinforced ring segments: clear cavities,

wide fissures with offset sides, major concrete spalling; tilted section panels
can easily be identified.
In the third case (apparently thin reinforced ring), the lining should be sounded
with a hammer.

1.1.3 - Interpretation Highly fractured, non-reinforced ring segment: panel collapse.

Concrete has penetrated behind the waterproofing membrane which is torn

or loose, and open.
The lining thickness has been considerably reduced. Either there is sufficient thick-
ness between the membrane and the formwork to bear the weight of the lining
but not that of the ring segment, or insufficient thickness to bear its own weight.
In the case of a layer of rebar, the waterproofing membrane rests on the
reinforcements. The ring is much thinner than it should be.

1.1.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction

The waterproofing membrane must be applied as close as possible to the

supporting surface, particularly in the case of overbreak, to prevent a cavity Fractured non-reinforced ring segment: fixed, protected panels.
forming behind the membrane during concreting.
Careful, continuous monitoring of concreting during filling (via facing and
viewing windows) should be carried out. The behaviour of the membrane as
the concrete fills the formwork must also be monitored.
A sunken conduit should not be used for concreting. This would be liable to
damage the waterproofing membrane.

1.1.5 - External inspection

• Prior to concreting: Fixing and condition of the waterproofing membrane

should be checked via concreting viewing windows.
• On formwork striking: Visual or tapping inspection allows the concrete
thickness to be roughly gauged and may allow a decision to be taken as to Reinforced ring segment: concrete has penetrated behind the waterproofing
whether to undertake major repairs or complete demolition. membrane, which rests on the reinforcements.

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AFTES RECOMMENDATION No GT36.R1A1

1.2 - Curved cracks in non-reinforced structures 1.2.5 - External inspection

1.2.1 - Definition External inspection must be performed thoroughly.

Curved cracks appear as a break in ring N-1 in the area supporting the
formwork for ring N.
The crack is always curved in shape and starts and finishes on the same
transverse joint.
This type of crack should not be confused with shrinkage, which never has
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
• Prior to concreting: The machine must be installed taking care not to exert
stress on section N-1.
• After concreting, if a curved crack is observed: tapping and visual inspection
of the “front” part of section N-1 are the primary means of establishing the
right diagnosis. Since failure cracks can go right the way through, a signifi-
cant hollow sound and the cracking being generally out of true mean the

this appearance. This crack is a construction-related fault and constitutes a zone must be repaired.
major risk to the structure.
1.2.6 - Repair
1.2.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
The defective area may sometimes have to be completely demolished and
The break is often located on one side of the profile only (haunch) or at the rebuilt using properly designed reinforcements. The main section formwork
crown. Several interlocking curved shapes are sometimes visible (crack width: may be used. If demolition can be avoided, injection to seal cracking may be
0.5-2mm). envisaged.
The more recent the structure (in most cases, since 1980) the clearer the
outline and sides of the curved shape.
This type of cracking is non-existent or unclear in pre-1980 structures.

1.2.3 - Interpretation

When the formwork is set up and adjusted on the fresh concrete of the
preceding ring, not filled on contact grouting, excess stress on the crown leads
to major cracking of the lining of this section.
Moreover, if the transverse profile of the rear end of the formwork has a very Dual curved cracking at the crown Curved crack at the haunch on section N-1
different shape from the front end of the machine, due to the major vertical at the end of section N-1. (crack width: 2-3mm).
Cracking when formwork was installed
stress at the crown and on the haunches, the end of the section may crack on section N.
(sometimes referred to as being broken) in a number of places,
In general, this defect does not occur in reinforced rings. WRONG
1.2.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction RING N RING N-1

Modern formwork machines are increasingly rigid and fitted with powerful
FLEXIBLE JOINT
rams, so care must be taken when using them:
• minimise reactions to the pressure of formwork by using pressure limiters, ANGLE BAR
• lock skirting (formwork side wall panels) without forcing, but ensuring
FORMWORK
Formwork in contact with
surfaces in contact with the foundations are watertight, section N-1 and stress
• eliminate direct contact of formwork with fresh sections (especially at the resulting in the curved crack.
crown and haunches) and use a flexible joint system round the entire peri-
meter of the rear end of the machine, RING N JOINT BETWEEN FORMWORK
AND GROOVE
• fix a steel profile (often beak-shaped) on the front end of the formwork to
define the rework groove between sections, RING N-1

• fix a semi-rigid joint on the front end of the machine to preserve the groove
between sections previously formed by the profile at the end of the form-
FLEXIBLE JOINT
work,
• use an asymmetrical reworking profile and a flexible joint to the rear of the
ANGLE BAR
formwork when there is a small radius curve alignment,
• during training, the shift foreman must brief personnel on the importance of FORMWORK
accuracy when formwork is brought up and located. Detail of joint between sections and the angle bar at the rear
of formwork with seal.

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AFTES RECOMMENDATION No GT36.R1A1 M

FACING

1/2 GROOVE PROFILE

1.3.6 - Repair

Sealing and support injections, sometimes with the addition of horizontal

bolting, are recommended.
RING N

Detail: groove profile between

sections and facing at the front
of the formwork.
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

FORMWORK

1.3 - Local failure of side ledge

1.3.1 - Definition

Clear vertical or oblique cracking of foundations. Vertical cracking of the side ledge (lining foundation).

1.3.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking

Running lengthwise along a section, the failure crack is located beneath the
reworking between the foundation and the bottom of the formwork. The edges
of the crack may be offset.

1.3.3 - Interpretation

Some probable causes:

- Excessive thrust exerted by formwork skirting stays (side wall panels).

- The stress exerted by the formwork on foundation side ledges with fresh
concrete (very often less than 7 days old) has not been controlled.
- The foundation soil is not sufficiently stable.
- The supporting width of the foundations is too small due to underbreak.
- Foundations are not in contact with the retaining wall or terrain because of
flexible, thick drainage.
1.3.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
Stay thrust must be controlled: contact between skirting and side ledges should
be via felt or geotextile to ensure watertightness.
1.3.5 - External inspection
Prior to pouring side ledge concrete, the foundation soil quality must be
checked.
The width of standard foundation ledges must be checked, particularly in the
event of underbreak.
A minimum period between construction of ledges and the corresponding
section must be observed.
Prior to the ring segment being concreted, the strength of foundation concrete
must be checked.
1.4 - Water inrush in lining with waterproofing
1.4.1 - Definition
Water inrush through the concrete lining or adjacent to section ends.
1.4.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
Occasional or diffuse water inrush in varying quantities detected inside the
lining a few days after formwork striking.
1.4.3 - Interpretation
The layer may have been perforated:
• during location of the formwork machine and/or installation of the facing,
• during installation of rebar layers, particularly when the formwork is moved
and loaded with reinforcements,
• equipment conduit set in concrete rubs against the sheet during concreting,
• when the concreting pipe is raised, coming through a viewing window,
• due to use of a vibrating rod (internal vibrating),

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AFTES RECOMMENDATION No GT36.R1A1

• during concreting due to improper application of the membrane to the sup-

porting surface, followed by a waterproofing membrane seal failing (excess
tension).

1.4.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction

The number of anchor points for the membrane should be adjusted depending
on the shape of the surface (overbreak and underbreak); in reinforced areas
and adjacent to the facing, there must be mechanical protection of the water-
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

proofing membrane.
In the event of the layer being perforated during manoeuvring of the concrete
pump boom, ahead of formwork (known defects), the repair must be carried
out quickly.
Formwork must be manoeuvred and located at slow speed and with due care.
Concreting pipes and vibrating rods must be handled with due care and Cracks and weeping at the crown.
attention.
Any anomaly, regardless of its origin, must be reported immediately.
1.5 - Waterproofing membrane fold in concrete
Prior training of all teams is indispensable.
1.5.1 - Definition
1.4.5 - External inspection
Part of the waterproofing membrane is trapped within the lining concrete. This
The membrane must be examined very closely on acceptance of waterproofing, is referred to as a fold.
particularly the sealing; proper inspection must take place when moving form-
work and during concreting manoeuvres. 1.5.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking

1.4.6 - Repair
The membrane must be repaired before concreting the section. If there are a
large number of defects in a single section, the formwork must be moved to
allow sufficient room for repair work to be carried out.
If concreting has commenced or been completed and repair of the membrane
is no longer possible, the affected area must be accurately identified and sub-
sequent injection carried out if possible.
If the hole in the membrane is thought to be very large and injection is not
possible, the identified area must be demolished and the perforated membrane
repaired. The demolished section must be reinforced and concreted (using the
same lining formula) using formwork, not shotcreting.
The concrete lining is cracked, the area sounds hollow and the membrane fold
is visible or close to the inward facing surface of the lining.
1.5.3 - Interpretation
The membrane is not fixed firmly enough to the supporting surface. During
concreting, the ‘floating’ membrane becomes trapped inside the concrete, but
is not perforated or torn.
1.5.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
The number of anchor points for the membrane should be adjusted depending
on the shape of the surface (overbreak and underbreak). Particular monitoring
of concreting in areas with overbreak and underbreak is mandatory. If the
membrane starts to get folded into the concrete, concreting must be halted
and the membrane properly fixed to the surface.

1.5.5 - External inspection

Throughout operations, it should be checked that the membrane is properly

secured; moving of formwork and concreting must be monitored.

1.5.6 - Repair

The area in question must be demolished (sometimes to the full depth of

Water inrush through the lining with waterproofing membrane, the lining) without perforating the waterproofing membrane. If possible, the
next to an equipment recess. membrane is then pushed back into place. The defect may be remedied by

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All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
446
AFTES RECOMMENDATION No GT36.R1A1 M
protecting the inward facing surface of the membrane, then placing reinforcement and concrete (shotcreting or formwork).
Folded membrane just beneath lining. Slack membrane liable to result in folds
becoming trapped in the concrete.
2 - Poor workmanship-
2.1 - Air gap between the waterproofing membrane
and the support or between the lining and
the membrane
2.1.1 - Definition
Final grouting of the ring at the end of filling has not been properly completed:
an air gap is left between the waterproofing membrane and the support or
between the lining and the membrane.
2.1.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
Concrete sounds hollow with a thin lining, is thinner than the nominal thickness,
and has a clear cavity above it, or a discontinuity close to the inside surface.
Cavities are encountered most frequently at the crown. They are visible from
the section facing (end formwork) during construction or during inspection
(hammer test or radar).
In recent tunnels, they tend to disappear without incident.
2.1.3 - Interpretation
Gap between the waterproofing membrane and the supporting surface
In lower areas, this is most probably due to the membrane shifting or excess
tension. This may halt concreting, but is a rare occurrence.
At the crown, anchor points for a membrane stretched too tightly may give
way during concreting, without the membrane tearing. This leaves the mem-
brane resting on the formwork or rebar, particularly at the haunches or roof.
The pressure of the concrete is not enough to push the membrane back onto
the support surface, leaving an air gap that prevents the lining achieving nomi-
nal thickness.
In some cases, a large number of small air pockets remain trapped between
the membrane and the support, without the anchor points giving way.
Gap between the lining and waterproofing membrane
This occurs only at the crown, and is probably due to defective filling: insuffi-
M TUNNELS ET ESPACE SOUTERRAIN - n°233 - Septembre/Octobre 2012
SUPPORTING SURFACE
(SOIL/RETAINING WALL)
CONCRETE RING
MEMBRANE FOLD
Membrane anchor points tear off, fold forms during concreting.
cient pump power, concrete is too thick, poorly distributed (one pipe is not
enough to fill the crown for the entire length of the section), no viewing window
in the facing, trapped air, etc.
2.1.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
Gap between the waterproofing membrane and the support surface or between
the lining and the membrane
The membrane must be pressed against the support, increasing anchor density
if necessary, in particular in the event of overbreak.
The membrane must never be stretched between two protrusions either side
of a gap.
Concreting must be carried out working upwards, so that air can escape via
the facing.
Sliding concreting pipes, with thrust jacks and shears, must be used. Applying
concrete to the roof should start from the lowest pipe adjacent to the N-1 ring
and end with the highest pipe, towards the facing. This allows air to escape
via the facing.
If any cavities remain adjacent to the facing, they will be filled when section
N+1 is concreted.
In the event of major overbreak, pipes and vents must be installed to allow the
filling of section N+1 to be carried out in two stages.
Deformation sensors and mechanical gauges may be used during grouting.
In addition, grouting must be closely monitored through the facing. Finishing
vibration treatment must be closely monitored and kept to a minimum.
2.1.5 - External inspection
• Prior to concreting: The installation of the membrane must be checked,
as must the position and fixing of rebar and any inserts.
• During concreting: It should be ensured that the membrane behaves
normally; coating of embedded elements must be monitored.
• During grouting: Grouting must be monitored from the facing.
• After concreting: In case of doubt, geo-radar may be used to locate and
quantify the size of any gaps.
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AFTES RECOMMENDATION No GT36.R1A1

2.1.6 - Repair 2.2.3 - Interpretation

If the lining thickness is not less than nominal, no injection between the
concrete and membrane is required. This is all the more the case if the rings
were not fitted with grouting pipes during construction of the tunnel (in which
case there is a definite risk of perforating the membrane).
If the lining is too thin, the area with cavities and the positioning of the mem-
brane (resting on the lining or fixed to the support) must be clearly identified.
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
Aggregate segregation is visible on the lining; the concrete does not bind well.
This defect is the result of poor vibrating or poor formulation (segregation
occurs due to a lack of fines and/or inappropriate plasticity).
2.2.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
During construction:

In both cases, caution must be taken when drilling through the lining in order
not to perforate the membrane. Injection (grouting or micro mortar depending
on quantities) should be carried out, keeping the quantities estimated during
external inspection (and pressure on the lining) to a minimum.
MEMBRANE SUPPORTING SURFACE
(TERRAIN/RETAINING WALL)
AIR GAPS
- adjust the consistency of the concrete,
- internal vibrating is recommended,
- avoid vibrating the parts of the formwork that are in contact with the previous
section,
- vibrate as close as possible to the formwork skin and not its structural
elements,
- reduce the height from which concrete is poured,
- increase the quantity of fines and/or sand in the formulation.

2.2.5 - External inspection

Inspection must:
- ensure deliveries take place regularly,
LINING - check concrete consistency as it leaves the mixer,
Air gap between the waterproofing complex and the lining. - reject concrete that is too firm,
- monitor internal vibrating.
STRETCHED
MEMBRANE
AIR GAPS SUPPORTING SURFACE 2.2.6 - Repair
(TERRAIN/RETAINING WALL)
Repair or rendering of superficial defects is possible if they are minimal, using
mortar, resin, adhesive mortar, etc.
In other cases, highly localised rodding of the lining may be required.

Section N (left):
Honeycombed lining.
LINING
Section N-1 (right):
Air gap between the waterproofing complex and the support on the soil side. Properly vibrated lining.

2.2 - Honeycombing

2.2.1 - Definition

This defect affects the whole of the concrete, not just the surface. The
aggregate is visible.

2.2.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking

This was formerly a very common defect, particularly for strips between
batches (filled in between mixer loads) and subsidence, and can sometimes
lead to local weakening of the lining. Honeycombing
It is still to be found, less extensively, at the edges of joints between ring on side walls.

segments.

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2.3 - Laitance leakage
2.3.1 - Definition
Thin strips of laitance covering the area where the formwork rests on the
preceding ring segment (and foundations) are often described as ‘dripping’
or ‘run-out’.
2.3.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
This is quite rare and highly localised. The patches of laitance may be sticky.
2.3.3 - Interpretation
This local defect is the result of the formwork not being watertight and/or using
concrete that is too fluid (‘self-consolidating’ concrete) and/or using formwork
panels that are too flexible.
This leakage is not solely an issue of aesthetics: it can also affect the durability
of the concrete (sometimes leading to a risk of corrosion in reinforced areas)
due to local alterations in the concrete formula (loss of cement and water).
2.3.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
Effective waterproofing where the formwork comes into contact with the
previous section should be designed.
Similarly, complete watertightness of the facing and joints between the
formwork and any inserts, such as forms for recesses, lighting units, etc. must
be ensured.
2.3.5 - External inspection
Contact points, watertightness between the machine and the structure to be
built and the firmness of the formwork must all be checked prior to the com-
mencement of concreting.
2.3.6 - Repair
In visible sections, smoothing or sanding of laitance dripping using a grinder
is desirable.
Slight rodding and rendering may be envisaged, but will leave traces of the
run-out.
Laitance leakage on side well and foundations.
448 M TUNNELS ET ESPACE SOUTERRAIN - n°233 - Septembre/Octobre 2012
2.4 - Splitting
2.4.1 - Definition
Unlike shrinkage cracks and structural cracks, splits are localised, short and
open: there are often a small number oriented in the same direction, either
crosswise or horizontally.
2.4.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
They are not linked to any particular fault and are observed between batches
with differing consistencies. This defect is increasingly rare.
2.4.3 - Interpretation
The concrete is too consistent or “stiff”.
Vibrating has been poorly controlled if the concrete starts setting too quickly
or if there has been no vibrating where the batches join.
The consistency of the concrete varies between batches.
Provided they are not too deep, splits do not endanger the structure.
2.4.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
Recommendations:
- concrete of the same consistency must be supplied at a regular rhythm,
- vibrating must be properly controlled.
2.4.5 - External inspection
Inspection must check concrete plasticity prior to concreting operations.
2.4.6 - Repair
Splits may be injected with resin, followed by surface rendering, but this may
adversely affect the appearance of the lining.
Multiple splits.
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AFTES RECOMMENDATION No GT36.R1A1

Crosswise splits • ensure rebar layers do not shift during concreting (concreting spacers
(width ~ 1 mm -
length > 50 cm).
properly fixed to reinforcements),
• protecting rebar awaiting concreting,
• use appropriate spacers,
• use an appropriate number of rebar spacers,
• clean and oil the formwork surface properly.

2.5.5 - External inspection

All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

Check the density, distribution and fixing of spacers.

2.5.6 - Repair

Reinforcements that are oxidised or liable to become so must be fully exposed.

Passivation of the rebar followed by resin mortar rendering is the best
technique, much better than using hydraulic mortar.

2.5 - Bursts around reinforcements

2.5.1 - Definition

This type of defect is rare and usually occurs only in reinforced sections at the
tunnel head. Chips of concrete burst off. If the defect is not repaired, the fault Spalling on rebar.
progresses rapidly over time.

2.5.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking

Concrete spalling generally involves chips no more than a few centimetres

across adjacent to reinforcements, either immediately on falsework striking
or a few days later.

2.5.3 - Interpretation

Dirty formwork: on removal, concrete surrounding the steel remains stuck to

the machine’s surface.
The reinforcements are not properly coated, or too close to the edge of the
formwork; the concrete does not withstand formwork striking

Spalling
If the rebar is visible or poorly coated, the strength of the lining may be affected around rebar.
and thus the durability of the structure. This may be aggravated by pollution
and the presence of chlorides at the tunnel heads (such as de-icing salts). In
addition, damp penetrates from the inner surface (or even from the soil if the
lining is not waterproof) as far as the outer rebar located in the carbonated
part of the concrete.

2.5.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction

Recommendations:
• check the design calculations (adequate coating),
• check that the rebar layers are properly coated on the inward side and at all Formwork removal: chip
points of transverse profiles, burst round rebar.

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2.6 - Spalling on slab supports or transverse beams
2.6.1 - Definition
Supports for slabwork (ventilation, traffic, service) may take the form of occa-
sional consoles (corbels), continuous or semi-continuous consoles (on
beams) or notches at intervals determined by the project in question.
2.6.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
Almost systematically, edges and bottoms of notches show signs of spalling
on removal of formwork during the construction or installation of slabwork
or transverse beams.
Console edges have fewer spalling defects on formwork striking, but this is
not the case for the slab elements.
The supports for notches and consoles are rarely damaged.
A/ Notches
2.6.3 - Interpretation
During the concreting of this very particular section, rebar (occasional cages
or lengthwise reinforcements) may shift, and concreting becomes more dif-
ficult. On removal of formwork, rebar is visible and the corners are not filled.
During removal of formwork for notches, fixed on the lining form, supports
may be weakened, with cracks, bursts and breaks.
During the installation of prefabricated elements such as transverse beams
and slabwork, ‘concrete-on-concrete’ supports may be further weakened.
In service, hard spots (between supports and composite concrete-on-
concrete structures, be they prefabricated or poured on site) form and the
edges of the notches crack.
This fault can progress over time, with small sections falling off repea-
tedly.
2.6.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
Support rebar must be properly fixed to the formwork, not simply rest on it.
Concreting of these special sections must be monitored closely through the
viewing windows.
Formwork must not be removed from notches too quickly. Formwork for
these notches must be separate from the main formwork.
Site plant must handle prefabricated elements in line with best professional
practice: moving slowly, guided with the parts to be located in full view, no
rubbing, no impacts, etc.
2.6.5 - External inspection
The base of the notch can be tapped with a hammer to check the corners
are sound; a rule and spirit level can be used to check the geometry of the
support.
M TUNNELS ET ESPACE SOUTERRAIN - n°233 - Septembre/Octobre 2012
2.6.6 - Repair
The profile may be reconstituted using resin mortar if the rebar has not shifted.
B/ Continuous supports and corbels
2.6.7 - Interpretation
When the formwork shutters are removed from the lining, the corbel supports
may be weakened, with bursts, breaks, etc.
During construction of a poured or prefabricated slab, corbels (or lengthwise
beams) may be further weakened (installation and removal of the table form
or installation of the prefabricated slab).
“Concrete-on-concrete” installation of the prefabricated slabwork may have
been too rough.
In service, concrete-on-concrete hard spots form. In this case, the “bearing”
effect between the support and the supported structure is not always present.
Cracks appear on the surface of the support.
This may progress over time, with pieces of concrete falling off.
2.6.8 - Precautions to be taken during construction
Support rebar must be properly held in place during formwork (do not skimp
on the number of rebar spacers) and not simply supported.
The use of articulated, removable shutters to facilitate striking, with shutters
no longer than 1 or 2 m for 10 m of formwork, is recommended.
Concreting these special sections must be monitored through the main
formwork viewing windows.
Formwork must not be removed from lengthwise beams or corbels too
quickly.
Site plant must handle prefabricated slabwork in line with best professional
practice: moving slowly, guided with the parts to be located in full view,
no rubbing, no impacts, etc.
Compressed air should not be used when removing the shutters.
2.6.9 - External inspection
Integrity of the support (occasional corbels or lengthwise beams) should be
checked the first time formwork is removed (test section)
The base of the notch can be tapped with a hammer to check the corners
are sound; a rule and spirit level can be used to check the geometry of the
support.
Proper alignment of the lining sections and the slab supports must be
checked.
2.6.10 - Repair
The affected element may be repaired using resin mortar, but care should
be taken not to impede the ‘knee-joint’ function between the slab and the
supports.
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AFTES RECOMMENDATION No GT36.R1A1

LINING SLAB OR
BEAM

BREAK OF
THE EDGE
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

Cross-sectional diagram of the notch.

Notch spalling.

LINING

PREFAB OR
CAST SLAB

BREAK OF
THE EDGE

Spalling of continuous console beam forming one piece with the lining. Cross-sectional diagram of console beam.

3 - Imperfections-

3.1 - Recessed joints between lining sections 3.1.3 - Interpretation

3.1.1 - Definition
This defect (often systematic) occurs at the edges of transverse joints (form
for aesthetic purposes) between lining sections (groove) where there is a chan-
nel between the two sections.
3.1.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
The groove edges are generally fragile and tend to break during formwork remo-
val or over time; this is easy to see. They create a subsequent risk of small
pieces of concrete falling off if they have not already done so during striking.
Most of the time, these joints suffer only minor defects, but sometimes these
occur on long sections of wall. Viewed crosswise, the recess is not always
straight.
The formwork or the end facing have not been cleaned properly.
Rubber or steel moulds for recesses for a recess joint and fixed onto the
front and rear ends of the formwork may shift if they are not held properly
in place. If this occurs, the joint is no longer at right angles to the line of the
tunnel.
Using a pipe that is too supple, often bonded to the formwork, may result in
defects during removal of formwork if the concrete is too fresh, especially
if the concrete sticks to the rubber.
Use of a steel mould welded to the formwork can also result in defects during
removal of the formwork and the joint mould, especially if the profile of the
joint makes removal difficult (insufficient clearance).
Use of a steel mould bolted to the formwork may also lead to defects if
removal takes place too soon after and if there is not enough clearance for
the joint profile (trapeze shapes are recommended).

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Poorly executed vibrating and local segregation of concrete around joints may
lead to honeycombing.
3.1.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
If a rubber mould is used, it must be stiff enough and properly fixed to the
formwork (screwed on from the inward facing side of the formwork). This
profile can remain in contact with the concrete for several days before the
mould is removed, whether it is located in front of the formwork or to the rear.
If a welded or screwed trapeze-shaped steel profile is used on the formwork,
this should be located at the front end of the formwork on the facing side, to
make it easier to remove formwork (when striking, the formwork machine
moves first vertically, then horizontally).
3.1.5 - External inspection
Inspectors must:
• check the installation of joints (moulds) and facings,
• check removal of the facing and the formwork,
• ensure care is taken when removing the rubber moulds subsequently,
• avoid premature rendering, which may entail further risks of instability.
3.1.6 - Repair
Ready-to-use synthetic binders are more resistant than hydraulic mortar.
Rendering can be carried out using carefully selected ready-to-use mortar
resin (adhesive mortar) and careful preparation of the surface using a rigid
mould.
SECTION N
SECTION N-1
Formwork removed too quickly between sections: groove edges are pulled off.
Deformed flexible
joint prior to removal
Spalling on end of
section N–1, poor
rendering.
M TUNNELS ET ESPACE SOUTERRAIN - n°233 - Septembre/Octobre 2012
3.2 - Deformed lining
3.2.1 - Definition
Deformations of the formwork skin most often result in lumps or hollows in
the concrete on the inner side.
3.2.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
These lumps used to appear in each ring segment and were clearly visible on
the side walls, less so at the crown (sometimes known as “paw marks”). Nowa-
days, since the formwork used is heavier, with sheeting thicker than 8 mm,
deformations are far more occasional and affect only one or a few rings at the
most: in most cases, repair of the form is required.
Much larger, significant surface deformations may also occur, due to overpres-
sure during concrete pumping (large bumps): overpressure during grouting is
a frequent cause of this.
Lastly, some very large deformations of formwork (sometimes related to poor
location of the machine) may occur during concreting.
3.2.3 - Interpretation
These defects may be caused by skin weakness due to insufficient thickness
or insufficient formwork reinforcements.
Concrete left sticking to the forms is removed using a hammer, leading to the
sheeting sustaining dents and deformations.
These defects do not affect the solidity of the structure unless the resulting
cross-sectional profile is less than the required width.
3.2.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
Form skins must use sheet metal that is at least 8 mm thick.
Formwork must be strong, properly located and solidly anchored.
The number of concreting pipes, properly located, must be increased to reduce
the risk of overpressure during grouting.
3.2.5 - External inspection
Construction should correspond to the design calculations.
Deformation of skins must not be tolerated.
3.2.6 - Repair
Hollows should not be repaired.
Small bumps may be left as they are. If necessary, they may be ground down.
Larger bumps must be repaired by tapping and repairs completed by rendering
with resin or resin mortar.
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An angle bar/joint system must be used that makes it possible to adjust to a

curve as well as possible.

3.3.5 - External inspection

The construction procedure must be validated.

Positioning of the formwork must be inspected regularly.

3.3.6 - Repair
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

Very local grinding of the offset concrete may be possible but is not desirable.
Lengthwise deformation of the formwork skin at the crown.

OFFSET

Side wall
deformation.

Offset between rings.

3.3 - Offset lining sections

3.3.1 - Definition

One of the edges (sides) of the transverse joint is not aligned with the edge of SECTION N-1

the following section. The cross-sectional profile of section N is not identical

to that of section N-1.
1 TO 5 CM
TRANSVERSE OFFSET OF SECTION N
3.3.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
Diagram of offset between sections.
This offset, present both on the walls and at the roof, is rarely more than
2-5 cm in recent tunnels. This type of small offset is frequent and has no impact
3.4 - Rebar patterns
on the structural strength of the tunnel. Verification of the thickness of the
defective ring is required. 3.4.1 - Definition

3.3.3 - Interpretation
The most widespread cause is incorrect alignment and adjustment of form-
work, especially at curves. The defect is often due to formwork that is poorly
constructed and/or too light and prone to distortion. This results in the front
and rear of the formwork machine having differing cross-sectional profiles.
3.3.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
Adjustment measures for the formwork (using screws or jacks) must be made
more accurate (to the nearest millimetre).
The length of the formwork must be appropriate for the tunnel axis.
A highly visible pattern reproduces the rebar layer closest to the inner surface
to some degree.
3.4.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
This defect is very common for reinforced rings even when concrete resulting
in a very good surface appearance is used.
3.4.3 - Interpretation
The most frequent explanations are the following:
• insufficient coating of rebar

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• spacers have not stayed in place: the layer of rebar may have shifted slightly,
• wall effect between the rebar and the formwork,
• resonance of rebar during vibrating (rods or formwork vibrators come into
contact with the rebar), which may lead to fine, local segregation,
• formwork release oil splashes onto the rebar,
• poorly executed concrete vibrating.

3.4.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction

All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

Rebar coating must be checked.

Increasing the density of spacers, using a different shape and fixing method,
can also be tried.
Concrete consistency and vibrating procedures should be changed if
Rebar pattern on haunch.
necessary.

3.4.5 - External inspection 3.5 - Bleeding

The construction procedure should be checked. 3.5.1 - Definition
Rebar location must be inspected.
Concreting and vibrating must be monitored continuously for at least one rein- Bleeding entails superficial leaching of the lining, with slight vertical lines that
forced section. are sandy to the touch, immediately after formwork striking, and leading to
differences in colour. Freshly poured concrete tends to release the water it
3.4.6 - Repair contains.

If the rebar is properly coated, the pattern will have no impact on the structure.
The appearance may be improved by painting.
If not (poor coating and serious structural consequences), demolition and local
or complete reconstruction of the section may be required.
3.5.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
This defect is usually located on side walls or at the start of the crown.
3.5.3 - Interpretation

The principal cause is excess water in the concrete or excessive vibrating on

the skirting (formwork base panels) fixed to the foundations, a lack of fines in
the concrete or excessive compacting.

3.5.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction

Recommendations:
• use a water-reducing additive,
• increase the dose of fines,
• use a slightly acid formwork release product,
• observe vibrating procedures.

3.5.5 - External inspection

The concrete formulation should be checked prior to concreting; the vibrating

procedure should be strictly observed.

3.5.6 - Repair

No large-scale repair is possible. All that can be done is slight scraping or

grinding of non-bound parts. The overall colour will change, leading to a
Rebar pattern on side wall. defective appearance.

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AFTES RECOMMENDATION No GT36.R1A1

that the aggregate is not likely to react with alkalis, that the cement selected
hydrates gradually and that concrete is manufactured in a uniform
manner.
In terms of pouring the concrete behind the formwork, parts of the structure
with different thicknesses and cross-sections should be filled with the same
batch of concrete; the concrete setting time should be increased and a
curing procedure used.

3.6.5 - External inspection

All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

Concrete formulation must be carefully chosen, controlled and adhered to.

Avoid thermal shocks (use covers during winter, curing)
Coating of reinforcements (at the ends of the tunnel) may be increased.
Bleeding on a side wall.

3.6.6 - Repair
3.6 - Hydraulic and thermal shrinkage cracks
Shrinkage cracks do not need to be repaired unless the crack is too large and
3.6.1 - Definition liable to affect durability of the tunnel by leading to waterproofing defects
and/or rebar corrosion.
This type of cracking is a normal consequence of concrete maturing. The crack In the latter case, the cracks may be injected.
is a mechanical break in material between two independent parts. Slow drying
may lead to a decrease in volume or swelling (relative humidity and tempe-
rature levels).
It may be considered as a defect if it occurs abnormally frequently within a
single ring, if it occurs repeatedly on several rings or if the cracks are too
large.

3.6.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking

The expression of shrinkage may vary considerably in tunnels of similar ages.

Shrinkage progresses gradually over several years and appears to stabilise
permanently after a period of 10 years.
It never becomes a fault, unless other defects occur as well (hollow sound at
the edges, out of true, dense ramifications, etc.) in which case it may signify
structural movement of a section or part of a section.
Some of these cracks may be penetrating (this occurs at formwork removal if
the temperature gradient between the concrete and the external surface
exceeds 15-20°), but this is very rare. In such cases, the cracks may lead to
water inrush in the absence of a waterproofing complex.
3.6.3 - Interpretation
Probable causes:
• thermal shock
• use of cement with a high hydration temperature
• concrete that is too rich in cement with too high a water/cement ratio
• premature formwork striking
• gradual evaporation of the water in the concrete.
3.6.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
In terms of concrete composition, particular care must be taken to ensure
Large hydraulic shrinkage crack (usual extent: 0.3-0.8 mm/m).
3.7 - Bug holes or blisters
3.7.1 - Definition
This phenomenon involves bug holes or blisters (or hollow indentations), in
varying degrees of density, distributed irregularly on the surface of the concrete
and of varying sizes.
3.7.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
They usually appear at the base and ends of the section and may affect the
whole of the bottom half of the side wall, more rarely the top half.
Indentations may be between 3 and 10 mm wide.
This phenomenon is difficult to control and may be a problem when it comes
to painting concrete or reinforcements (occasional lack of coating) if it is not
been caught at the project stage (coating thickness and surface preparation
for painted coatings).

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3.7.3 - Interpretation

The main cause is formwork overhang for the bottom half: air bubbles are
trapped against the formwork skin and cannot escape to the surface. Poor or
inadequate concrete vibrating may be another probable cause.

3.7.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction

Formwork release oil must be chosen carefully, with the possible addition of Reference scale for 7 levels of bug hole.
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

a tensioactive agent.
The concreting speed must be constant, and vibration carried out continuously
for overhanging side walls.
3.8 - Black spots
Concrete must not be poured directly in contact with the formwork.
There should be minimal, limited vibrating of formwork adjacent to side 3.8.1 - Definition
walls. Vibrating rods should be used to densify the concrete (volume vibra-
tion). Black spots appear on the inner surface of the concrete (varying shades of
grey) and often on irregularly shaped sections of lining.
3.7.5 - External inspection
3.8.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
Concrete formulation must be checked and must not be altered if the result is
satisfactory (especially the quantity of sand and the selected consistency). They may appear at any point on the ring and on the underside of ventilation
The concreting plan (distribution, filling, vibration) must be regularly slabs.
checked. They may also be found in the centre of sections.

3.7.6. - Repair 3.8.3 - Interpretation

No subsequent treatment. For surfaces to be painted, plan for appropriate Some parts of the lining and slabs may have a higher dose of binder and be
surface preparation: skim coating the walls with paste and then painting will less hydrated than others, with less porous paste. These sections have a ‘satin’
get rid of most bug holes. or ‘glossy’ appearance.

Other possible causes:

This defect may be due to fatty substances on reinforcements.
Formwork release oil may rise up along the formwork skin as it is filled with
concrete.
Scale from the steel parts may get mixed in with the concrete mixture.
Using cement with too much secondary additions such as ash.
Using forms with hardboard panels may also encourage the formation of black
spots.

3.8.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction

Untreated lining with bug holes. Increase the dose of fines and the mixing time during concrete manufacture
to prevent segregation.
Formwork must be cleaned prior to the release product being applied.
Rebar must not be oily.
Concrete layers that are hardening must not be re-vibrated.

Bug holes and 3.8.5 - External inspection

blistering
Poorly vibrated Concrete formulation (grade, fines, water/cement) and mixing time must be
concrete round an
equipment recess.
checked.
The cleanliness of the formwork and rebar must be regularly inspected.

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3.8.6 - Repair • use an appropriate curing process,

• add water repellent,
This defect affects the lining itself and cannot be dealt with by cleaning • lower the cement/water ratio.
or grinding.
Applying paint is the most effective solution. 3.9.5 - External inspection

Checking the concrete formulation is recommended: selection of cement,

cement/water ratio, hardening temperature.
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

3.9.6 - Repair

Cleaning the lining prior to painting is important, particularly using hydrochloric

acid. This removes most efflorescence.
Care should be taken before using off-the-shelf “anti-efflorescence” products:
these are only relatively useful and may slightly damage the surface of the
Oblique black marks (visible 1 m x 1 m panels). concrete.

3.10 - Rust traces

3.10.1 - Definition
Vertical black marks
around a concreting pipe.
Brown or black traces of rust on linings become highly visible a few days after
formwork is removed from the lining.

3.10.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking

These defects are observed more particularly on the first sections of lining
if the rebar has been insufficiently covered, beneath formed elements and
sometimes in areas affected by honeycombing.

3.9 - Efflorescence
3.10.3 - Interpretation
3.9.1 - Definition
The rust traces are iron hydroxide marks from corrosion of rebar, the formwork
Efflorescence refers to white calcite (calcium carbonate) deposits indicating skin, rebar ties, or even concrete aggregate containing iron sulphides.
thin cracks or local segregation.
3.10.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
3.9.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking
Recommendations:
Efflorescence occurs when there is water on the surface of the concrete. - varnish the formwork skin,
It is rare and faint, and may appear even when there is an external water- - carefully clean the skin after each use (each section),
proofing membrane. - store reinforcements and ties in a dry place,
- sand the formwork machine skin to remove rust.
3.9.3 - Interpretation
3.10.5 - External inspection
Calcium carbonate is precipitated at the outlet of fine capillaries in the concrete,
as the result of high levels of water evaporation. This phenomenon may last Check:
several days. - cleaning of rebar and formwork,
- chemical makeup of aggregate,
3.9.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction - cleanliness of formwork (in particular, rust),
- storing rebar properly.
Particular recommendations:
• spray diluted hydrofluoric acid (10%) immediately after formwork striking,

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3.10.6 - Repair • thermal shock during formwork striking,

• poorly executed vibrating.
Cleaning the lining prior to painting is recommended, applying a solution
of oxalic acid to the concrete (100g per litre of water), then brushing and 3.11.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
rinsing off.
Sanding the concrete covering to remove rust from the formwork is not recom- Care should be taken to strike formwork when the concrete is mature and at
mended. If this is attempted, fresh traces of rust may soon appear. suitable temperatures.

3.11.5 - External inspection

All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

The concrete formulation must be confirmed and the concreting and formwork
striking procedure checked.

3.11.6 - Repair

No repairs are required. The phenomenon can be dealt with by applying a coat
of paint.

Traces of rust at the tunnel head.

Micro surface cracking.

Traces of rust in
the tunnel.

3.11 - Surface cracking

3.11.1 - Definition
Macro surface cracking.
Surface cracking is a superficial reaction of the coating involving a chemical
reaction between certain types of aggregate and alkalis in the cement.
3.12 - Aggregate transparency

3.11.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking 3.12.1 - Definition

The surface of the concrete reveals a series of micro-cracks with varying Patching is where large aggregates appear in varying degrees of colour
degrees of density. contrast to the base concrete.

3.11.3 - Interpretation 3.12.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking

The most likely causes are as follows: This phenomenon occurs on hardened concrete, some time after formwork
• concrete quality, striking.

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3.12.3 - Interpretation 3.13.3 - Interpretation

The probable cause is the use of gravel with higher density than other concrete
ingredients: angular or non-alluvial gravel, for instance.
3.12.4 - Precautions to be taken during construction
This phenomenon is minimised if rolled gravel is used.
If crushed aggregates are used:
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
A number of different causes are possible:
• impurities in the concrete,
• badly cleaned formwork,
• re-use of formwork without it being inspected,
• concrete poured from too great a height,
• change in the origin of concrete ingredients during construction,
• concrete compacted too tightly.

• avoid adding too little sand,

• use sand with a density close to that of the gravel. 3.13.4. - Precautions to be taken during construction
Note: external vibrating and formwork removal when fresh, both common in
tunnels, make this phenomenon worse. The following should be checked:
• cleanliness of aggregates,
3.12.5 - External inspection • cleanliness of the formwork,
• number of times sheeting skins are re-used: should be similar in all cases,
The type of aggregates used must be checked. • formwork removal at the same age.

3.12.6 - Repair 3.13.5 - External inspection

Applying paint or veneer is possible: on no account should sanding be carried Check for any changes in origin of the concrete ingredients.
out.
3.13.6 - Repair
3.13 - Changes in hue
The concrete may be tapped locally if the marks are very local.
3.13.1 - Definition Some marks may be removed with a cleaning agent or dilute acid solutions.
Paint may also be applied.
Changes in hue involve large adjacent areas with differing colours.

3.13.2 - Usual symptoms after formwork striking

These appear most often at the bottom of the lining.

Reference scale for 7 shades of grey.

4 - Other defects-

Three specific defects related not to lining construction but to changes over
time are also discussed in this appendix. • concrete is chemically attacked by aggressive external or internal water,
• leaching,
• frost,
4.1 - Decomposition of concrete
• blocked drain,
4.1.1 - Definition • bursting after injection.

Very advanced destruction of concrete for all or part of a lining section. Aggregates gradually separate from the binder, which becomes “loose”.
The defect may also appear, and begin, in concrete covering drainage or
4.1.2 - Interpretation equipment pipes.
If the concrete is not compact enough, this may be an aggravating factor in
Possible causes include: some cases.
• poor concrete formulation, This defect is ranked as a “Fault”.

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4.1.3 - Possible repair 4.3.2 - Interpretation

Reconstruction of the defective area or the entire ring is advised.
4.2 - Shear crack in a lining section
4.2.1 - Definition
The section is cracked and the panels skewed and the edges of the crack have
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
The lining has not been waterproofed or the waterproof membrane has been
perforated: crusts of calcite or sulphides from dissolved salts appear either
from the surrounding terrain or due to decarbonation of the concrete.
The lining has been waterproofed: concretions may be coloured by iron oxide.
This may be due to corrosion of the steel rebar at the end of reinforced
sections.
This defect is classified as ‘Poor workmanship’

shifted.
Slip: Movement tangential to the lining and parallel to the crack, mismatching: 4.3.3 - Possible repair
Relative movement perpendicular to the surface of the lining or opening: Move-
ment along the surface perpendicular to the crack plane, or a combination of Scraping the defective parts at the end of sections and applying acid may get
all three types of movement. rid of most of the colour marks.

4.2.2 - Interpretation If the lining is not waterproof, injection between sections and between the sec-
tions and the support wall or terrain is possible.
Possible causes: If the lining is waterproofed, the hole in the membrane is thought to be very
• soil thrust, large and injection is not possible, the identified area must be demolished and
• swelling, the perforated membrane repaired. The demolished section must be reinforced
• convergences, and concreted (using the same lining formula) using formwork, not shotcre-
• poorly stabilised foundation soil, ting.
• non-reinforced foundations, Irrespective of whether the lining is waterproofed, oxidised rebar must be
• poor concrete formulation, treated: passivation of visible rebar followed by resin mortar rendering. t
• various types of concrete.
This defect is ranked as a ‘Fault’

4.2.3 - Possible repair

Nailing panels is possible if there is no waterproof membrane on the lining. If

the tunnel has a waterproofing membrane, reconstruction of the defective area
or the entire ring is advised.

Concretions on side wall.

Start of shearing at crown.

4.3 - Concretions

4.3.1 - Definition

These defects are located between the transverse ends of the lining sections
or sometimes in cracked sections, with slight spalling and white, red or brown
marks. Concretions on the crown.

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References

• Tunnels Study Centre: Guide du gestionnaire de tunnel routier, CETU, November 1982.
• LCPC Technical guide “Défauts d’aspect des parements en béton” - 1991
• AFTES GT14 Entretien et réparation des ouvrages souterrains - Catalogue des défauts apparents des tunnels (Maintenance and repair of underground structures:
catalogue of visible defects in tunnels)
• LPC Technical Guide, Défauts d’aspect des parements en béton, LCPC, 1991. Intended for use with regard to standard structures.
• PERA J., DEFFAYET M., CHAPEAU C., Domaine d’utilisation du béton non armé pour les revêtements de tunnel,
• Tunnels et ouvrages souterrains magazine, issue 103, 1991
• AGGOUN S. Étude du comportement du béton coffré non armé vis-à-vis de la fissuration – Application aux revêtements de tunnels, Thesis, INSA Lyon, 1992,
• Tunnels Study Centre: Dossier pilote des Tunnels, Civil Engineering section, CETU, July 1998.
• GRIMALDI G., RAHARINAIVO A. Vers une stratégie de réparation du béton armé dégradé, LPC Bulletin, issue 223, December 1999,
• LARIVE C., Quand le béton se met à gonfler, La Recherche, issue 319, April 1999. Economic issues
• CETU (Tunnels study centre): Le guide de l’inspection du génie civil des tunnels routiers, 2004
• Standard FD-P 18/503 – Qualité des parements fin des piédroits
• SETRA document, Reference F 9775

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