Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536

www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

Automotive tribology overview of current advances and challenges

for the future
Simon C. Tung
, Michael L. McMillan
General Motors Research and Development Center, USA

Received 3 April 2003; received in revised form 26 December 2003; accepted 7 January 2004

Abstract

This keynote address will provide a comprehensive overview of various lubrication aspects of a typical powertrain system
including the engine, transmission, driveline, and other components, as well as the integration of these lubrication and surface
engineering concepts into a unified automotive powertrain system. In addition, this presentation will focus on the current status
and future trends in automotive lubricants including discussion of current and anticipated future requirements of automotive
engine oils. This presentation will also review the current standard ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) test
methods for engine lubricants and other compilations of automotive standards. In addition to engine oil test development, indus-
trial researchers are developing light-weight materials such as non-ferrous materials (Al, Mg) for engine and drivetrain materials
to replace the current heavy-weight cast iron blocks. Recent industrial developments include high strength and high density of
composite materials, high volume liquid molding and hydroforming technology, structural adhesive boding, and the ability to
mold large structural components. Industrial researchers have also developed processing improvements for forming more complex
stamped aluminum parts or panels, more robust stamping, and improved casting techniques. In this paper, our insights and
perspectives on future trends in light-weight tribological material and nonotribology will also be reviewed.
# 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ings, pistons, transmissions, clutches, to gears and dri-

vetrain components. The application of tribological
The petroleum and automotive industries are facing principles is essential for the reliability of the motor
tough international competition, government regula- vehicle, and in the area of powertrain technology has
tions, and rapid technological changes [1–3]. Ever
led to enormous advances in the field of tribology.
increasing government regulations require improved
For the purpose of classifying the tribological com-
fuel economy and lower emissions from the automotive
ponents, we can divide the motor vehicle into engine,
fuel and lubricant systems. Higher energy-conserving
transmission, traction drive, continuously variable
engine oils and better fuel-efficient vehicles will become
transmission (CVT), drive train, joints, and ancillaries.
increasingly important in the face of both the saving of
In the following sections, each automotive component
natural resources and the lowering of engine friction
is discussed in detail. Required lubricants used with
[4–7]. The United States Department of Energy has
conducted a workshop [8] in which the focus was on these automotive tribological components are described
industry research needs for reducing friction and wear in the last section of this review paper.
in transportation. Reducing friction and wear in engine
and drive train components could save the US econ-
omy as much as US$ 120 billion per year. There are 2. Automotive tribology
many hundreds of tribological components, from bear-
2.1. Engine

Corresponding author. The reciprocating internal combustion engine as
E-mail address: simon.c.tung@gm.com (S.C. Tung). shown in Fig. 1 is the most important component in
0301-679X/$ - see front matter # 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.triboint.2004.01.013
518 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536

With such large numbers of reciprocating internal

Fig. 1. Main engine components in an internal combustion engine.
the motor vehicle, as well as in many ground and sea
transportation devices including motorcycles, scooters,
mopeds, vans, trucks, buses, agricultural vehicles, con-
struction vehicles, trains, boats and ships. The popu-
larity of the reciprocating internal combustion engine is
due to its performance, reliability and versatility. How-
ever, there are also some major drawbacks. Thermal
and mechanical efficiencies are relatively low, with
much of the energy of the fuel dissipated as heat loss
and friction.
The internal combustion engine is also a contributor
to atmospheric pollution through hydrocarbon, par-
ticulate and NOx (nitrogen oxides) emissions and to
the greenhouse effect via carbon dioxide emissions. A
viable alternative with the required portfolio of attri-
butes including versatility and cost, however, has yet to
be found, and hence the reciprocating internal combus-
tion engine will still dominate the road vehicle market
for the foreseeable future.
combustion engines in service, even the smallest
improvements in engine efficiency, emission levels and
durability can have a major effect on the world fuel
economy and the environment in a long-term.
The energy derived from combustion of the fuel is
distributed in an engine and a powertrain system. In a
recent published paper by Andersson [1] showed the
distribution of fuel energy for a medium size passenger
car during an urban cycle. Only 12% of the available
energy in the fuel is available to drive the wheels, with
some 15% being dissipated as mechanical, mainly fric-
tional, losses. Based on the fuel consumption data in
his publication, a 10% reduction in mechanical losses
would lead to a 1.5% reduction in fuel consumption.
Concerning energy consumption within the engine as
shown in Fig. 2, friction loss is the major portion
(48%) of the energy consumption developed in an
engine [24]. The other portions are the acceleration
resistance (35%) and the cruising resistance (17%). If
we look into the entire friction loss portion as shown in
the right pie chart of Fig. 3 [34], engine friction loss
including piston skirt friction, piston rings, and bear-
ings is 66% of the total friction loss, and the valve
train, crankshaft, transmission, and gears are approxi-
mately 34%. Concerning powertrain friction loss only,
sliding of the piston rings and piston skirt against the
cylinder wall is undoubtedly the largest contribution to

2.1.1. Importance of engine tribology

The engine tribologist is required to achieve effective
lubrication of all moving engine components. In order Fig. 2. Energy consumption developed in an engine.
to reduce friction and wear, with a minimum adverse
impact on the environment. This task is particularly
tough given the wide range of operating conditions of
speed, load, and temperature in an engine.
Improvements in the tribological performance of
engines can generate the following benefits:

. Reduced fuel consumption,

. Increased engine power output,
. Reduced oil consumption,
. A reduction in harmful exhaust emissions,
. Improved durability, reliability and engine life,
. Reduced maintenance requirements and longer Fig. 3. Distribution of energy consumption in a light-duty vehicle
service intervals. [34].
 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
friction in a powertrain system. Frictional losses arising
from the rotating engine bearings (notably the crank-
shaft and camshaft journal bearings) are the next most
significant, followed by the valve train (principally at
the cam and follower interface), and the auxiliaries
such as the oil pump, water pump and alternator. The
relative proportions of these losses, and their total,
vary with engine type, component design, operating
conditions, choice of engine lubricant and the service
history of the vehicle, i.e. worn condition of the com-
ponents. Auxiliaries should not be overlooked, as they
can account for 20% or more of the mechanical friction
losses.
2.1.2. Lubrication regimes in the engine
Any powertrain system designed to operate with a
liquid lubricant; the key operating tribological para-
meter in a powertrain system is the lubricant film thick-
ness separating the interacting component surfaces.
More precisely, it is the relative magnitude of the lubri-
cant film compared to the combined surface roughness
of the two surfaces, the so-called film thickness ratio,
or parameter, k,
h 2.1.3. Engine bearings
k¼
ðr2surface 1 þ r2surface 2 Þ1=2
Where h is the film thickness calculated through the
application of classical thin film analysis taking the sur-
faces to be smooth, and r is the root mean square
(rms) surface roughness. A related version of this equa-
tion uses the center line average surface roughness
values, ðRasurface 1 þ Rasurface 2 Þ, in the denominator in
place of the root mean square term.
Fig. 4 shows a plot of the relationship between the
coefficient of friction and the oil film thickness ratio or
Summerfield number (¼ viscosity  speed=load). The
diagrams at the top of the figure provide a visual
example of the lubrication of two surfaces that are in
relative motion to each other and that are separated by
an oil film. At the box on the top left side there is sur-
face contact; at the box on the bottom left a fluid film
Fig. 4. Lubrication regimes for engine components and their rela-
tionships to friction.
519
separates the surfaces, and between these two extremes
partial or intermittent contact occurs. The curved line
below the lubrication regimes indicates the relationship
between the friction coefficient and the Summerfield
number. Different automotive components rely upon
different modes of lubrication to achieve acceptable
performance, and each may experience more than one
regime of lubrication during a single cycle. Generally,
journal and thrust bearings are designed to operate in
the hydrodynamic lubrication regime in which bearing
surfaces are separated by a lubricant film. Actual
metal-to-metal contact is expected to take place only at
low speeds and high loads and with low-viscosity lubri-
cants. In contrast, valve train, piston ring assembly and
transmission clutch sliding generally take place under
mixed or boundary lubrication conditions; surface con-
tact occurs, and chemical films or reaction products
may be an important means of surface protection. In
addition, the importance of different lubrication
regimes for each engine component may change with
the surface roughness at the interface, wear of critical
interacting surfaces, and lubricant degradation.
ð1Þ In an operating engine, rotating journal bearings are
used to support the camshaft, the crankshaft and the
connecting rod. The basic configuration is a split half-
shell bearing fitted into a bore and incorporating some
form of locating notch. The shells are formed from a
steel backing strip to give strength and tight dimen-
sional tolerance and overlaid with a relatively soft
bearing material such as tin–aluminum or lead–bronze.
A further thin soft overlay is then coated onto the
bearing material to ensure a degree of initial conform-
ability [22]. Shafts designed for running against engine
bearings are generally made of heat-treated steels or
spheroidal graphite irons, with hardness approximately
three times that of the principal bearing material.
Lubricant is directed to the bearings either by jet
impingement or by passing through the bore of a hol-
low shaft.
If the bearings are adequately lubricated, bearing
wear is low after an initial stage of running in period.
However, shaft misalignment or particulate contami-
nation of the lubricant supply can lead to excessive
wear. An additional failure mechanism is bearing cor-
rosion.
The tribology of journal bearings is complicated by
issues such as lubricant supply, thermal effects,
dynamic loading and elasticity of the bounding solids.
The mobility technique for the analysis of dynamically
loaded engine bearings was established some 30 years
ago and remains the most common approach [3,4]. The
technique is robust and has proved a simple computer
analysis. It can calculate the cyclic minimum film thick-
ness between the journal and the bearing, which is an
520 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
important design parameter. However, it is important
to note that many simplifying assumptions are implicit
in the use of the mobility method, which means that
the predictions can only be used as a benchmark. The
mobility method and many other alternative methods
of solution assume that engine bearings operate
entirely in the hydrodynamic lubrication regime. For a
satisfactory minimum lubricant film thickness in an
engine, the benchmark prediction was used to be
approximately 2.5 lm. Today, minimum film thickness
predictions in the range 0.5–1.0 lm have made for
engine bearings in passenger cars, suggesting that
asperity interaction may occur between the journal and
bearing for part of the engine cycle. To design engine
bearings operated in the mixed lubrication regime will
be a critical and significant approach to improve engine
performance. ([29, 43]).
2.1.4. Piston assembly
The heart of the reciprocating internal combustion
engine is the piston assembly, forming a critical linkage
in transforming the energy generated by combustion of
the fuel and air mixture into useful kinetic energy. The
piston assembly includes the ring pack, which is essen-
tially a series of metallic rings, the primary role of
which is to maintain an effective gas seal between the
combustion chamber and the crankcase. The rings of
the piston assembly, which form a labyrinth seal,
achieve this function by closely conforming to their
grooves in the piston and to the cylinder wall. A sec-
ondary role of the piston ring is to transfer heat from
the piston into the cylinder wall, and thence into the
coolant, and to limit the amount of oil that is trans-
ported from the crankcase to the combustion chamber.
This flow path is probably the largest contributor to
engine oil consumption and leads to an increase in
harmful exhaust emissions as the oil mixes and reacts
with the other contents of the combustion chamber.
The objectives to extend engine service intervals and
minimize harmful exhaust emissions for meeting more
stringent legislative requirements are to reduce the per-
missible oil consumption to a low level compared to
their predecessors of 20 years ago.
The left side of Fig. 5 is a schematic representation
of a piston assembly from a modern automotive
engine. From a tribological perspective, the main pis-
ton features are the grooves, which hold the piston
rings, and the region of the piston below the ring pack
(the piston skirt), which transmits the transverse loads
on the piston to the cylinder wall. The top two piston
rings are referred to as the compression rings. As
shown in the right side of Fig. 5, firing pressure pushes
these rings out until the entire ring face engages the
cylinder wall. Gas pressure is provided to supplement
the inherent elasticity of the ring and maintain an effec-
tive combustion chamber seal. The top compression
Fig. 5. Piston assembly and piston ring function from an internal
combustion engine.
ring is the major gas seal and encounters the highest
loads and temperatures as the ring nearest the combus-
tion chamber. The top compression ring usually has a
barrel-faced profile with a wear resistant coating such
as flame-sprayed molybdenum on the periphery and
occasionally on the flanks. The second compression
ring, which is sometimes referred to as the scraper ring,
is designed to assist in limiting upward oil flow in
addition to providing a secondary gas seal. The right
side of Fig. 5 illustrates how the second compression
ring scrapes surplus oil from cylinder walls and how
the ring rides on a film of oil and presents a lower edge
to cylinder wall. Because of these functions, the second
compression ring has a taper-faced, downward scrap-
ing profile that is not normally coated.
The bottom ring in the ring assembly is the oil-
control ring, which has two running faces, or lands,
and a spring element to enhance radial load. As its
name defines, the role of this ring is to limit the
amount of oil transported from the crankcase to the
combustion chamber, and it has no gas sealing ability.
The periphery of the lands and, occasionally, the flanks
are often chromium plated. There are a large number
of configurations in the basic ring design, a good sum-
mary of which may be referenced from the paper
published by Neale [25]. Some practical examples are
the compression ring with tapered sides designed to
prevent ring sticking due to deposit formation in the
piston ring grooves of diesel engines, the internally
stepped compression ring, which imposes a dishing
on the ring when fitted to improve oil control, and
the multi-piece, steel rail, oil-control ring. In contrast
to the one-piece oil-control ring, the multi-piece oil-
control ring has smaller land heights, which increases
conformability to the cylinder wall, and hence oil con-
trol, with reduced spring force.
The piston ring is the most complicated tribological
component in the internal combustion engine to ana-
lyze because of large variations of load, speed, tem-
perature and lubricant availability. In one single stroke
of the piston, the piston ring interface with the cylinder
wall may experience boundary, mixed and full fluid
film lubrication [30]. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication
of piston rings is also feasible in both gasoline and
 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
diesel engines on the highly loaded expansion stroke
after firing. A typical prediction from a mathematical
model for the cyclic variation of minimum film thick-
ness between a piston ring and cylinder wall, where
zero degrees of crank angle is top dead center firing has
been made by Ruddy et al. [30]. The prediction is
assuming a plentiful supply of lubricant for the top
compression ring of a four-stroke gasoline engine. In
this case, the combined surface roughness of the piston
ring and cylinder wall was approximately 0.1 lm. The
solution exhibits a characteristic curve with small film
thickness around the dead center positions where the
sliding velocity and lubricant entrainment velocity are
low. In his analysis, a large film thickness was observed
at the mid-stroke positions where the sliding and
entrainment velocities are large. During the engine
cycle the piston itself exhibits a complex secondary
motion, transverse movement toward the cylinder wall
and tilting about the main piston pin axis [20]. This
movement results in fluid film or mixed lubrication
between the piston skirt and the cylinder wall. Modern,
light-weight pistons have skirts that may deflect elasti-
cally during interaction with the cylinder wall, leading
to the application of elastohydrodynamic lubrication
theory to these components [27,28]. Frictional losses
between the skirt and the cylinder wall are significant,
estimating for about 30% of total piston assembly fric-
tion. The piston skirt interaction with the cylinder wall
can lead to noise generation, so-called piston slap.
Gray cast iron, malleable/nodular iron and car-
bides/malleable iron are the most common base mate-
rials for all types of compression piston rings and
single piece oil-control rings. However, steel is getting
popular as a piston ring material due to its high
strength and fatigue properties. Steel is used for top
compression rings and the rails of multi-piece oil con-
trol rings. There are a variety of surface treatments and
coatings for piston ring running-in processes. Chro-
mium plating and flame sprayed molybdenum are the
most common wear resistant coatings, although plasma
sprayed molybdenum, metal matrix composites, cer-
mets and ceramics are getting their popularity as their
technology progresses.
Cylinder bores are generally manufactured from gray
cast iron, either plain or with the addition of alloying
elements or an aluminum alloy. The surface treatment
and coating of cylinder walls is less common than with
piston rings in industry but a lot of wear resistant coat-
ings such as Nikasil plating or thermal sprayed coat-
ings [38] are applied to aluminum bores.
Aluminum–silicon alloy is the major material used
for automotive pistons, with additions of other ele-
ments to enhance particular properties, e.g. copper to
increase fatigue strength. Piston skirt coatings, based
on materials such as polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE), or
graphite, are applied. In contrast to piston ring and
521
cylinder liner coatings, piston skirt coatings are gener-
ally intended to reduce friction rather than wear.
Controlling friction and wear of the piston assembly
is crucial to successful engine performance as shown in
Fig. 6. Several research opportunities in piston ring/
cylinder bore contact can be explored by investigating
low friction coatings, wear resistant coatings for alumi-
num bores, surface texture control, and better surface
finish or treatments. Manufacturers have come to rely
upon early life wear of the piston rings and cylinder
wall to modify the profile and roughness of the inter-
acting surfaces to achieve acceptable performance as
part of the running-in process. However, a clear under-
standing of the complex interactions between lubri-
cation and wear of these components is important for
lubrication engineers. In addition to wear as a conse-
quence of mechanical interactions, corrosive wear may
occur in the upper cylinder region during short-trip
service in a winter climate.
Manufactured surface finish of piston rings and
cylinders can have a major influence on wear behavior
and thereby the success or failure of an engine. Despite
of a wide range of surface finishing techniques has
evolved for both piston rings and cylinder liners, the
objectives of these processes appear to be the same: to
improve oil retention at or within the surface, to mini-
mize scuffing and to promote ring profile formation
during the running-in period. Plain cast iron piston
rings are often used in a fine turned condition and elec-
troplated; flame sprayed and plasma sprayed rings are
generally ground to the desired finish. The poor wet-
ability by oil of chromium plated piston rings can be
overcome by etching a network of cracks and pores
into the surface by reversing the plating current, chemi-
cal etching, grit blasting, lapping or depositing the
plate over a surface with fine turned circumferential
grooves. Cylinder bores can be honed with ceramic
stones, diamond hones, rubber tools, cork tools or
composite stones of cork or diamond. Piston skirt tex-
tures using a turned finish have been proved to give
outstanding fuel economy and reduced risk of scuffing.
Fig. 6. Research opportunities for improving friction and wear
reduction in an engine design.
522 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
2.1.5. Valve train
A modern valve train system should include valves,
valve springs, valve spring retainers, valve keys, rocker
arms, piston rods, lifter/tappets, and a camshaft, as
shown in Figs. 7 & 8. The major function of the valve
train system is to transform rotary camshaft motion
into linear valve motion in order to control fluid flow
into and out of the combustion chamber. The second-
ary function is to drive ancillary devices such as dis-
tributors, fuel pumps, water pumps and power steering
pumps. Many different styles of valve train mechanisms
have been used on engines. Three basic valve train sys-
tems are (1) poppet valve; (2) sleeve valve; and (3)
Fig. 7. Valvetrain system.
Fig. 8. Cross-section through a V6 engine with a valvetrain mech-
anism of center pivot rocker arm or center pivot rocker with a lifter.
rotary valve. In a valve train system, the poppet valve
configuration is the most popular and is used by vir-
tually all the major automobile manufacturers for the
inlet and exhaust valves of reciprocating internal com-
bustion engines. A cam driven from the crankshaft to
ensure synchronization of the valve motion with the
combustion cycle and piston movement invariably con-
trols the opening and closing of the valves. Common
mechanisms are generally classified and referred to
throughout the automotive industry as Type 1 through
Type 5 [26]. The basic mechanisms for Type 1 through
Type 5 include the following: (1) direct acting bucket
valve train; (2) end pivot valve train; (3) center pivot;
(4) center pivot with cam follower; (5) overhead (OHV)
pushrod. These types may be designed using either
roller or sliding friction at each contact interface. How-
ever, there is a large range of mechanisms in use to
transmit the motion of the cam to the valve. These
include push-rod operated, center-pivoted rocker, fin-
ger follower, direct acting bucket follower, and roller
follower. Other designs such as rotary or sleeve valves
have proved difficult to lubricate, cause excessive oil
consumption, have poor sealing properties and gener-
ate excessive friction.
A comparison of the friction, effective mass or valve
weight, maximum engine speed, and overall engine
package among these different types of valve train sys-
tems is shown in Table 1. Friction also plays an impor-
tant role in valve train type selection. The best
configuration is roller follower, which can significantly
reduce valve train friction. This is because the coef-
ficient of friction at the camshaft/follower interface is
less by an order of magnitude for rolling compared to
sliding friction. The direct acting system has poor fric-
tional characteristics because it is not equipped with
roller followers. The most important characteristics for
friction control of rollers are a function of the lowest
mass, least number of components, and the lowest
number of friction interfaces. The friction associated
with the valve train is generally considered to be a
small component of the mechanical losses, typically
10% compared to the 50% linked to the piston assem-
blies. However, valve train friction is seen to rise sig-
nificantly to 20%–25% at low engine speeds and for
larger, slower running engines associated with the pres-
tige car market. To introduce friction modifier addi-
tives such as molybdenum dithiocarbamate (MoDTC)
into the engine oil has been one of the main drivers
behind which strive to reduce boundary friction [19].
The valve train presents a wide spectrum of potential
problems to the tribologist in relation to the cam and
follower, valve guides, valve stem seals, valve seats,
hydraulic lash adjusters, lifter guides, pivots, camshaft
bearings, belt drives and chain drives. The most critical
interface in the valve train is that between the cam and
follower, a contact that has proved difficult to lubricate
 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
Table 1
Comparison of effective mass, engine speed. Friction, and overall engine package among these five types of valvetrain systems
Direct acting End pivot
rocker arm
Effective mass valve 140–160 80–120
weight (gr.)
Maximum RPM 6500++ 6500++
Friction (A–E) E A
Overall engine package D–E D–E
(A–E)
A, best; E, worst.
effectively with all designs of valve train. Traditional
design philosophy assumed that the cam and follower
operated entirely in the boundary lubrication regime.
Therefore a lot of attentions have been limited to the
materials and surface treatments of the components
and the lubricant additives intended to produce wear
resistant surface films by chemical reaction, e.g. zinc
dialkyl dithiophosphates (ZDDP or ZDTP). Tribologi-
cal investigations over the last 20 years or so, however,
have shown that mixed and elastohydrodynamic lubri-
cation have a significant role to play in the tribological
performance of cams and followers [31,35].
The most popular materials for cams and followers
are irons and steels with a variety of metallurgies and
surface treatments to assist running-in and prevent
early life failure. Ceramic followers are, however,
becoming more common, especially in direct acting
valve trains, in an attempt to reduce frictional losses
[9].
Wear has been a problem with cams and followers
for many years, especially with finger follower config-
urations. Recent technology advances in our under-
standing of the link between kinematics, lubrication
and wear of valve trains are now helping to overcome
these difficulties [2], as is the trend toward direct acting
and roller follower systems. The failure modes of cams
and followers are pitting, polishing and scuffing, all of
which are influenced by materials, lubrication, design
and operating conditions. The durability and type of
failure can vary considerably depending on the combi-
nation of materials chosen, their surface treatment and
the lubricant and its additive package. Wear is also a
persistent problem at the valve seat interface; the valve
‘recesses’ into the seat and results in loss of engine tim-
ing. Loading is from a combination of the dynamic
closing of the valve under cam action and the appli-
cation of the firing pressure on the closed valve face,
and therefore the seat is subjected to both high static
and dynamic stresses. Temperatures in the region of
v
the valve are high (typically 300–500 C), and lubri-
cation tends to be from small quantities of oil that flow
past the valve guide. The valve may be allowed to
rotate (usually slowly at about one to two revolutions
523
Center pivot Center pivot rocker Push rod
rocker arm arm with lifter
120–160 130–170 240–290
6000+ 6000+ 4000–6000
B C–D C–D
B C A
per minute) under the action of the cam on the bucket.
To reduce wear an insert of hardened steel is shrunk fit
into the head. Valve and seat materials should have
high strength, wear resistance, high temperature stab-
ility, and corrosion resistance. In general, inlet valves
are made from hardened low alloy martensitic steel for
good wear resistance and strength. The exhaust valves
are subjected to higher temperatures and are often
made from precipitation-hardened, austenitic stainless
steel for corrosion resistance and hot hardness. The
valve seats are made from cast or sintered high carbon
steel. In some high performance engines, the seat is
formed by the induction hardening of the cylinder head
material.
2.2. Transmission and drive line
2.2.1. Transmission
The tribological characteristics of the transmission
clutch and band are crucial because they control trans-
mission shift performance and clutch and band dura-
bility. From a tribological standpoint, an automatic
transmission clutch consists of two basic elements: the
friction lined clutch plates and the steel reaction plates.
The clutch plate assembly consists of three major com-
ponents: a steel core, an adhesive coating, and the fric-
tion facings.
In most US automotive clutches, the steel core is a
part onto which the friction facings are bonded. The
core is blanked from medium carbon steel with a
Rockwell C hardness of 24 minimum. The core hard-
ness ensures maximum tooth contact area. The mini-
mum compressive load requirement can reduce the
potential for wear or fretting on both spline surfaces.
The friction facing is bonded to one or both sides of
the steel core with an adhesive. The adhesive, a ther-
mosetting organic resin, is selected to withstand high
shear forces and a wide range of operating tempera-
tures. The friction material must have the required fric-
tion characteristics for effective engagement, a pleasing
(to the customers) shifting of gears and durability. It
also must withstand a broad range of operating tem-
peratures as well as high shear forces and compressive
loads. Friction material is produced from a variety of
524 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
Fig. 9. Transmission torque converter clutch assembly.
fibers, particle fillers, and friction modifiers. These
materials, with properly blended composition, can pro-
vide the necessary material strength, bulk uniformity
for successful manufacturing, as well as provide a heat
resistant material with the required friction properties.
The porosity of the friction material allows the trans-
mission fluid to be stored near the friction interface as
a lubricant reservoir, and the resilience of the friction
material permits it to conform to transmission mating
surfaces.
In automatic transmissions such as shown in Fig. 9,
multiple plate clutches, band clutches, and the torque
converter clutches are used either to transmit torque or
to restrain a reaction member from rotating. The func-
tion of an automatic transmission clutch and band is to
serve as a lubricated brake, e.g., for a planetary gear
element, to transmit torque between transmission ele-
ments and the torque converter pump (input) and tur-
bine (output). Dynamic and static band and clutch
friction torque levels, and the difference between static
and dynamic friction torque are important clutch per-
formance criteria. They are closely dependent upon
transmission fluid characteristics. The transmission
fluid can have a deep impact on shift-feel, chatter, sta-
tic holding capacity, and the friction interaction
between the transmission fluid and clutch material.
All automatic transmission fluids recommended by
vehicle manufacturers are formulated using a base
stock plus a variety of additives, including friction-
modifying additives to produce the desired transmission
operation. Friction characteristics of the friction modi-
fiers are described. Clutch friction characteristics for a
base stock containing no friction-modifying additives
are undesirable. Although a high static coefficient of
friction is desirable for good clutch holding capacity,
smooth engagement is difficult to achieve when static
friction is greater than dynamic friction. As the clutch
engagement approaches lock up (decreasing sliding
speed) with such friction characteristics, the increasing
coefficient of friction tends to produce unstable stick-
slip action between the rubbing surfaces and create
abrupt and harsh clutch lock-ups. If these undesirable
friction characteristics are too severe, shift-feel can be
unsatisfactory to the vehicle’s passengers. Objectionable
shift-feel is a major cause of customer complaints about
vehicle/transmission performance. The most desirable
friction characteristics [41] for smooth clutch engage-
ment are those described by a low static friction coef-
ficient and followed by a high and stable dynamic
friction coefficient [33]. High dynamic friction promotes
a rapid clutch engagement, and static friction that is
lower than dynamic friction provides a smooth tran-
sition to clutch lock-up. However, the static friction
coefficient must be high enough to provide good static
clutch torque holding capacity. Friction modifier addi-
tives can produce low static and high stable friction
characteristics. Clutch torque capacity is reduced under
both dynamic and static conditions [33].
During clutch engagement, the amount of clutch
energy dissipated can affect both transmission fluid and
clutch friction material life. In a transmission power
shifting clutch or band, torque capacity must be great
enough to produce a rapid clutch or band engagement.
Otherwise, the energy dissipated as heat can produce
clutch surface temperatures that contribute to the
deterioration of both clutch materials and transmission
fluids. Typical clutch surface temperatures have been
v
measured and found to be on the order of 95 C above
sump fluid temperatures for wide-open-throttle con-
ditions [33]. A good transmission fluid can help the
transmission clutch to shift satisfactorily and provide a
long clutch life. If an excessive clutch slippage results
from an inability of the clutch to transmit sufficient
torque to lock up the clutch in a reasonable time, the
transmission will lose its function. If the energy can
produce dynamic torques higher than the clutch can
transmit, the clutch will not lock up, and the resulting
energy will be so high that cellulose clutch materials
are likely to burn or char. Such deterioration can occur
in only a few severe clutch engagements. A surface
v
temperature as high as 230 C above sump temperature
has been reported for automatic transmission power
shifts [33]. High clutch surface temperatures will
deteriorate clutch durability due to severe energy dissi-
pation.
In summary, clutch and band friction characteristics,
transmission fluid viscosity, fluid oxidation, fluid shear
stability, and wear properties of friction materials all
play a crucial role in the overall performance and dura-
bility of the transmission. Because of the important
characteristics of automatic transmission fluids in con-
trolling transmission shift performance and long-term
durability, the requirements for transmission fluid are
described in greater detail in the section on automotive
lubricants.
2.2.2. Traction drive
The development of the CVT by vehicle manu-
facturers has increased dramatically to take advantage
 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
Fig. 10. Diagrams for the typical 4 speed automatic transmission
and the generic CVT design.
of the fuel economy and better drivability benefits that
can be achieved with traction drive components. An
advantage of the traction CVT [14] compared with the
current automatic transmission is that it can replace
gears, clutches, bands, etc., with ‘‘a variator’’, permit-
ting a smooth and continuous ratio change over the
entire range of operation as shown in Fig. 10. A unique
advantage of the CVT is that it allows an engine to
operate over a range of speeds and loads independent
of the torque requirements that are placed on the
wheels by the vehicle and the driver [11]. Traction drive
CVT was applied to vehicles in the 1930s and was star-
ted by the Toric transmission [15]. Three basic types of
commercial CVTs [18] have been developed as shown
in Fig. 11, as follows: (1) belt (steel, fabric, push, and
pulley type) [42]; (2) chain type, (3) half or full toroidal
traction. The two commercial CVTs (belt-pulley and
chain) are the most common CVT drive units. Pro-
duction vehicles equipped with steel belt-pulley CVTs
have been in the automotive market for more than 10
years. However, the full potential for reduction of fuel
consumption could not be realized until the fully inte-
grated electronic control system became available. The
belt-pulley CVT relies on a metal link belt developed
by Van Doorne’s transmission and is typically limited
to use with engines of 2.0 liter displacement or smaller
[13]. Around 1990, a full toroidal traction drive device
as shown in Fig. 12 was developed to supplement the
belt-pulley type because of the traction drive’s ability
to handle larger engines. The toroidal traction drive
provides better mechanical efficiency because of a very
Fig. 11. Belt and chain continuously variable transmission (CVT)
systems.
525
Fig. 12. Traction CVT design concepts.
efficient rolling motion that operates in the elastohy-
drodynamic regime [7].
The current traction drive transmission transmits
power through a rolling contact via forces that are var-
ied with the radius at which the traction force is
applied. Thus, power is transmitted in a continuous
manner. This concept relies on two rolling elements
that place a thin film of lubricant into an extreme
shearing condition. The thin film between the two roll-
ing bodies experiences high load and extreme shearing
force, which produces complex elastohydrodynamic
phenomena. The viscosity of the traction fluid increases
significantly as a consequence of the high pressure, and
the fluid becomes almost glass-like. The tangential
force that is transmitted between the driving and driven
elements is greatly enhanced by the traction fluid. The
surface contact area between the two rolling elements is
a finite area whose orthographic projection is an ellipse
[18]. Within the ellipse, fluid is trapped between the
rollers and is subjected to high compressive stresses of
0.7–3.5 GPa (100,000–500,000 psi). These stresses
increase the instantaneous viscosity of the fluid by sev-
eral orders of magnitude. This semi-solid lubricant can
then transmit torque through the drive.
Basic research was conducted with application to dif-
ferent traction drive units [11]. However, a traction
drive CVT was not applied in practical use until 1990
due to three major barriers [21]:
. The traction drive rolling element materials were not
sufficiently reliable due to high temperature and high
pressure at the traction contact point.
. There were no bearings that could support high
speed and large axial load.
. There were no traction fluids that could meet all
traction component requirements.
A traction drive requires not only higher traction
coefficient to meet power transmission requirements
but also better lubrication and hydraulic lubricity
requirements. Traction elements are generally made of
526 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
materials similar to those used for ball or roller bear-
ings for which the surface must withstand high loading
and long duty cycles. This requirement also demands
hardened steel or hardened materials for the contact
surfaces. Since the traction drive operates at high
speeds, it therefore provides high input and output
ratios. Advanced tribological materials in the rolling
element have made the life of the traction contact point
long enough for use in high power automotive trans-
missions.
The efficiency of the traction drive depends greatly
on the lubricant that is used. A high traction coefficient
is required even at high contact temperatures. The
temperature of a typical traction drive can rise to over
v
140 C. Besides the traction requirements at high tem-
peratures, traction fluids must not deteriorate when
subjected to repeated shear or oxidation conditions. It
has been indicated by traction fluid researchers
([10,36]) that naphthenic base compounds and several
types of synthetic fluids have better traction character-
istics than paraffinic or aromatic compounds. Research
on traction fluids has also indicated that naphthenic
compounds provide a higher rotational barrier and
stronger molecular stiffness compared to paraffinic or
aromatic compounds [21]. Other variables affecting
traction properties include rolling speeds, lubricant
temperature range, quality of the roller surface finish,
Hertzian contact pressure, degree of spinning, and the
geometry of the rolling bodies. A substantial amount
of CVT research is focused on traction fluid formu-
lation and evaluation to determine whether the fluid
can meet traction drive system performance require-
ments. Future research will be focused on traction fluid
formulation to optimize overall system performance
and to apply the traction fluids to more automotive
applications.
2.2.3. Universal and constant velocity joints
Universal joints and constant velocity joints [26] are
used to transmit power from the main driveshaft to the
vehicle’s wheels). There are several different designs for
joints. All have the ability to transmit power between
two shafts with some degree of axial misalignment. The
joints may be of the fixed or plunging type. The plung-
ing type incorporates a spline coupling to allow axial
approach of the shafts. Typically the joints consist of
an array of rolling elements held by a retaining cage
between two raceways. The whole assembly is packed
with grease and sealed inside a rubber boot.
The contacts within the joint are between the rolling
elements (balls, needles, or rollers), the raceway
grooves and the cage. The rolling elements are usually
made from high carbon steel which is through har-
dened. The raceways are made from medium carbon
steel, and the load bearing areas are induction har-
dened or carburized. When the shafts are aligned, the
rolling elements are stationary. When the shafts are
misaligned, the rolling elements undergo a low oscil-
lation reciprocating motion. The load on the ball race
contact is high, and the entrainment velocity is low.
Since the surfaces tend to be relatively rough, bound-
ary lubrication is the dominant lubrication regime.
In general, the most common failure mode in the
field is by damage to the boot. This results in loss of
lubricating grease and failure by gross damage to the
joint components. However, contact fatigue is also
observed. Cracks can initiate at the surface and propa-
gate to form spalls in the near surface region. Extended
use of the joint will result in wear of the balls and race-
ways leading to loss of dimensional accuracy.
2.2.4. Wheel bearings
Traditional rolling element bearings are commonly
used in the wheel hubs. These standard manufactured
components are hardened high carbon steel, machined
and ground to a high tolerance and surface finish. In
general deep groove bearings or a back-to-back angu-
lar contact bearing assembly are used. The bearings are
packed with grease on assembly and sealed with elasto-
meric lip seals. The most common wheel bearing failure
mode is by damage to the surface caused during incor-
rect fitting or following impact during operation (the
wheel striking a curb). The surface damage can gener-
ate an initiation site for rolling contact fatigue failure
to propagate.
2.2.5. Drive chains
Some automotive engine designs use chain drives for
timing and driving ancillary components. Chains have
the advantage of a high capacity, increased durability,
and are relatively cheap and simple. The basic compo-
nents of a chain drive are the chain, sprockets, chain
guides, and tensioners. There are two main types of
drive chain: the roller chains consist of link plates with
a pin, bush, and roller assembly; silent chains consist of
an array of shaped link plates and pivot pins. The
chain is lubricated by two means, firstly by splash as it
dips into the sump during its travel and secondly
through jets which impinge onto the sprocket/chain
entry.
The rollers in the case of a roller chain, and the link
plates in the case of a silent chain, locate in the teeth of
the sprockets. In the roller chain the pin slides inside
the bush during articulation, while the roller rolls
across the sprocket tooth. The pin bush contact can
therefore undergo excessive wear causing chain elonga-
tion. For this reason the pins and bushes are usually
case hardened and ground smooth, while the link
plates are usually unhardened steel. With silent chain
the link plate slides across the sprocket tooth; this can
result in wear of the link plate surface.
 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
The chain drive is subjected to dynamic loading.
Chain guides and tensioners are incorporated to reduce
the associated vibration. The guides are generally made
of a polymer (typically Nylon 66) and either bolted in
place or loaded against the chain by a spring or
hydraulic tensioner. The chain tension and impact
forces between the chain and guides can result in wear
of the guide faces. Wear debris or dust in engine oil
can become embedded in a polymeric tensioner and
can act as an abrasive agent on the timing chain. Fuel
components or fuel reaction products may enter engine
oil and may soften a polymeric tensioner. Wear occurs
on the guide face where it contacts the link plate edge,
forming ‘tramlines’. In some cases, this continues until
the grooves formed are deep enough that the rollers
make contact with the guide; the load is then dis-
tributed to a greater extent and wear is reduced.
2.3. Future development trends
2.3.1. Automotive tribology
Future recommendations for automotive tribology
development and desirable areas for future develop-
ment trends including advanced technical development,
and research goals related to fuel efficiency, emissions,
durability, and profitability of powertrain systems are
as follows:
Fig. 13. Powertrain components and applications for minimizing total energy power loss, achieving fuel efficiency, and engine reliability are
closely related to friction and wear issues.
527
. Develop a quantitative understanding of failure
mechanisms such as wear, scuffing, and fatigue. This
is important both for developing improved compu-
tational design codes and for developing bench tests
to predict accurately and reliably the tribological
behavior of full-scale automotive components.
. Develop a variety of affordable surface modification
technologies [39] that are suitable for various vehicle
components that are used with different fuels or
lubricants under a variety of operating conditions.
. Develop a better understanding of the chemistry of
lubricants and how additives affect the interactions
between lubricants and rubbing surfaces. This will
provide a foundation for developing new lubricants
that will be longer-lasting, environmentally friendly,
capable of handling increased soot and acid loading
from EGR (exhaust gas recirculation), compatible
with catalysts, and compatible with new, light-
weight non-ferrous materials.
Stringent federal legislation calling for better fuel
economy and reduced emissions is the driving force for
improved fuel efficiency and development of new
engine technology. Among the various approaches for
improving fuel efficiency as shown in Fig. 13, the use of
energy conserving engine oil is the most economic way
in the automotive industry to acquire the necessary
gains, compared to complicated hardware changes [38].
528 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536

In addition, design and legislative pressures for cleaner,

more efficient engines with higher specific power out-
puts is forcing tribological engine components to be
operated with generally thinner oil films. One notable
trend is the move toward lower viscosity engine oils,
e.g. SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) 5W-20 and
0W-20, in an effort to improve fuel economy. While
this helps to reduce friction losses, it also leads to
potential durability problems and a more critical role
for the surface topography of engine components [29].
In addition, there is a drive to extend engine service
intervals. The engine has therefore to withstand an
increasingly contaminated and degraded lubricant.
The ability to incorporate more and more aspects of
the physical behavior of lubricants into analytical mod-
eling is an important and a fast developing field [5].
Uppermost in this regard are the reduction in viscosity
at high shear rate, particularly with polymer-containing
multi-grade lubricants, the rise in viscosity at elevated
pressure and the boundary friction and wear behavior
in the mixed and boundary lubrication regimes. Models
of the rate of degradation of oil additives are also
becoming available. One of the biggest challenges
facing the engine tribology community is to make an
effective link between the physical tribology of the
components [40] and the complex chemical behavior
and degradation of engine lubricants, both in the bulk
fluid [17,23] and at the surface [19]. The engine oils are
expected to last longer and simultaneously reduce
engine losses.
2.3.2. Light-weight materials development
Industrial researchers are developing light-weight
materials such as non-ferrous materials (Al, Mg) for
engine and drivetrain materials to replace the current
heavy-weight cast iron blocks. Over the last few years
many automotive applications were focused on thermal
sprayed aluminum liners, or metal-matrix composites
to replace cast iron blocks [38–40]. However, the cur-
rent automotive engine lubricant formulations are
designed for cast iron blocks, not for aluminum blocks.
Based on several bench and engine test results [38,39],
aluminum blocks have poor wear resistance. The cur-
rent aluminum surface or coatings are not compatible
with engine oil formulation. The aluminum cylinder
bores require cast iron sleeves inside the cylinder bores.
These are expensive to manufacture, however. At
Fig. 14. Comparison of density of materials.
present, researchers are developing wear and scuffing
resistant coatings on piston skirts or aluminum cylin-
der bores for alternatives. In addition, a new class of
amorphous carbon coatings with exceptional low fric-
tion and wear properties was developed for reducing
wear and improving durability of engine components
(Erdemir et al. 2000, 2001).
Light-weight materials have been widely used in
vehicles. Vehicle weight has been dramatically reduced
in recent years as shown in Figs. 14 and 15. In North
American vehicles including those produced by the big
three the aluminum and magnesium content has
increased in the last few years. General Motors has the
highest Al and Mg content in vehicles. In addition, the
density of light-weight materials is always a big con-
cern for material strength. The general trend is as
shown in Fig. 15, which illustrates the lower density
associated with the light-weight materials. Recent
industrial developments include high strength and high
density of composite materials, high volume liquid
molding and hydroforming technology, structural
adhesive boding, and the ability to mold large structur-
al components. Researchers have also developed pro-
cessing improvements for forming more complex
stamped aluminum parts or panels, more robust
stamping, and improved casting techniques. Recently,
USCAR participants are developing light-weight Al
and Mg materials for auto parts and car bodies. Over
the years, several industrial-academic consortia have
been formed to develop new generation vehicles utiliz-
ing advanced powertrains, lighter, stronger materials,
and environmentally friendly lubricants.

Fig. 15. Trends of average vehicle weight in pounds.

 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
2.3.3. Nanotribology development and industrial needs
The automotive components in lubricated contacts,
as the component scale moves from macro to micro to
nano, are dominated by surface adhesion forces that
normally are not well-understood by mechanical
means. Therefore, nanolubrication needs to be taken
into account to determine unique mechanisms which
are different from those in conventional lubrication.
Recently, Stephen Hsu of NIST organized a nano-
tribology workshop to discuss this nanotribology
approach and compare this new concept with the tra-
ditional lubrication methods [16]. In addition, several
researchers have proposed various nanometer scale
lubricating film designs as a means to control the
properties of surfaces at nano/micro scales. As the
scale of the device becomes smaller and smaller,
the need to lubricate and protect the surfaces of such
components increases. The authors also conducted a
literature search in an effort to identify the industrial
needs for nanotribology or nanolubrication technology
development. The following needs were identified:
1 Nanostructured materials ‘‘by design’’ with stronger,
harder, self-repairing, and safer characteristics:
. Structural carbon and ceramic materials 10 times
stronger than conventional steel.
. Polymer materials three times stronger than con-
ventional materials and which will not melt above
v
100 C.
. Multi-functional materials to reduce friction,
wear, and corrosion.
. Addition of nanoparticles to convert aluminum
alloys to wear and scuffing resistant materials.
. Nanocoatings on metallic surfaces to achieve
super-hardening, and low friction.
. Nanoparticle-reinforced materials that can replace
metallic components in cars.
. Models/simulations incorporating multi-scale
computation and leading to materials by design.
2 For efficient energy conversion and storage
. Catalysts for fuel cells, such as zeolites with pore
sizes in the nanometer range, which can serve to
more efficiently break down or crack large hydro-
carbon molecules to form gasoline or synthetic
lubricants.
. Thermoelectric energy-conversion devices and
hydrogen storage devices for future fuel cells.
2.4. Automotive lubricants
2.4.1. Introduction of automotive lubricants
The lubricant must protect the automotive compo-
nent that it lubricates. In some cases this protection is
in the form of a fluid film that keeps opposing surfaces
529
separated. In other cases, the lubricant provides wear
protection by forming a chemical film on a surface, to
generate boundary lubrication protection. Automotive
lubricants protect against corrosion by virtue of alka-
line agents to neutralize acids that form in hot spots.
The lubricant transports protective chemicals to the
sites where they are needed and transports waste pro-
ducts away from the sites where they are generated.
This diversity of function strongly influences the choice
of chemical composition and physical properties for a
given type of lubricant and dictates that a variety of
lubricants are required to perform the various lubri-
cation functions in a vehicle. That is, different engine
components require substantially different kinds of
protection. Transmission fluid must withstand high tem-
peratures and loads. Engine oil must remain effective
despite the fact that fuel and combustion products can
enter the oil under all driving conditions. In particular,
during short-trip cold-start conditions, fuel and water
may be present in oil at concentrations greater than 5%.
During high temperature operation engine oil must not
evaporate or degrade excessively. Various types of bear-
ings require the presence of a fluid film that separates a
rotating shaft from its opposing bearing surface. Brake
fluid must remain in place and continue to function,
even if the vehicle drives through pouring rain or
encounters puddles of slush on the road.
Under highly loaded, high temperature conditions,
fluid film lubrication may not be sufficient to provide
complete wear protection such as those experienced by
piston rings at the top of the cylinder under the influ-
ence of the burning fuel. In such cases, the lubricant
must contain additives that interact with rubbing sur-
faces to form antiwear films. These chemical films form
on hot iron surfaces during vehicle operation as long as
the lubricant has not degraded excessively. However,
these chemical films may be partially scraped away
during severe engine service. Once the additives that
provide this chemical film (typically, zinc dialkyl
dithiophosphate, ZDP, and other antioxidant/antiwear
agents) are sufficiently degraded, the engine oil needs to
be changed, otherwise engine wear will accelerate dur-
ing use.
Automotive lubricants must also inhibit corrosion in
addition to providing a fluid film and a chemical sur-
face film, since partially burned fuel can be acidic.
Engine oil itself, when exposed to hot spots in the pres-
ence of oxygen, can form acids that promote engine
corrosion, especially if the oil’s alkaline anticorrosion
additives have been degraded as a consequence of
extended use without an oil change.
A lubricant typically reduces friction, but in some
cases an automotive lubricant is designed to provide a
desired amount of traction, as is the case with traction
fluids in some CVTs as described earlier. Traction
530 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
fluids have a chemical structure that, under stress,
forms a three-dimensional network that resists flow.
A mixture of lubricant and air-conditioning fluid
must have sufficient lubricating properties to protect
the air-conditioning pump, but the fluid/lubricant com-
bination must not become aggressive to hoses or to
other materials in the air-conditioning system.
These examples illustrate the complexity of the issues
that must be addressed when attempting to provide
adequate automotive lubrication. In some cases, stan-
dard test methods document whether a lubricant pro-
vides appropriate protection to the hardware. In other
cases, vehicle, component, or lubricant manufacturers
designate the lubricant that, in their estimation, best
fits a given application.
2.4.2. Standard test methods for automotive lubricants
A variety of standard tests are needed to guarantee
that a given automotive lubricant performs as it
should. Those tests include: engine tests that mimic
various driving styles under a variety of test conditions,
physical and chemical characterization of the lubricant,
corrosivity of a used lubricant, wear protection pro-
vided by the lubricant, and remaining effectiveness of
the lubricant’s additive package. Additional desired
information with regard to lubricant characterization
includes: tendency to form deposits, extent of oil oxi-
dation, fuel efficiency, and emission system protection
(including limits on phosphorus in engine oil, since
phosphorus can adversely affect catalyst performance).
For some lubrication functions, standard test methods
are available to ensure that the various products in the
marketplace provide the desired protection. For other
lubrication functions, there are no standard tests, but a
vehicle manufacturer may require that the lubricant of
choice must pass the manufacturer’s (or some other)
designated tests [32].
Each different type of automotive lubricant has its
own unique test methods that address the issues rel-
evant to the service needs of that particular lubricant.
For example, engine tests are used to determine whe-
ther a new candidate engine oil formulation meets cur-
rent certification requirements. Bench tests can often be
used to indicate whether certain fundamental lubricant
properties are within a desired range (for example, tests
for viscosity, pour point, volatility, shear stability, wear
rate, wear depth, wear mechanism, etc.). Chemical and
physical tests measure the composition and properties
of a lubricant, the changes that occur as the lubricant
ages, and the characteristics of any contaminants or
wear debris that may have entered the lubricant.
The following sections describe major issues relative
to various types of automotive lubricants and the test
methods that have been developed to address those
issues [32,37].
2.4.3. Automotive engine oils
2.4.3.1. Introduction. One of the most difficult chal-
lenges facing automobile and lubricant manufacturers
is to identifying appropriate test methods for represent-
ing evaluation of engine oils. The reason for the dif-
ficulty is not because of any inherent characteristics of
engine oil. The challenges in the development of engine
oil arise because the environment in which engine oils
must operate is particularly harsh. Combustion gases,
fuel and water in the oil, and outside contaminants
(dirt, sand, other airborne materials) accelerate oil
degradation, cause unique filtration problems, and
result in much shorter change intervals compared to
other typical automotive lubricants. Engine oil proper-
ties and composition also influence vehicle fuel econ-
omy (as is the case for transmission fluids and rear axle
lubricants), and engine oil even influences vehicle emis-
sions, as a consequence of emission system contami-
nation and catalyst poisoning effects.
A lot of attention has been focused on lubricant
properties and performance tests in the technical litera-
ture as well as in the standard test-development arena.
The following discussions describe engine oil perform-
ance designations (from both a historical and a current
perspective) and standard test methods for evaluating
engine oil performance, including both engine and
bench tests. The discussions are limited primarily to
performance designations and associated test methods
commonly used in North America.
2.4.3.2. Engine oil performance designations—past and
present. Many organizations have contributed to the
development of engine oil performance standards
over the years. Among these organizations is the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
the American Petroleum Institute (API), the Engine
Manufacturers Association (EMA), the Coordinating
European Council (CEC), the Japan Automobile Man-
ufacturers Association (JAMA), and the International
Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee
(ILSAC). ILSAC includes automotive and engine
builders JAMA, EMA, and the former American
Automobile Manufacturers Association (AAMA,
whose members were General Motors, Ford, and
Chrysler). When AAMA was dissolved in 1999, it was
replaced by a new organization—the Alliance of Auto-
mobile Manufacturers (the Alliance), which includes
the former members of AAMA plus six other manu-
facturers. The Alliance, however, is not actively
involved in development of automotive lubricant stan-
dards.
The designation of engine oil on the basis of per-
formance began in 1947. Prior to that time, oils were
differentiated only on the basis of viscosity. In 1947,
API (American Petroleum Institute) adopted a classi-
fication system based on the intended use of the oil.
 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
Three types of oil were defined: regular (termed ML),
Premium (MM), and Heavy Duty (MS). Regular oils
generally were straight mineral oils, Premium oils con-
tained some oxidation inhibitor (but no other perform-
ance additives), and Heavy Duty oils were blended
with oxidation inhibitors and detergents/dispersants.
This system was modified in 1952 to create different
performance requirements for diesel oils than those for
gasoline engine oils and to rank the severity of the ser-
vice.
However, many vehicle and engine manufacturers
found it necessary to add additional performance
requirements to ensure adequate protection for their
engines even with the ML, MM, and MS designations
indicating the quality of the engine oil. This led to the
development of lubricants tailored to a given manufac-
turer, and complicated the manner in which engine
manufacturers informed their customers which oils
were currently recommended. Finally in 1969 three
organizations—API (American Petroleum Institute),
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
and SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers, now called
SAE International)—cooperated to establish a per-
formance designation system that is still being used. In
this system, two series of engine oil performance and
service categories were established—the ‘‘S’’ series (for
use with gasoline-fueled, 4-stroke-cycle, spark ignition
engines) and the ‘‘C’’ series (intended for use in com-
pression–ignition diesel engines, both 2-stroke-cycle
and 4-stroke-cycle).
Table 2 shows the evolution of light-duty gasoline
engine oil performance designations. A similar evol-
ution occurred for heavy-duty diesel engine oil per-
formance. A detailed description of the history of both
gasoline and diesel engine oil performance categories
can be found in SAE Standard J183, ‘‘Engine oil per-
formance and engine service classification’’.
The SA through SD designations listed in Table 2
were adopted in 1971 to describe oils which had been
available previously and which were available in 1971.
API category SA was adopted to describe oils generally
Table 2
A brief history of engine oil performance designations
Performance designation Period of use
ML, MM, MS 1950s and later
SA 1900–1930
SB 1931–1964
SC 1964–1967
SD 1968–1971
SE 1972–1979
SF 1980–1988
SG 1988–1992
SH/ILSAC GF-1 1993–1996
SJ/ILSAC GF-2 1996–2001
SL/ILSAC GF-3 2001 and beyond
531
available in North America between 1900 and 1930.
These oils contained no performance additives. Such
oils had previously been designated as ‘‘Regular’’ or
‘‘ML.’’ SA oils can still be found in some retail estab-
lishments that sell quarts of oil for make-up purposes.
API category SB was adopted to describe oils gener-
ally available in North America between 1931 and
1963. These oils were comparable in performance to
oils known as ‘‘Premium’’ or ‘‘MM’’ prior to 1971.
They contained a minimal level of performance addi-
tives. API category SC described oils typically available
between 1964 and 1967 in North America. These oils
were probably the first oils to contain a full range of
performance additives, and were designated ‘‘MS’’
prior to 1971. API category SD described oils of the
performance level generally available in 1971. Although
these oils were also described as ‘‘MS’’ prior to 1971,
they generally contained a higher additive treatment
level than API SC oils. Table 1 shows the historical
development of these engine oil categories.
API ‘‘S’’ categories (SE through SL) were developed
as needs arose for greater engine protection. API SE
oils addressed high temperature engine oil thickening
problems in the field. API SF oils addressed customer
concerns related to engine wear. API SG oils addressed
oxidation and sludge formation concerns which had
arisen in the field. Throughout this period (1972–1992),
automotive engines had undergone tremendous chan-
ges to accommodate increasingly more stringent emis-
sion control requirements, both nationwide and in
California beginning in 1972, and US Corporate Aver-
age Fuel Economy (CAFE) requirements originating in
1978.
The desire of vehicle manufacturers to specify oils
which might help them address these requirements, as
well as their desire to have a greater voice in establish-
ing engine oil performance specifications, led to the
formation of ILSAC (International Lubricant Standar-
dization and Approval Committee) in 1987. Originally
a union between the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers
Association (MVMA) and the Japan Automobile Man-
ufacturers Association (JAMA) for the purposes of
establishing lubricant standards, ILSAC has expanded
to include the EMA. MVMA later became the AAMA,
and subsequently became the Alliance of Automobile
Manufacturers (the Alliance) in 1999. However, only
the original three members of AAMA (General
Motors, Ford, and DaimlerChrysler) retained member-
ship in ILSAC when AAMA was dissolved.
The first ILSAC engine oil standard (ILSAC GF-1)
was published in 1993, as indicated in Table 2. ILSAC
standards apply only to certain viscosity grades,
namely SAE 0W-XX, 5W-XX, and 10W-XX viscosity
grades, in which ‘‘XX’’ represents a viscosity desig-
nation such as 20, 30, 40, etc. ILSAC standards also
include minimum levels of fuel economy performance
532 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
and contain other requirements (most notably a
maximum phosphorus level) to address emission sys-
tem compatibility and other issues. Even though API
categories apply to all viscosity grades and do not
include fuel economy requirements, an ILSAC GF-1
oil is roughly equivalent to an API SH quality oil, but
in addition the GF-1 engine oil also meets require-
ments allowing the GF-1 oil to be classified as energy
conserving. This means that a GF-1 engine oil prob-
ably provides slightly better fuel economy than an
SH-quality engine oil. The ILSAC GF-2 standard is
similar to API SJ, and has somewhat stricter fuel econ-
omy requirements than GF-1 oils. The ILSAC GF-3
standard is similar to API SL, but again, GF-3 oils must
provide better fuel economy than GF-2 engine oils.
The ML, MM and MS Categories, as well as API
SA through API SG, have been declared technically
obsolete by SAE. This was done because many of the
engine tests necessary to demonstrate that oils meet the
performance requirements of these categories cannot be
conducted, since reference fuels, reference oils, and
engine parts for these tests are no longer available.
Because API SH, SJ, and SL oils can be used in appli-
cations in which oils having the earlier designations
were required, SAE made the decision to declare these
earlier categories technically obsolete. API SH, while
not technically obsolete, is generally not used except in
combination with a ‘‘C’’ category, to describe oils
intended for mixed fleet (i.e., diesel and gasoline) ser-
vice. In such cases, the ‘‘C’’ category designation
usually precedes the SH designation.
2.4.3.3. Engine oil performance tests. Beginning with
oils designated as API SB, all of the oil performance
categories described in Table 2 were or are defined by a
series of engine dynamometer performance tests
(usually termed engine sequence tests) and bench tests.
The complete description of each of these performance
categories (both the current categories and those
declared technically obsolete) is provided in SAE Stan-
dard J183, ‘‘engine oil performance and engine service
classification’’. Only the tests used to define the per-
formance categories which became effective in 1996
(API SJ and ILSAC GF-2) and the tests used in the
categories effective in 2001 (API SL and ILSAC GF-3)
are discussed in this section. Some of these tests have
been developed into ASTM Standard test methods;
others are in the process of being developed into
ASTM Standards. It is not a requirement that all tests
used to define an engine performance category be
ASTM Standards. However, those tests which are not
ASTM Standards are usually advanced to ASTM Stan-
dards during the lifetime of a given category. ASTM
Subcommittee D02.B0 on automotive lubricants main-
tains a section devoted exclusively to converting test
methods developed for new lubricant performance
categories into ASTM Standards.
2.4.3.4. Issues addressed in test method development.
Examples of the types of questions that need to be
addressed to ensure that a given engine oil will protect
an engine in various types of service are as follows:
. If the engine is run at high engine speed and high oil
temperature,
– Will the engine oil thicken excessively?
– Will there be sufficient wear protection?
– Will harmful deposits form?
. If the engine is driven in city service, will the oil pro-
vide sufficient sludge protection?
. If the engine is driven in extreme short trips in a
winter climate, will the oil provide adequate cor-
rosion protection when fuel, water, and fuel reaction
products condense in the engine oil?
Each bulleted item in the previous paragraph repre-
sents a different driving style: high temperature high-
load, city service with oil fully warm, and extreme
short trip service in which the engine oil never warms
completely. Each of these driving styles is associated
with a specific ASTM standard test method to ensure
that an engine oil provides sufficient protection for that
particular type of service. An engine oil must pass all
of these tests before its manufacturers are allowed to
display a label indicating that the oil meets current spe-
cifications. Easy freeway driving (an additional driving
style) is not represented in a standard test, since it is
assumed that the tests representing the other driving
styles are sufficient to characterize lubricant properties.
In addition to measuring the effects of different driv-
ing styles, an engine-oil test method must create a test
environment such that changes in the test fluids and
test hardware are generated via the same fundamental
mechanisms as occur under the real-world operating
conditions that the test is designed to emulate. A given
engine test environment should be related to a real-
world driving condition in at least three ways:
. The chemical changes that take place in the test
should be comparable to those that occur in the real
world.
. The materials used in the test should be equivalent
or identical to those in an engine.
. The temperatures and loads of the test should be
appropriate for the type of service being emulated.
For a given test method, a desired chemical environ-
ment is created by utilizing an appropriate fuel (includ-
ing its degradation products) and generating oil
degradation products that are of the same type as those
generated in the driving style of interest. A desired
 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
material environment is created by using engine and
hardware materials that are representative of the
engines that the test method is designed to protect. In
addition, hardware should be chosen for the test
method such that surface reactions (catalytic reactions
and varnish or deposit formation) are chemically similar
to those that are generated in an engine environment. A
desired thermal environment means that test tempera-
tures, even if they are severe, are not so severe that fun-
damental mechanisms of damage have changed.
Creating an appropriate test environment, but also
finding test conditions such that the test does not
require an inordinate amount of test time, is often diffi-
cult to achieve. An example of this difficulty is as fol-
lows. If a lubricant test method is designed to
determine the corrosive effects of fuel degradation pro-
ducts on engine materials, the test must be conducted
at a temperature such that those corrosive fuel reaction
products will not boil off, but will remain in the engine
oil to create corrosive conditions. If a test temperature
differs significantly from operating temperatures, an
investigator must determine whether or not any appar-
ent correlation is accidental. In addition, leaded fuel
typically contains chlorine and bromine compounds
that can contribute to engine corrosion. If leaded fuel
is used in an engine test that simulates a given type of
vehicle operation, but current vehicle operation uses
unleaded fuel, one must determine whether any correla-
tions observed between the leaded-fuel test and real-
world operation are real or accidental and whether the
chemical environment in the engine test simulates that
in the real world. Such correlation is often difficult to
prove.
In other words, chemical, thermal, and material
effects influence the outcome of a test. Therefore, for a
given test method, it is essential to ensure that the
observed chemical, thermal, and material effects are
appropriate and that the test method correlates to cur-
rent real-world conditions. When bench tests are used
in place of engine tests to measure a given performance
parameter, great care must be taken to ensure corre-
lation.
2.4.3.5. Current gasoline engine oil performance cate-
gories and associated ASTM test methods. As of the
year 2002, only four designations are widely used to
describe light-duty, gasoline engine oil performance:
API SJ and SL, and ILSAC GF-2 and GF-3. As stated
previously, the engine test and bench test performance
requirements for API SJ and ILSAC GF-2 are similar
with regard to engine test methods, but in addition
ILSAC GF-2 oils must also meet stricter energy con-
serving II requirements. Similarly, API SL require-
ments as well as energy conserving requirements must
be passed before an engine oil can be designated as
ILSAC GF-3.
533
The appropriate test methods for engine oils must be
conducted in accordance with the requirements out-
lined in the American Chemistry Council (ACC) Pro-
duct Approval Code of Practice. These requirements
include test registration of all tests, use of only cali-
brated equipment and facilities, and guidelines for
acceptable modifications during program development.
These requirements were implemented when API SH
and ILSAC GF-1 designations for engine oil were
adopted in 1993.
2.4.3.6. Current diesel engine oil performance categories
and associated ASTM Standard test methods. When
diesel engines are operated at high temperature, the
viscosity of the engine oil can increase due to oil
oxidation and nitration, evaporation of the lighter ends
of the oil, and accumulation of soot in the oil. As was
the case for gasoline-fueled vehicles, engine oil addi-
tives can degrade during long-term use. In addition,
soot accumulation can adversely affect engine wear by
two fundamentally different mechanisms: by interacting
with and sequestering an engine oil’s antioxidant/
antiwear agent so that the antiwear capability of the
engine oil becomes diminished or by abrading a protec-
tive antiwear film that has formed on heavily loaded
regions of an iron surface. These oil-related concerns
are addressed using various standard tests.
At the time of this writing, there were five active API
diesel engine oil performance categories, designated as
API CF, CF-2, CF-4, CG-4 and CH-4. (Note: a new
category, API CI-4, is in the final stage of approval.)
Each of these categories has at least two engine per-
formance tests which must be conducted to demon-
strate compliance with category requirements. Various
bench-tests are also included. A complete description
of each of these categories, including engine and bench
tests, as well as associated test limits for each require-
ment, is documented in ASTM D 4485, standard speci-
fication for performance of engine oils and in SAE
J183, engine oil performance and service classification.
It is anticipated that these five categories will be
reduced to three: CF-2, CG-4, and CH-4. Thus, CF
and CG-4 will no longer be used. Engine sludge and oil
filter plugging tendency are measured. The engine oil
aeration test (EOAT), mentioned in the CG-4 specifi-
cation, is also conducted.
2.4.4. Transmission fluids
2.4.4.1. Introduction. Composition and performance of
transmission fluids. Transmission fluids lubricate a vehi-
cle’s transmission. They may be composed of synthetic
or mineral oil. Synthetic oil typically shows enhanced
resistance to deterioration from exposure to heat.
However, synthetic and mineral oil both contain addi-
tives that help maintain the desired friction properties,
minimize wear, and provide corrosion inhibition to the
534 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
transmission components. In addition, antioxidant
additives are required to prolong the life of the trans-
mission fluid.
Maintaining stable frictional properties is highly
important, since any change in shift characteristics, or
generation of shudder after prolonged or severe use, is
sure to be noticed by a vehicle owner. To provide the
desired shift properties, one of the additives present in
the oil is typically a long-chain hydrocarbon that has a
polar group on one end. The long chain hydrocarbon
portion permits the additive to dissolve in oil, and the
polar group on the end is attracted to a metal surface
and provides the desired amount of friction. If too
much friction is generated, the transmission may not
shift smoothly. If too little friction occurs, the trans-
mission may slip. Thus, great care must be taken to
ensure that an appropriate additive is chosen for this
important function.
In addition to appropriate friction characteristics, it
is also essential to reduce wear and promote long
transmission life. If suitable antiwear additives are not
present, there will likely be excessive wear of the trans-
mission under harsh operating conditions.
In summary, fluid degradation during prolonged ser-
vice should not be extensive enough to compromise
transmission performance, and wear rates must remain
low so that excessive loss of material does not cause
shift characteristics to deteriorate.
Various standard test methods are available to
ensure sustained transmission performance. Tests for
automatic transmission fluids include measurement of
physical and chemical properties: viscosity, flash point,
pour point, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, fric-
tion characteristics, and resistance to foaming.
Greases provide a great number of highly specialized
functions in an automobile, such as lubrication of door
locks, electrical connections, various types of bearings,
gears, and levers. Greases typically are composed of oil
(synthetic or mineral, representing 70% or more of the
total composition of the grease), a thickening agent,
and various additives to provide wear protection, cor-
rosion protection, and stability. Thus, test methods for
automotive greases focus on such parameters as separ-
ation of the thickener from the oil, oxidation resist-
ance, wear protection, and ability to withstand high
temperature.
. Standard test methods.
. Physical and chemical properties.
. Chemical properties, stability, and contamination.
A number of tests are available to ensure that a
grease has the appropriate composition and that its
properties have not deteriorated excessively during
service.
2.4.5. Gear lubricants
Gears must be designed to withstand high loads that
are concentrated on gear surfaces. As a consequence,
high temperatures may be generated at the point of
contact. Despite the harsh environment, the gear lubri-
cant must provide sufficient wear and extreme pressure
protection to prevent material failure of the gears, and
the gear lubricant must remain functional for extended
periods of time.
If the gear materials are not sufficiently robust and
the lubricant is not sufficiently protective, irreversible
damage may occur to the gear, which typically means
that the equipment in which the gear is located will not
perform as designed. Performance criteria for gear
lubricants include such factors as ability to withstand
the required loads and continuing ability to transmit
power. Gear surface finish and gear contour must not
deteriorate. In addition, the properties of the gear
lubricant must remain stable, including oxidative stab-
ility, antiwear protection, maintenance of appropriate
friction characteristics, low-temperature viscosity, cor-
rosion protection, and resistance to foam formation.
Various standard tests address these concerns.
Other test methods for gear oils are also available
from CRC (coordinating research council). The CRC
L-37 method is a 24-h dynamometer test that is con-
ducted at high torque and low speed and that assesses
gear distress. CRC L 42 is a 24-h dynamometer test
incorporating high speed shock loading, designed to
measure resistance to gear scoring. CRC L-33 is a
7-day motored rust test in which gears are exposed to
humidity in an oven. CRC L-60-1 is a test for oxi-
dation and deposits, using motored gears over a period
of 50 h.
2.4.6. Axle lubricants
Requirements for axle lubricants are described in the
American Petroleum Institute API-GL-5 requirements
for gear lubricants. However, two of the gear tests
(CRC L-37 and CRC L-32) are not required. Desirable
properties for axle lubricants include viscosity in an
appropriate range (for example, near 14 or 15 cen-
v
tistokes at 100 C). Viscosity stability is measured
according to ASTM D 445, standard test method for
kinematic viscosity of transparent and opaque liquids
(the calculation of dynamic viscosity), as described
under the section on engine oils. Low temperature vis-
cosity is measured using ASTM D 2983, standard test
method for low-temperature viscosity of automotive
fluid lubricants measured by Brookfield Viscometer. In
this test, viscosity is measured in the temperature range
v
from 5 to 40 C, using a rotating spindle. The refer-
enced document in ASTM D 2983 is ASTM D 341,
viscosity–temperature charts for liquid petroleum
products.
 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
Performance of the axle lubricant should not
degrade excessively during service. The axle lubricant
should not damage metal components, nor should the
metal components accelerate axle lubricant degradati-
on. In addition, axle lubricants must not damage seals.
Seal performance can be measured using ASTM D
5662, standard test method for determining automotive
gear oil compatibility with typical oil seal elastomers,
as described previously under gear lubricants. Desir-
able axle-lubricant properties include fuel efficiency,
thermal stability, long life, and appropriate limited slip
differential performance.
2.4.7. Solid lubricants
Solid lubricants are used where it is important for
the lubricant to stay in place. Solid lubricants are typi-
cally composed of a solid, a binder, and additives such
as corrosion inhibitors or solvents. Examples of com-
mon solid lubricants include molybdenum disulfide,
graphite, and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) or other
fluorine-containing polymers. Molybdenum disulfide
and graphite have a chemical structure that is like flat
plates such that an upper plate can easily slip along the
surface of the next plate beneath it. PTFE has a chemi-
cal structure that does not attract or hold a variety of
common fluids such as water or oil.
Solid lubricants typically have a temperature range
over which they are effective. Above the optimum
range, they may degrade chemically or physically. For
example, according to the Tribology Data Handbook
(R. M. Gresham, pp. 600–607, CRC Press, 1997), mol-
ybdenum disulfide has an upper temperature limit in
v
the range of 400 C, but it can withstand high loads.
v
Graphite can withstand 650 C and moderate loads.
PTFE cannot withstand high temperatures or high
loads, but it provides useful friction characteristics for
such automotive components as fasteners.
ASTM D 2714, standard test method for calibration
and operation of the Falex block-on-ring friction and
wear testing machine, provides a test method for deter-
mination of friction coefficient of a solid lubricant.
Friction coefficient is defined as the ratio of the friction
force, F, that resists movement to the normal force, N,
that presses the two bodies together. A steel test ring
rotates against a steel test block. The specimen
assembly is immersed in the lubricant. A normal load
of 65 kg is applied. The velocity of the test ring is 7.9
m/min. The test method contains the warning that the
user must determine whether the test results mean any-
thing for the particular application of interest. Since
any given application may have different materials, dif-
ferent speeds, different loads, and different tempera-
tures, an investigator would be wise not to extend any
conclusions beyond those directly obtained for the test
535
conditions (materials, lubricants) that were used in the
test of interest.
3. Summary and conclusion
(1) This paper has provided a comprehensive overview
of various lubrication aspects of a typical power-
train system including the engine, transmission, dri-
veline, and other components. We can realize that
a lot of outstanding contributions in automotive
tribology and lubricants areas have made to
improve the efficiency and productivity of power-
train and manufacturing systems. As we face this
new century, the tribological issues will be more
complex than ever. Stringent federal legislation is
calling for better fuel economy and reduced emis-
sions. In addition, design and legislative pressures
for cleaner, more efficient engines with higher
specific power outputs is forcing tribological
engine components to be operated with generally
thinner oil films. Then, we need to address the issues
of wear resistance and durability of our tribological
system.
(2) Industrial researchers are developing light-weight
materials such as non-ferrous materials (Al, Mg)
for engine and drivetrain materials to replace the
current heavy-weight cast iron blocks. This keynote
paper has described the current status and future
trends in automotive light-weight materials to meet
their tribological requirements.
(3) This paper has discussed the current automotive
lubricant development including discussion of cur-
rent and anticipated future requirements of auto-
motive engine oils. This paper has also reviewed
the current standard ASTM test methods for all
automotive lubricants and other compilations of
automotive standards.
(4) The automotive components in lubricated contacts,
as the component scale moves from macro to micro
to nano, are dominated by surface adhesion forces
that normally are not well-understood by mechan-
ical means. Therefore, nanolubrication needs to be
taken into account to determine unique mechan-
isms which are different from those in conventional
lubrication. In this paper, our insights and perspec-
tives on the current development and future trends
in nonotribology have been shared.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank James Spearot, Shirley Schwartz,
Robert Olree, Coleman Jones, and Dennis Meyers of
General Motors for their suggestions and recommenda-
tions for the key development areas. The authors also
acknowledge their reviews of this paper.
536 S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan / Tribology International 37 (2004) 517–536
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