1. Complete problem 4 on page 419.

Problem 4. Which of these studies might be analyzed with a correlation?

a. The which group has a higher reading comprehension level—dyslexic

children versus ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) children

b. The amount of religious commitment and frequency of attendance at

religious services

c. The number of doctor visits and income level

d. The soft drink preferences of college students

***CAPTION FROM TEXTBOOK:This portion is just for your information.

Experimental Versus Correlational Studies

In Modules 12 to 33, we measured the effect of an independent variable on a
dependent variable. Then, we tested the result for statistical significance, effect size,
and power. In each of the studies. There were at least two groups that differed on the
independent variable. We then examined whether the independent variable (the
defining difference between the groups) caused the effect in the dependent variable.

In this module, we begin to look at data from a new perspective. We will look at
correlational studies. In a correlational study, we have only a single group of subjects
rather than two or more groups. In addition, each of the subjects has a score on two
different variables. Also, in a correlational study, we do not seek cause-and-effect
relationships between independent and dependent variables. Rather, we simply want
to know whether or not the scores on two variables are related.

Sometimes correlational studies are used to establish the properties of the tests
themselves. The SAT, for example, is given on multiple test dates throughout the year.
Students taking the test on one date do not answer the same questions as students
taking the test on another date. Rather, there are parallel forms of the test—a
different form for each date. Scores have the same meaning regardless of which form
students take because the test forms are comparable. But how do the test developers
know that the scores are comparable? During the test development process. They
gave the same students (note the single group of subjects) two different forms of the
test (note the two variables). Then. They compared the students' scores on both tests
(note the correlation). They found that the scores were similar for the same students
on both forms of the test. This type of correlation is called test reliability.

Most of the time, correlational studies are used for prediction rather than for
establishing the reliability of the tests themselves. That is, we seek to establish
relationships so that the score of a person on one variable can be used to predict that
person's probable score on a second variable. For example, once a relationship is
established between the number of hours children watch television and children's
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 academic performance in school, we can predict any given child's probable academic
performance in school just by knowing the number of hours of television he or she
watches. Similarly, a researcher interested in prediction may want to know the
relationship between

• the amount of time students study and their grade on a test,

• the amount of antidepressant medication clients take and their reported mood
level,

• air temperature and crime rate,

• income and years of education,

• height and weight, and

• IQ and shoe size (do you think there is any relationship?).

What are two common uses of correlations?

Complete the following table to compare and contrast studies analyzed by three
different statistics.

2. Complete problem 12 on page 425.

Problem 12. For each of the following, indicate whether the expected
relationship between the two variables will be positive (+), negative (−), or zero
(0):

____a.size of house and size of electric bill

____b.height of parents and height of children

____c. air humidity level and people's energy level

____d.number of books read per year and age at which got first eyeglasses

____e.hours spent at the beach and depth of tan

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***CAPTION on next pageFROM TEXTBOOK:This portion is just for your information.

If two variables are negatively correlated. Then as the values of one variable go up.
The values of the other variable go down. For example. The relationship between the
number of absences in a course and score on the final exam in that course is
negative. In other words. The more often students are absent from class. The lower
their grades tend to be on the final exam. You can see this pattern in the lower
scatterplot in Figure 34.4. Note the direction of the data points. With a negative
relationship. The data points go from the upper left to the lower right.

He seemed to have very strong intuitions but unfortunately of negative sign.

—the biologist Francis Crick, referring to René Thom, in What Mad Pursuit

Let's return to the set of quiz scores from the beginning of this module. Judging from
the scatterplot shown in Figure 34.5, what is the approximate strength of the
relationship? What is the direction of the relationship?

Figure 34.5 Scores on Quiz 1 and Quiz 2

The relationship is moderate because the points form an ellipse about halfway
between a straight line and a circle. And it is positive because the general trend is
from lower left to upper right. That is, as the scores on Quiz 1 go up. The scores on
Quiz 2 also go up.What two terms are used to describe a correlational relationship?
What does each term indicate?

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 3. Repeat the SPSS Connection from pages 430–431 on your computer. Copy and paste the SPSS output for
the scatterplot to a Word document.

SPSS Connection
Download the file data_quiz 1 quiz 2.sav from www.sagepub.com/steinberg2e.
These data are used in the textbook example.

Alternatively, manually enter the scores on Quiz 1 and Quiz 2 into the SPSS Data
View spreadsheet: Set it up like this.

Click on the Variable View tab to define the variable. Name the first variable name, set
the Type as String, and label the variable as Name. Name the second variable quiz1,
set the decimal at 0, and label the variable as Quiz 1 (X). Name the third variable
quiz2, set the decimal at 0, and label the variable as Quiz 2(Y).

If the file is not already in Data View, click that tab in the lower left of the screen.

In the toolbar at the top of the screen, click on Graphs, then Legacy Dialogs, then
Scatter/Dot. Select the Simple Scatter example, and click Define. Highlight the
variable Quiz 1(X) in the left window and click on the arrow before the X axis window
(that's the second window, not the top window) on the right. To send the variable into
that window. Highlight the variable Quiz 2(Y) in the left window and click on the arrow
before the Y axis window (that's the top window, not the second window) on the right.
To send the variable into the that window. Click OK. This is what you will
see.***CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

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This is the scatterplot shown in the textbook. The strength and direction is not as clear as
the one in the textbook because the graph violates the guidelines for graph construction
that you learned in Module 4 regarding appropriate axis scaling for best graph
interpretation. The complete version of SPSS allows for axis demarcation decisions, but
the Student version of SPSS does not.

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4. Repeat the SPSS Connection from pages 444–445 on your computer. Copy and paste the SPSS output for the
correlation to your Word document.

SPSS Connection
Download the file data_quiz 1 quiz 2.sav from www.sagepub.com/steinberg2e.
These data are used in the textbook example.

Alternatively, manually enter the scores and name the variables as described in
Module 34. If the file is not already in Data View, click that tab in the lower left of the
screen. In the toolbar at the top of the screen, click on Analyze, then Correlation,
then Bivariate. Highlight the variable Quiz 1(X) in the left window and click on the
arrow before the Variables window on the right. To send the variable into that
window. Do the same for the Quiz 2(Y) variable. Click OK. This is what you will see.

Correlations

SPSS correlates each selected variable with each other selected variable twice-once in
AB order, and again in BA order. Results are identical and therefore redundant. If you
draw a diagonal line through the 1.000 correlations (each variable with itself), you
need pay attention only to the coefficients triangle either above or below the diagonal
line.

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5. Complete problem 4 on page 441 using SPSS. Copy and paste the SPSS output to the Word document. Use
pages 430–431 and 444–445 as guides(See problems 3 and 4 in this project). Please type the answers to
problems 4b, 4c, 4e, and 4f.

Problem 4.Here are hypothetical data for a study of the relationship between
intelligence and prejudice in adults. For both variables, higher scores indicate more
of the measured trait:

a. Create a scatterplot of the data.

b. From the scatterplot, what direction and approximate strength do you expect
the correlation coefficient to take?

c. State the null hypothesis.

d. Calculate Pearson r.

e. Interpret the correlation coefficient for a two-tailed test: Can you reject the
null hypothesis? If so, with what confidence?

f. Write the result in APA journal format.

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1. Solution to Problem 4 on page 419:

Which of these studies might be analyzed with a correlation?

a. The which group has a higher reading comprehension level—dyslexic

children
versus ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) children.

No use of correlation here.

b. The amount of religious commitment and frequency of attendance at

religious services.

We can use correlation here.

c. The number of doctor visits and income level.

We can use correlation here.

d. The soft drink preferences of college students.

No use of correlation here.

2. Solution to Problem 12 on page 425:

For each of the following, indicate whether the expected relationship between the
two variables will be positive (+), negative (−), or zero (0):

____a.size of house and size of electric bill

Positive correlation.

____b.height of parents and height of children

Positive correlation.

____c. air humidity level and people's energy level

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 Negative correlation.

____d.number of books read per year and age at which got first eyeglasses

Zero correlation.

____e.hours spent at the beach and depth of tan

Positive correlation.
3. Repeat the SPSS Connection from pages 430–431:

The required scatter plot constructed through SPSS is shown below:

4. Repeat the SPSS Connection from pages 444–445:

The required output of correlations obtained through SPSS is shown below:

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 Correlations

Quiz 1 (X) Quiz 2 (Y)

Quiz 1 (X) Pearson Correlation 1 .687*

Sig. (2-tailed) .028

N 10 10

Quiz 2 (Y) Pearson Correlation .687* 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .028

N 10 10

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

5. Solution to Problem 4 on page 441:

a. Create a scatterplot of the data.

The required scatter plot constructed through SPSS is shown below:

b. From the scatterplot, what direction and approximate strength do you expect
the correlation coefficient to take?

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 The above scatter plot depicts that there is a negative correlation between
the variables under study. As the direction of the points are in decreasing
order from left to right, this conclusion
can be made. Also the points are located closely around a straight line,
indicates a strong relationship between the variables.

c. State the null hypothesis.

H 0 : There is no significant linear relationship between Intelligence and Prejudice,

i.e. r = 0.
versus
H 0 : There is a significant linear relationship between Intelligence and Prejudice,
i.e. r �0.

d. Calculate Pearson r.

The required output of correlations obtained through SPSS is shown below:

Correlations

Intelligence Prejudice

Intelligence Pearson Correlation 1 -.832**

Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 12 12

Prejudice Pearson Correlation -.832** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 12 12

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

e. Interpret the correlation coefficient for a two-tailed test: Can you reject the
null hypothesis? If so, with what confidence?

The coefficient of correlation between Intelligence and Prejudice is –.832.

p-value of the test is .001.

Since p-value is very small, we have to reject our null hypothesis at any
common assumed

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 levels of significance 1%, 5% or 10%.

f. Write the result in APA journal format.

To measure the strength of relationship between the variables Intelligence and Prejudice
a study was conducted. Data from 12 respondents was collected for this analysis.

A scatter plot is constructed as an initial check of the relationship. It indicates a strong negative
correlation present in between Intelligence and Prejudice.

So calculated Pearson’s coefficient of correlation to measure this strength and tested its
significance. Results are as follows,

The coefficient of correlation between Intelligence and Prejudice is –.832.

p-value of the test is .001.

Since p-value is very small, we have to reject our null hypothesis.

Therefore, from this study it is found that as the level of intelligence

increases the level of prejudice decreases.

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