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Chapter 9
The roughness of the surfaces and edges of tectonic plates, and the huge pressures
involved, cause potential sliding and slipping movements to generate friction forces large
enough to lock-up surfaces in contact. Instead of sliding past each other, rock in a plate
boundary area absorbs greater and greater compression and shear strains until it suddenly
ruptures. At rupture, the accumulated energy (strain energy) within the strained rock mass
releases in a sudden manner with a violent jarring motion. This is an earthquake.
Most earthquakes are caused by movement between tectonic plates: 70% around the
perimeter of the pacific plate; 20% along the southern edge of the Eurasian plate and 10%
cannot be explained by plate tectonics some of which are intra-plate (within the plate).
The surface along which the crust of the
earth fractures is an earthquake fault.
The point in the fault surface area
considered the centre of energy release is
termed the focus, its projection up to the
earth’s surface defines the epicenter.
The distance between the focus and the
epicenter is known as the focal depth.
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When the fault ruptures, seismic waves emanate in all directions from the focus. The two
types of underground waves which are generated by the fault rupture are:
• P waves (Primary waves) also known as “compression waves”, they push and pull the
soil through which they pass.
• S waves (Shear waves) they move soil particles side-to-side either horizontally or
vertically. This “shear effect” is of most concern and damaging to buildings.
There is also a surface-rippling wave known as a Rayleigh wave.
The response of the soil affects the features of the earthquake waves felt by the buildings.
For example: deep layers of soft soil, as may be found in river valleys, significantly
amplify shaking and also modify the frequency content of seismic waves by filtering out
higher frequency excitations.
Intensity Description
I to III Not felt, unless under special circumstances.
IV Generally felt, but not causing damage.
V Felt by nearly everyone. Some cracked plaster. Some crockery broken or
items overturned.
VI Felt by all. Some fallen plaster or damaged chimneys. Some heavy
furniture moved.
VII Negligible damage in well designed and constructed buildings through to
considerable damage in construction of poor quality. Some chimneys
broken.
VIII Depending on the quality of design and construction, damages ranges
from slight through to partial collapse. Chimneys, monuments and walls
fall.
IX Well designed structures damaged and permanently racked. Partial
collapses and buildings shifted off their foundations.
X Some well-built wooden structures destroyed along with most masonry
and frame structures.
XI Few, if any masonry structures remain standing.
XII Most construction is severely damaged or destroyed.
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Performance Objectives
Performance levels
S
e Operational Immediate Life safety Structural
i occupancy stability
s Fully Operational Life safety Near
m operational Collapse
i Frequent
c
(Low Intensity)
H
as Occasional
z le
v
a el
rd r
daz Ra re
ah
Lic
em si
v eS Very rare
e
(Severe
l intensity)
s
Vision 2000 (SEAOC 1995)
Inertia
Forces
Loading
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(c) Damping:
Damping is a resistance to free vibration and defines the energy-dissipation mechanism
which steadily diminishes the amplitude of vibration. Damping in structures is mainly
caused by internal friction within building elements. The type of construction material
affects the degree of damping. There are many forms of damping. Viscous damping is
velocity dependent. Currently, the most popular form is “proportional damping” (mass
and stiffness dependent); it is also known as: “Rayleigh”, “classical”, “orthogonal” or
“modal” damping. For additional information on damping refer to Tedesco et al.(1999).
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Building codes largely adopt the R-factor design procedure . In this procedure, elastic
seismic forces are reduced by factors Rd and Ro to obtain design forces. This procedure
has matured into the “capacity design procedure”. The R-factor procedure can be
illustrated by using a typical lateral load-deformation model. If we have a structure
designed to behave elastically when subjected to an earthquake, the lateral load-
deformation relation would be linear and the structure would have a strength value
corresponding to the elastic base shear ratio Ce caused by the earthquake, where Ce is a
ratio of base shear force (V) caused by the earthquake to the weight of structure (W).
V
Ce =
W if it were elastic.
Ce
Cd =
Rd Ro
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Ce Two levels of reduction are inferred from this equation through the
Cd =
Rd Ro reduction factors Rd and Ro :
One of the three lateral systems should be present in each orthogonal direction of the
structure.
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Hazard maps are further expressed in terms of spectral response accelerations Sa(t):
The above spectral accelerations are for periods of < 0.2, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 seconds>,
respectively at a probability of 2% in 50 years, and for “firm ground” conditions (NBCC
soil class C). Spectral acceleration contours are in “g”s (gravitational acceleration).
Note that there are two “spectral response accelerations” in NBCC-2010:
Sa(T) “5% damped” spectral response acceleration (shown above),
( and as defined in NBCC-2010, Article 4.1.8.4, sentence 1)
S(T) “design” spectral response acceleration,
( as defined in NBCC-2010, Article 4.1.8.4, sentence 7, and determined from
Sa(T) shown above).
It is a common error for un-experienced engineers to fail to recognize this distinction.
Therefore, in this class, a subscripted Sda(T) will be used in lieu of S(T).
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Using the Sa(T) information from seismic hazard maps which are expressed in terms of
“damped” spectral response acceleration, the engineer can develop the “design” response
spectrum for any locality in Canada. The design spectral acceleration (expressed as a
fraction of gravitational acceleration), for a period T, is defined as Sda(T) and is given as:
Sda(T) = Fa Sa(0.2) for T 0.2 seconds,
= Fv Sa(0.5) or FaSa(0.2), whichever is smaller for T=0.5 sec,
= Fv Sa(1.0) for T=1.0 sec,
= Fv Sa (2.0) for T=2.0 sec,
= Fv ½Sa (2.0) for T 4.0 sec.
where: T period (seconds) linear interpolation may be used for intermediate values,
Sa(T) the damped spectral response acceleration from seismic hazard maps,
Fa and Fv acceleration- and velocity-based site coefficients, respectively.
Fa and Fv values are given in the NBCC-2010 and depend on the type of site condition
(rock, or dense soil, or soft soil,.. etc). Sample design spectra for different localities are
illustrated in the following figure.
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For regular structures, Article 4.1.8.11 defines the minimum base shear force as:
S (Ta ) M v I E
V= W
Rd Ro
S da (Ta ) M v I E
V= W
Rd Ro
where,
V is the base shear force;
Ta is the fundamental period of vibration of the structure;
S(Ta) Sda(Ta) is the design spectral acceleration corresponding to the fundamental
period Ta;
Mv is a factor which accounts for higher mode effects;
IE is a factor which accounts for the degree of importance of the structure;
Rd and Ro are the ductility-, and overstrength- related force reduction factors,
respectively; and
W is the weight of the structure.
This approach can only be used for structures satisfying the conditions of Article 4.1.8.7.
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Wx hx
Fx = ( V − Ft ) n
Wi hi
i =1
where:
Ft = 0.07TaV but does not to exceed 0.25V
and,
Fx = the force at floor number xi
V = the total base shear as defined in Section 9.5.2
Ft = force portion concentrated at the top of the building in addition to the above
distribution,
Wx = the weight of floor xi
hx = the height of floor xi from the foundation level,
and,
n
Wi hi = summation of (floor weight) x (height) for all the floors in the building, and
i =1
n =number of floors.
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9x3600=32400 7 1800
6 1800
5 1900
4 1870
3 1870
2 1870
1 2080
given: 9-storey office building has an SFRS (SEISMIC FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM)
consisting of a steel ductile moment-resisting seismic frame as illustrated above,
- located in Victoria, BC
- rock soil condition equivalent to site soil “class B”
solution steps:
Note: all the information required to solve this problem is provided by NBCC2010 in
Subsection 4.1.8 and its Articles 4.1.8.__ and its sentences 4.1.8.__ )
also, as stated in Articles 4.1.8.4 the 5% damped SRA data provided for the problem is
based on Class C “reference ground conditions” for the locale in question.
designer input required to solve the problem: “go to” …. in NBCC-2010
Ta fundamental period of lateral vibration
of building in the direction of analysis. • Article 4.1.8.11, sentence 3)
Spectral Response Accelerations SRA:
• Sa(T) 5% damped SRA • Article 4.1.8.4, sentence 1) ,or,
• seismic hazard maps, or
• COMMENTARY J (Table J-2)
__________
• Sda (T) design SRA • Article 4.1.8.4, sentence 7)
• Sda (Ta) design SRA at T=Ta
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Since the period of our structure is t=1.15 second, we interpolate between the values of
Sa(1.0) and Sa(2.0) for Victoria, BC and could
get spectral response acceleration at t=1.15 sec, as
Sa(1.15sec)= 0.35 (units are fractions of “g”), but
there is a better way using the complete spectrum.
0.38
- also, Sa(0.2)= 1.2 > 0.12, ∴ according to 0.35
Article 4.1.8.1, sentence 1) need to design for 0.19
0.18
Subsection 4.1.8 “Earthquake Load and
Effects” Sa(1.15)
____________________________________ Sa(1.0) Sa(2.0)
- the site soil conditions are given as class B , the “reference soil is class C,
∴ need to use Tables 4.1.8.4 A, B & C to get the “site coefficients” Fa and Fv
(for educational purposes, copies of these tables are reproduced below):
reference
soil “C”
example
site soil
example
site soil
To obtain seismic design parameters for site soil “class B”, use the above values of
Fa and Fv from NBCC Tables B and C.
• Table B has Fa at Sa(0.2) (“short period” vibrations), while
• Table C has Fv at Sa(1.0) (“long period” vibrations),
At “class C” sites, all values of Fa and Fv are unity (=1.0) because this is the “reference
soil class” on which the “seismic hazard maps” are based but our example is “class B”.
Calculations need to be done on the Sa( ) values provided by NBCC-2010 (Appendix C)
to get S( ) Sda( ) for Victoria “B soils” as indicated below:
city: Response Spectra (accelerations)
Victoria, B.C.
T= 0.2 sec T= 0.5 sec T= 1.0 sec T= 2.0 sec
NBCC-2010
Appendix C Sa(2.0)=0.18
Sa(T): 5% damped Sa(1.0)=0.38
SRA (response Sa(0.5)=0.82 PGA=0.61
spectrum) data Sa(0.2)=1.2
from Seismic
Hazard Maps
(“class C” soils)
- design response • lesser of:
spectrum
calculations for
Fa • Sa(0.2) Fv • Sa(0.5) Fv • Sa(1.0) Fv • Sa(2.0)
=(1.0)(1.2) and =(0.78)(0.38) =(0.78)(0.18)
“class B”
= 1.2 Fa• Sa(0.2), = 0.296 = 0.140
Victoria soils
S(T) Sda(T) = (0.78)(0.82)
or, (1.0)(1.2)
= 0.640
To get the overall picture, the above Sa(T) and S(T) Sda(T) should be presented on
graphs as shown below. This is the “design response spectrum” for the project and is used
repeatedly for “static” as well as “dynamic” analyses of structures on the project.
Class B soil
Victoria, B.C.
!! "
step 4: Base Shear Design Force: (remember, in these notes: S(Ta) Sda(Ta) )
Article 4.1.8.11, sentence 2)
S da (Ta ) M v I E
V= W
Rd Ro
- need more Tables to get IE and Mv but these are simple-to-read values as follows:
• from Table 4.1.8.5, “ normal importance” IE =1.0
• from Table 4.1.8.11, “ higher-modes” for ductile MRFs (moment-resisting frames)
with Sa(0.2)/Sa(2.0)=1.2/0.18= 6.7 Mv =1.0
Rd & Ro :
• from Table 4.1.8.9, for ductile MRFs (moment-resisting frames)
with IE Fa Sa(0.2)=(1.0)(1.0)(1.2)= 1.2 , read Rd =5.0, Ro =1.5
Note: a high ductility rating like Rd =5.0 will require “ ductile detailing and design” .
Total Weight of Structure: = Wi=16490 kN
Base Shear: V=0.273 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 16490 kN / (5.0 x 1.5)
= 600 kN 3.6% W
_________________________________________
where:
Ft= 0.07 Ta V but not to exceed 0.25V
Although more sophisticated seismic analyses are a daunting task, they are becoming the
requirement of codes. Software such as SAP2000 and related tutorials, webinars and
training sessions are available to assist structural seismic engineers.
__________________________________________[end of Chapter IX “ Seismic Loads” ]
• prepared (2010) by: M.M. Safar, Ph.D. (McMaster), P.Eng.
• edited (2012) by: A. Mir, M.Eng. (UBC), P.Eng.
• reviewed by: M.M. Hrabok, Ph.D. (Alberta), P.Eng.