1/1/2015

Foundation Design 1. Soil exploration

CE-352

Arghya Das
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: arghya@iitk.ac.in

Soil sampling: type
a) Undisturbed sample
• Samples must be protected to avoid any
change in water content: the samples should
be covered with molten wax immediately they
have been brought to the surface.
• However, structural changes are unavoidable
due to reduction in in‐situ stress. Soft clays are
Soil sampling: equipment
1) Open drive sampler
• Suitable for all clay type soils
• Internal diameter of cutting edge should be ~1% 
smaller than the internal tube diameter to reduce 
friction between sample and tube (inside clearance).
• The outer diameter of cutting edge is slightly higher 
than the outer diameter of  the tube to reduce the 
force required to withdraw the tube (outside  100 mm

450 mm
more sensitive to sample disturbance and
exhibit higher shear resistance. clearance).
• Area ratio is about 30% for open drive sampler.
• Mainly used for the determination of shear 
strength, consolidation and density .
b) Disturbed sample The volume of soil displaced by the sampler as a
proportion of the sample volume is represented by the
Disturbed samples, which are used mainly for soil classification tests, area ratio (Ar) of the sampler. It is a measure of sample
identification of soil strata and compaction tests, can be excavated from trial disturbance. d2 d2
pits or obtained from the tools used to advance boreholes (e.g. from augers Ar  %   w c
 100
and the clay cutter). d c2

Soil sampling: equipment
2) Thin‐walled sampler
• Used in soils which are sensitive to disturbance such as
soft to firm clays and plastic silts.
• The sampler does not employ a separate cutting shoe.
• The internal diameter may range from 35 to 100 mm.
• The area ratio is approximately 10%.
3) Split spoon sampler (IS:9640 ‐ 1960)
• Consist of a tube which is split longitudinally into two halves.
• The internal and external diameters are 35 and 50 mm, respectively.
• The area ratio being approximately 100%, with the result that there
is considerable disturbance of the sample.
• This sampler is use mainly in sands, being the tool specified in the
standard penetration test.
Soil sampling: equipment
4) Stationary piston sampler
• Consist of a thin‐walled tube fitted with a piston which 
prevents water or loose soil from entering the tube. 
• Piston samplers should always be pushed down by hydraulic 
or mechanical jacking: they should never be driven. 
• The diameter of the sampler is usually between 35 – 100 mm 
but can be as large as 250 mm. 
• Generally used for soft clays and can produce undisturbed 
sample up to 1m in length.
5) Window sampler
• Ideal for dry cohesive soils.
• usually 1m in length and of different diameters (typically 80, 
60, 50 and 36 mm)
• There are longitudinal slots or ‘windows’ in the walls at one 
side of the tubes to allow the soil to be examined and enable 
disturbed samples to be taken out.

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Soil sampling: equipment Soil sampling: equipment

6) Continuous sampler Recovery ratio
• The continuous sampler is a highly specialized Actual length of recovered sample
type of sampler which is capable of obtaining Lr 
undisturbed samples up to 25m in length and Theoratical length of recovered sample
maintain the fabric of soil specimen.
• The sampler is used mainly in soft clays. A recovery ratio of 1 (recovered length of the sample = the length
• Thin strips of metal foil between the sample sampler was forced into the stratum) indicates that, theoretically, the
and the tube to reduce frictional resistance. sample did not become compressed from friction on the tube. A
recovery ratio greater than 1.0 would indicate a loosening of the sample
7) Compressed air sampler from rearrangement of stones, roots, removal of preload, or other
factors.
• The compressed air sampler is used to obtain
undisturbed samples of sand below the water
table.

Standard Penetration Test (SPT) IS: 2131‐1981
SPT is the most popular and economical in‐situ test in a borehole for
obtaining subsurface information (both on land and offshore).
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) IS: 2131‐1981
1. The split spoon sampler resting on the bottom of borehole should be allowed to
sink under its own weight (combined sampler and rod);
2. Then the split spoon sampler shall be seated 15 cm with the blows of the hammer
(63.5 kg) falling through 75 cm.
3. Thereafter, the split spoon sampler shall be further driven by 30 cm or 50 blows
(except that driving shall cease before the split spoon sampler is full).
4. The number of blows required to effect each 15 cm of penetration shall be
recorded. The first 15 cm of drive may be considered to be seating drive. The total
blows required for the second and third 15 cm of penetration shall be termed the
penetration‐resistance N;
5. If the split spoon sampler is driven less than 45 cm (total), then the penetration
resistance shall be for the last 30 cm of penetration.
6. The entire sampler may sometimes sink under its own weight when very soft sub‐
soil stratum is encountered and SPT value should be indicated as zero.
7. Tests shall be made at every change in stratum or at intervals of not more than 1.5
m whichever is less. Tests may be made at lesser intervals if specified or
considered necessary. The intervals be increased to 3 m if in between vane shear
test is performed.

Standardization of SPT Standardization of SPT (Bowles 1996, Mostly used in USA and UK)
1. Variation in the height of fall of the drop weight (hammer) during the test 1. Hammer efficiency correction (En)
2. The number of turns of rope around the cathead, and the condition of the  2. Drill‐rod, sampler and borehole corrections (Cd, Cs, and Cb)
manila rope
3. Length and diameter of drill rod
5. Diameter of bore hole
6. Overburden pressure

Theoretical input energy by the drop hammer:
Ein  weight of the hammer  height of fall
= Wh   63.5  9.81  0.75  467.2 J
Experiments show, about 30‐80% energy is actually transferred depending on 
different factors mentioned above.
Standard energy ratio:
Actual hammer energy to the sample, Ea
Res  100
Input hammer energy, Ein
Normally energy ratio is standardize for 60% of the actual energy. 

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Corrections to SPT N value: Corrections to SPT N value:
3) Correction due to overburden (CN): 4) Correction due to dilation:
A density classification for sands was proposed When testing below the water table, care must be taken to avoid entry of water
originally, in general terms, by Terzaghi and through the bottom of the borehole as this would tend to loosen the sand due
Peck, on the basis of standard penetration to upward seepage pressure. If the test is carried out in fine sand or silty sand
resistance. However, standard penetration below the water table the measured N value, if greater than 15, should be
resistance depends not only on density index corrected for the increased resistance due to negative excess pore water
but also on the effective stresses at the depth pressure set up during driving and unable to dissipate immediately.
of measurement.
1
The N value for cohesionless soil shall be N   15   N   15
corrected for overburden as per the figure of 2
ᇱ
IS:2131‐1981 ܰ is the SPT value after overburden correction.
As per Liao and Whitman, 1986
95.76 100
CN   (N1)60 = standard penetration resistance
 0  0 normalized to a rod energy ratio of 60% and an
ߪ ᇱ ଴ Effective overburden pressure in kN/m2 effective overburden pressure of 100 kPa.

N   N  CN

SPT N value correlations: SPT N value correlations:
The SPT has been used in correlations  Relative density
(a) unit weight 
Empirical correlation for normally consolidated granular soils at depth 6m below 
(b) relative density
ground surface 
(c) angle of internal friction
(d) unconfined compressive strength
(e) bearing capacity of foundations 
(f) estimating the stress‐strain modulus

Relative density
N
Meyerhof, (1957) proposed relationship  a  b  COCR  p0
Dr2
a and b are constants. * Considering a = 32, b = 0.228, unit weight = 17kN/m3
‫݌‬ᇱ ଴ is the mean effective stress at normally consolidated condition.
Angle of internal friction (Mayerhof 1956)
1  2 K 0,nc
COCR is over consolidation correction estimated by Fine sand with more than 5% silt content emax  e
1  2 K 0,ocr Dr 
Where K0,nc and K0,ocr is the coefficient of earth pressure at rest for normally  Fine sand with less than 5% silt content emax  emin
consolidated and over consolidated conditions respectively.  Here relative density Dr is expressed in %

SPT N value correlations: Static Cone Penetration Test (CPT or SCPT) IS: 4968(III)‐1976
Static cone penetration test is a subsurface soil exploration (both onshore and
Angle of internal friction 
offshore) technique for the determine the soil resistance (bearing and frictional
(Schmertmann, 1975)
resistance) and delineating soil stratigraphy. Also known as Dutch cone test.

The device used in this

test consists of a
cylindrical penetrometer
(fitted with a cone
having an apex angle of
60°), a sleeve (friction 100 (IS)
Unconfined compressive strength jacket), a mantle tube
and a sounding rod.
qu  k N corrected
1. Mechanical type
in kPa and k = 12  2. Electrical type
according to (Bowle
135 (IS)
1996)
Used for soft clay, silt and fine to
medium sand.

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Static Cone Penetration Test (CPT or SCPT) IS: 4968(III)‐1976 CPT correlations:

a = 35 mm Rate of driving should be 1 cm/s
b = 35 mm Tip resistance or cone/point resistance
Qc
qc 
Ac
Total resistance Qt
Skin friction resistance
Qt  Qc Q f
fs  
Af Af

In case of electrical type CPT the resistances

are measured by load sensors in the cone and
sleeve, the cables from the sensors passing
through the hollow rods to monitoring and
recording equipment at the surface. Correlation between the angle of friction and Correlation between the relative density and
cone penetration resistance. cone penetration resistance.
Some models, referred to as piezocones, also incorporate a piezometer consisting of a
porous tip and a pressure transducer for the measurement of pore water pressure.

CPT correlations: CPT correlations:

Correlation between the undrained shear strength (su) of clay with cone Doglus (1984) proposed a simplified soil classification:
penetration tip resistance (qc).
fs
Normalized cone resistance, qcn (tsf)

Friction ratio
qc  N k su  p0 qc
where Nk represents cone factor
Normalized cone resistance, qcn (tsf)*
and p’0 is the total overburden
pressure. According to Lunne and qcn  qc 1  1.25log p0 
Kelvin (1981) Nk is following:

Mayerhof (1965) proposed SPT

and CPT correlation for fine or silty qc  MPa   0.4 N
medium‐loose to medium‐dense
sand:

Friction ratio (%) *Tons per square foot