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In 44 BC Julius Caesar was assassinated, which caused a power vacuum in Rome and led to the formation
of the second triumvirate including Mark Antony, Octavian, Lepidus. They all divided the provinces between
themselves and had the power of a dictator who could pass laws, nominate governors etc1. Then in 33 BC,
the second triumvirate has ended following a complex series of bloody civil wars in which Octavian has
emerged victorious2. After that in 29 BC, Octavian returned to Rome to celebrate his triple triumphs by
having a procession all over Rome. The three triumphs were over the Illyrians, Actium, and Egyptians.
These victories had increased his popularity as it told the people about his military power and also that he
ensures goodwill of Rome. This increased his supporters and therefore he was made Princeps Senatus
and the Censor of the senate list in 28 BC3. According to David Potter, the Roman citizens feared
Octavian’s return would bring back the dictator’s rule on Rome due to his huge military power4.

The First Settlement

In 27 BC, Octavian transferred all his power back to the senate as he says in the Res Gestae, 34
“in my 6th and 7th consulships… I transferred the republic from my power to the control of the
senate and the people of the Rome”5.
This made people think that all Octavian ever wanted was to restore the republic and has no desire for the
power. But Res Gestae is a biased account written by Octavian himself so he hid his real intention to gain
sole power and establish an Empire.

Donald L. Wasson, a professor of ancient history​ ​believes that Octavian has decided to give up his power
as he did not want to repeat the mistake as Julius Caesar of accepting extreme honors, therefore he tried
to portray that he was just a servant of the senate6. He learned from Caesar’s assassination that he needed
the support of the senate and the people to be safe and also have the power which is why he took this
calculated risk. This is said to be a calculated risk because he took some measures previously (28 BC) to
make sure that people oppose his withdrawal.

The first measure was revising the senate list to make sure that the senate has a lot of his supporters who
would back him up7. According to Paul Artus, Octavian also ensured his popularity among the people by
making sure that grain supply is cheaper so that most people can receive it and as a commander, he
ensured the soldiers received their plot of land8.​ By making everyone happy with his rule, he earned the
support of the people and the senate so he knew there will be protests against his withdrawal and that’s
what happened.

1
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 33
2
https://www.thoughtco.com/augustus-the-rise-to-power-4070806
3
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 53
4
Emperors of Rome by David Potter pg 42
5
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 56 and 57 - Res Gestae, 34
6
http://www.ancient.eu/article/905/
7
https://www.hccfl.edu/media/160883/ee1rome.pdf
8
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 55
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This led to senate honoring him with consulship each year. Having consulship each year is against mos
maiorum so therefore against the republic but by making this calculated move, Octavian was rewarded this
role which is against republic by the supporters of the republic(senate). This is exactly what Octavian
wanted as Cassius Dio, 53, 6-7, 11, 1-12, 3, 16, 7-8 32 says
“...to have his monarchy confirmed voluntarily by the people, so he would not appear to have
them...Thus he had all the leadership confirmed by the Senate and the People. Because he still
wanted to seem the people’s friend, he accepted all the responsibility and oversight of public
business”9.
So Octavian has increased his power but also had the support of the senate and people.

Octavian was also made Proconsul of Gaul, Spain, Syria, and Egypt for a 10 year period by the senate.
When senate made him proconsul, Octavian declared
“...he would not govern all the provinces and even those he did govern he would not keep
permanently..” ​says Cassius Dio, 53, 6-7, 11, 1-12, 3, 16, 7-8 32 .
This seems to show us that Augustus has no desire for too much power, but that was just a mask he had
while his true intention was to increase his power. This is why he returned the weaker provinces to the
senate while keeping the stronger provinces with more legions to himself. This increased his military power
as the armies swore their loyalty to Octavian10. The senate also honored Octavian with the name Augustus.

So in the first settlement under the mask of restoring the republic, Augustus made sure he had control of
Rome. As a consul he could call senate and has the superiority to put out legislation. As a proconsul, he
had control of the mass army and wealth in all the large provinces. This way he increased his power
compared to the senate and started to give rise to an Empire.

The Second and Third Settlement

In 23 BC, Augustus got to know there were some people who were not happy with his increase in power
and rule, therefore he made a new move and resigned as a consul. He again showed the republicans that
he was a person who strongly follows mos maiorum and does not wish to have too much power as Cassius
Dio 53, 30-32 says
​“He won praise by resigning and by choosing Lucius Sestius to take his place”11.
By choosing Sestius, he was attempting to make the image that he wants to restore the republic as Sestius
was a disciple of Marcus Brutus who is a strong republican. The pattern Augustus set out was that, as he
would turn over power to act as restoring republic, the senate would honour him with more power and
authority which would increase his sole power making him an emperor.

9
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 58 - Cassius Dio, 53, 6-7, 11, 1-12, 3, 16, 7-8) 32.
10
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 56
11
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 60 - Cassius Dio 53, 30-32
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According to Jonathan Edmondson, Augustus did not lose but earned double power in return by sacrificing
his consulship12. He was made Proconsular Imperium Maius and Tribunicia Potestas according to Cassius
Dio, 53, 30-32
“The senate then voted that Augustus should be tribune for life...to have proconsular power once
and for all...power greater than the power of each governor in every province” .

This just shows that by making a little compromise on his consular power, he had won praise and was also
awarded double the power.

As a proconsular Imperium Maius, he has influence over all other proconsuls therefore on provinces which
increased his civil power and military power. And as a Tribunicia Potestas, he is the spokesperson of the
plebeian assembly which increased his plebeian supporters. Karl Galinsky indicates that these positions
had let him control and influence all different groups of people in Rome13. These positions were not new or
unconstitutional, but no one person can have both of them because republic follows mos maiorum which
says any one person can not have too much power. But Augustus broke mos maiorum to establish an
empire and be an emperor with sole power.

Some people still might feel Augustus restored republic because of the limitations on views of Cassius Dio
as it was written after Augustus’ time therefore is biased. This might be true but Augustus said in his biased
account Res Gestae 5; 6; 10, 1 after refusing dictatorship that
“I refused to accept any office offered me against the tradition of our ancestors”14.
This was a total contradicting statement as he had already accepted positions that broke mos maiorum as
stated before. This shows that what Augustus portrays is not what he really is. He refused dictatorship
because he already had all the power of a dictatorship with the positions held above, and what he refused
was just the title as he did not want to showcase his increasing power like Julius Caesar and also so that
he could put the facade of restoring the republic and mos maiorum .

In 19 BC, there was a disturbance in elections as Egnatius wanted to stand for the consul position which
was left open for Augustus, therefore a third settlement was needed. In this settlement Augustus was
honoured with Consular Potestas which means consular power for life. Then Lucretius was made consul
for the vacant position on Augustus’ recommendation which shows his auctoritas and the power to control
the elections15. This tells us that his word had a lot of influence on others and could make them do what he
wants.

All these positions made Augustus more and more powerful than the senate leading to an empire. Being a
Proconsular Imperium Maius, he had control of a large army as most of the legions are in his provinces
therefore his military power is greater than the senate. Being a Tribunicia Potestas, he had the power to
veto any action put forward in the senate, had the power to summon the senate and the people’s

12
Augustus by Jonathan Edmondson Pg 99
13
Augustus-Introduction to the Life of an Emperor by Karl Galinsky Pg 73
14
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 61 - Res Gestae, 5; 6; 10, 1
15
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 62
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assemblies16. Also as a consular potestas, he could put forward any laws he liked. This shows that he had
greater political power than the senate. All this increase in power of Augustus indicates the transition from a
republic which was a distribution of power with senate being the main body, to an empire with the emperor
having sole power.

Religion and Propaganda

A lot of people think Augustus restored the republic because he had done a lot to revive the traditions,
priesthoods and temples like organising public banquets of the gods, building temples like the Temple of
the Mars etc17. But the real reason to do this was to increase his auctoritas in the religion section as he
says in Res Gestae 7, 3; 9; 10, 2; 11; 12, 2
“I am pontifex maximus, an augur, a quindecimvir for sacrifices, a septemvir for sacred banquets,
an Arval Brother, a sodalis Titius and a fetialis..”18.
Here he tried to show his strong influence as a religious head. Augustus made everyone believe that they
had civil wars due to lack of pietas then he became the pietas by reviving the traditions to show everyone
that he took this responsibility to bring Rome is back to stability and peace but he really did it to get the
auctoritas of being a pietas.19

Julius Caesar was already made god in 42BC as he was believed to have joined other gods in heaven. So
Augustus had taken the title of Divi Filius(Son of God)20. Before he was just a religious head but now he
was literally treated as god as he was the son of the deified. According to Paul Artus, everything about him
had been linked to the aspect of divinity. His given name Augustus had religious overtones, his statue was
set up among the other gods, he got the title of ‘Pater Patriae’ which is a title to address gods, his name
was added in the public hymns21. All of this just shows Augustus’ increase in power and auctoritas in the
religion sector and when one person had too much power, it is totally against the republic therefore we
could say he did not restore republic but established an empire where the emperor has sole power.

A lot of people think that Augustus did get a lot of power because he deserved it not because he wanted it
so it doesn’t really show he was against republic. But it really was that he influenced people to think that he
deserved power by the use of his propaganda. One of the main propaganda he used was coins which had
words like “divus filius” and “Augustus”22. All of this emphasised on his auctoritas and reached a larger
number of people as coins are a means of mass communication. This made him more popular as someone

16
https://www.hccfl.edu/media/160883/ee1rome.pdf
17
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 99 and 102
18
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 98 - Res Gestae 7, 3; 9; 10, 2; 11; 12, 2
19
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 97
20
Emperors of Rome by David Potter Pg 42
21
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 105
22
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 103 and 112
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who had done great things for Rome. Coins made everyone know the existing happenings, influencing their
thoughts and providing validation. Also the titles of Augustus such as “Pax Romana” which means bringer
of the peace had been used widely to make everyone believe that he did great things for Rome.23

Succession

In 23BC around the second settlement Augustus fell ill which is when he felt the need to have a successor
24
. Even though he had a long list potential successors, all of them had either died or have been banished
therefore he reached for Tiberius who was his step son and got him married to his daughter Julia.
According to Suetonius, Tiberius, 23
“Augustus’ will begun..Tiberius Caesar to be my heir for two thirds of my estate”25.
Augustus had bequeathed most of his wealth to Tiberius and ensured that the senate grants his successor
the powers he had, therefore Tiberius was given Proconsular Imperium Maius and Tribunicia Potestas in
13 AD after Augustus dies in 14 AD.26

This shows that Augustus wanted his successor to acquire all the power and control he had. But this is
against mos maiorum as each worthy person had to go up the Cursus Honorum to get a position but
Tiberius got it all at once which is against the republic. This just shows us that Augustus did not restore the
republic but established an empire which he wanted Tiberius to rule as an emperor.

In conclusion, all of this supports that Augustus did not restore republic but established an empire. To avoid
Julius Caesar’s mistake, he had done things which seemed like restoring the republic to hide his increasing
power. The reality was that he was gaining power for himself with the use of propaganda from all the
sections of Rome such as political power, religion power, people support, military power and wealth. This
much power for one person was totally against mos maiorum and republic therefore we could say that he
led Rome from a republic to an empire and made sure that even after his death all this power would be
given to him successor Tiberius so he could rule the Roman Empire.

23
https://www.hccfl.edu/media/160883/ee1rome.pdf
24
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 59
25
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 80 - Suetonius, Tiberius, 23
26
Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus Pg 70 and 82
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Bibliography

Primary Sources
● Cassius Dio
● Suetonius
● Res Gestae

Books

Augustus-Study Notes by Paul Artus

Emperors of Rome by David Potter

Augustus by Jonathan Edmondson

Augustus-Introduction to the Life of an Emperor by Karl Galinsky

Websites

https://www.thoughtco.com/augustus-the-rise-to-power-4070806

http://www.ancient.eu/article/905/​ (Article by Donald L. Wasson, Professor of Ancient/Medieval History)

https://www.hccfl.edu/media/160883/ee1rome.pdf​ (Rome: Transition from Republic to Empire by Paul A.

Bishop)
​ Niharika Mada CRH