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TORQUE DATA

Principles of Static Sealing

The Function of a Gasket THE FLANGE LOAD:

 
A gasket is used to create and retain a
static seal between two stationary
members of mechanical assemblies
containing a wide variety of liquids or
gases.
 
Flange load is the net force
compressing the gasket to create
a seal which results from
subtracting the hydrostatic end
force from the total bolt load.
 
FLUID:

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Tampa Rubber and Gasket Co. Inc - TORQUE DATA

Gaskets are necessary and often vital to
the satisfactory functioning of a broad
range of industrial equipment. Hence, it
is incumbent upon the gasket user to
understand certain principles of sealing to
select the correct gasket.
 
Gasket selection requires a knowledge of
flange design, bolting data, dynamic
forces and the behavior of gaskets when
exposed to various temperatures,
pressures and fluids.
 
Conditions that Occur in a Gasket
Joint
 
In any dynamic mechanical assembly
employing a gasket, a combination of
forces act upon the gasketed joint. The
net effect can be described, figuratively,
as a battle between the gasket and the
internal forces acting to penetrate or
displace it.
The performance of any gasket is
influenced by the following variables:
THE INTERNAL PRESSURE:
Internal pressure is the force
continually trying to unseal a
gasketed joint by exerting force
against the gasket (blowout
pressure) and against the flanges
holding the gasket in place
(hydrostatic end force). See
picture above.
The liquid or gas against which
the gasket is to seal. Gases are
generally more difficult to seal than
liquids.
 
TEMPERATURE:
Temperature relates to the effects
of heat or cold on the gasket,
flange and bolts. Temperature
creates thermo-mechanical effects,
expanding or contracting the
metals. The temperature can also
affect the gasket by causing creep
relaxation or other thermal
degradation. The creep relaxation
effectively causes a reduction in
the flange load.
The degrading effect of many
fluids on gaskets increases as
temperature rises. As a rule, the
higher the temperature, the more
critical the selection of the proper
gasket.
GENERAL CONDITIONS:
These conditions are the type of
flange, the flange surfaces, the
type of bolt material, the spacing
and tightness of the bolts, etc.

Types of Flange Faces

Unconfined Gaskets

Raised Face Flange

Flat Face Flange
Mating faces of both flanges
are flat. Gaskets may be ring
type, entirely inside of the
bolts, or the full face type,
covering essentially the
entire face with holes
Lapped Joint Flange
Mating face is flat, but a
The facing is similar to the
portion inside of the bolt
raised face type of flange.
holes is raised 1/16" or 1/4".
This connection is generally
The gasket is usually a ring
used when the process
type, entirely within the
requires alloy piping, but the
bolts. Steel flanges that are
flanges may be made from a
to mate with cast-iron should
less exotic metal.

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Tampa Rubber and Gasket Co. Inc - TORQUE DATA

punched for bolt clearance. have flat faces, to prevent

breaking the cast-iron flange
during bolt tightening.

Confined & Semi-Confined Gaskets

Tongue & Groove Flange Ring Gasket Joint Flange

The depth of the groove is Both flanges have matching
generally equal to or less flat bottom grooves with the
 
then the height of the sides tapered from the
tongue. The groove is not vertical. The gasket is
normally over 1/16" wider machined from solid metal
than the tongue. The joint and is either oval or
must be pried open at octagonal in cross section.
disassembly. However,
tongue & groove flanges do
produce a high pressure on
the gasket.

Male - Female Flange Flat & Groove Flange

Male - Female Flange
This type of flange confines This is a metal-to-metal type
The depth of the recessed
the gasket, usually an O- of joint, with the gasket
face is normally equal to or
ring to the inside diameter of confined in a groove. The
less than the height of the
the flange. gasket is usually thicker than
male or raised face, to
the depth of the groove.
prevent the possibility of
flanges coming together
when the gasket is
compressed.

Flange Design

BASIC FLANGE DESIGN:

While a detailed discussion of flange design is beyond the scope of this
section, understanding basic flange features is essential to the selection
of a gasket.
There are many recognized standard flange designs, such as those
defined by ANSI, MSS, API and AWWA. ANSI Standard B16.5 currently is
the most widely recognized and used. These standard flange designs are
employed for piping in preference to custom designs, such as those
based on the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code guidelines.
 
FLANGE FACING TYPES:

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Tampa Rubber and Gasket Co. Inc - TORQUE DATA

Examples of flange types are shown in the pictures above. The raised
face design is most commonly used. The flat face design is normally
used with flanges that are easily fractured or crushed. Male & female
small, tongue & groove small, ring gasket joint and metal to metal designs
are not suitable for most non-metallic gasket material.

Types of Flange Finishes

Concentric Serrated Flange Phonograph Finish Flange

Carbon Paper Print of Contact Pressure Distribution

Flange Surface Finishes

While the majority of flange materials are metallic, non-metallic flanges,

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Tampa Rubber and Gasket Co. Inc - TORQUE DATA

such as glass or reinforced plastic, are now being used.

 
Metallic flange surfaces may range from a rough casting to that produced
by machine lapping, and each type of surface influences sealing
effectiveness. Surface roughness is usually measured in micro-inches
(micrometers) as an Arithmetic Average Roughness Height (AARH) or
Root Mean Square (RMS). The former method is currently preferred.
 
Commonly used finishes for pipe flanges for non-metallic gaskets are the
serrated-concentric and serrated-spiral (phonograph) finishes. Both
finishes are usually made with tools of similar shape and the flange faces
are cut to various depths, depending upon the metal. Both serrated
finishes consist of a series of cuts, whose width also varies with the type
of metal.
 
The serrated-spiral finish is spirally cut, with a continuous spiral groove
extending from the bore of the flange to the outer perimeter (see pictures
above). The serrated-concentric finish has definite "hills and valleys",
each endless.
 
"Smooth" finishes which appear to have no surface irregularities are also
quite common. When microscopically viewed, the face presents a different
picture. The "smooth" finish has wavy contours and slight surface
irregularities, which cannot be sealed by naked face-to-face flange
contact, and a gasket is an essential requirement.
 
There are general rules applicable to surface finishes:
1. The flange surface finish has a definite effect on the sealing
effectiveness.
2. A minimum seating stress ("y" factor) must be reached in order
to flow the gasket material into the irregularities of the gasket
surface. A softer gasket (i. e. cork), requires less seating stress
than a denser gasket (i. e. compressed material). The total force
required to flow the material is proportional to the area of the
gasket.
3. Bolting force may be lowered by reducing the gasket area or the
flange contact area. The difference is primarily a relationship of
force to area.
4. The closer together the ridge surfaces of a serrated-concentric
finish and the shallower the grooves, the more the flange area
begins to resemble a smooth face flange, and hence there is
greater contact area. Higher bolt loading is required to seat the
gasket. The opposite effect occurs as the ridges span wider.
5. A serrated-spiral finish is more difficult to seal than a serrated-
concentric finish. Complete flow of gasket material must reach the
"valley" surface in a spiral finish, otherwise a leak path will exist
from one end of the spiral to the other end.
6. Since gasket materials vary in hardness or resistance to flow,
selection of the proper material and thickness is important in
relationship to the flange finish.
7. Serrated finishes are generally associated with pipe flange
assemblies, whereas "smooth" finishes are likely to be found in
flanged joints other than pipe flange assemblies.

Bolting & Flange Forces

In most flanges, the distribution of force around the gasket is usually not

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Tampa Rubber and Gasket Co. Inc - TORQUE DATA

the same at all points. For example, two large diameter bolts could
supply the same force as 12 smaller diameter bolts, but the distribution of
force would be poor. Therefore, to equalize as near as possible the
distribution of the load on a gasket, the greater number of properly
spaced bolts should be used.
 
As bolts are torqued, the result is a compressive load on the flange and
gasket; however, the gasket area surrounding the bolts undergoes greater
compression while the lowest compression on the gasket occurs mid-way
between the bolts due to flange bowing (see picture above: "Contact
Pressure").
 
A basic question to be considered in any gasket application is whether
there is enough bolting force to create a final, enduring seal. An initial
step is the design of adequate bolt load on the gasket as it is being
installed, to insure flange / gasket conformity. This load, as already
mentioned, is the minimum seating stress. Its numerical value ("y" factor)
is dependent on the gasket material itself, as well as its thickness and
contour. Soft materials, such as cellulose fiber or a low durometer rubber,
do not require nearly the stress that harder materials do, such as
compressed materials. To assure an adequate seal at operating pressure,
an additional preload on the gasket may be required. This preload, the
maintenance or "m" factor, also is dependent on the gasket material.
Thus, in designing a joint, both the "y" and "m" factors should be obtained
from the gasket manufacturer.

Bolt Load Calculations

Practical assembling of a gasketed flange requires tightening of a series

of bolts to affect the required compressive load. Ideally, the amount of
gasket compression used is to assure that minimum gasket factors and
seating stresses are achieved.
 
Usually, the bolts must be torqued to assure that the minimum initial
assembly stress (S) is achieved. The calculation for S takes into account
the hydrostatic end thrust (H), the gasket factor "m" and the minimum
seating stress "y".

Alloy Steel Stud Bolts

Diameter Threads Coarse Threads
of Bolt per Inch
Ft.-Lbs. In.-Lbs.
1/4" 20 8 96

5/16" 18 16 192

3/8" 16 24 288

7/16" 14 40 480

1/2" 13 60 720

9/16" 12 90 1080

5/8" 11 120 1440

3/4" 10 200 2400

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Tampa Rubber and Gasket Co. Inc - TORQUE DATA

S = y + mI + H/ A

Where: I = internal pressure

            A = area of gasket under compression
            H = hydrostatic end thrust
            a = area enclosed by mean dimension of the gasket

Since: H = I x a,

Then: S = y + mI + Ia /A

After the minimum assembly stress, S, is calculated and the proper bolt
spacing is established, the minimum torque per bolt, t, can be calculated:

t = S x A x D x 0.2 /N

Where 0.2 = factor for loss due to friction

            A = gasket area
            D = bolt diameter
            N = number of bolts

Each bolt can only be torqued to a maximum limit. Exceeding this limit
would stretch the bolt beyond its yield point (the point at which it is
permanently deformed), or possibly strip the threads beyond usefulness.
Care must also be exercised so that over-torquing does not distort the
flanges so that they are out of parallel. Listed in the table above are
Torque Data, which show the limits to which alloy steel bolts and studs
may be subjected for those grades shown by manufacturers with a yield
point above 70,000 PSI.
To determine the flange load on the gasket, the following formula applies:

Approximate flange load (gasket seating stress) =

N x T/ 0.2 x D x A

Where: N = number of bolts

            T = maximum torque (in.-lbs.)
            D = diameter of bolt (in.)
            A = area of gasket (in2 .)
            0.2 = factor for friction

It must be cautioned that flange load calculations are only approximate.

Dry bolts require greater torquing effort than lubricated bolts, since there
is an exceptional amount of friction to overcome. Heavier flanges, higher
yield bolts, etc., are all significant in arriving at an accurate flange load
value. Use the formula only as a guide.
It must also be re-stated that flanges are specifically designed for certain
pressure and temperature applications and that obtaining the initial seal is
only one part of the gasketing story. There other conditions to consider
before a selection is made.

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Tampa Rubber and Gasket Co. Inc - TORQUE DATA

Proper Bolting

The sequence in which bolts are tightened has a substantial bearing upon
the distribution of the contact area stress. Improper bolting may move the
flange out of parallel. A gasket will usually compensate for a small
amount of distortion of this type, but serious difficulties may be
encountered if close paralleling is not maintained.
 
Correct bolting procedures are shown in the picture above. Following the
recommended procedure, these rules should be observed:
1. Lubricate bolts and washers.
2. Tighten bolts by hand first, following the pattern.
3. If using a torque wrench, set the wrench at about ½ the final
torque for the first go around, following the bolting pattern. For
highly loaded bolts, more steps are required.

It is important that final tightening be uniform with each bolt pulling the
same load.
Note: It is important for proper sealing that the flanges are clean and free
of any serious defects.

The Seal

CREATING THE INITIAL SEAL 2. Usually, the denser the

A seal is effected by compressing and gasket the getter its torque

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Tampa Rubber and Gasket Co. Inc - TORQUE DATA
forcing the gasket material into the
imperfection of the joint. A tight,
unbroken barrier occurs, leaving no
interface pathway for escape of the
confined fluid.
It is the gasket surface only that does
the sealing. The body of the gasket
essentially provides the elastic,
resilient properties. It is true that there
are gasketing materials which may
exhibit porosity, i.e., leakage, through
the body of the gasket under certain
conditions. A good seal is often
obtained, particularly for elastomeric
gasketing materials, through "swell" of
the gasket in contact with the fluid it is
sealing. A certain amount of swell is
desirable, provided the swell reaches a
stage of equilibrium and is not a
degradation process signaling the
breakdown of the gasket material.
 
CONSIDERATIONS TO MINIMIZE
TORQUE LOSS
One of the first considerations for
minimizing torque loss is choice of
gasketing material. Some materials
have inherently less creep relaxation
than others and are less subject to
torque loss. For most materials the
factors listed below also influence
torque retention.
1. Generally, the thinner the
gasket, the better its
performance. A 1/64" thick
gasket compared to a 1/8"
gasket of the same material will
reduce torque loss
proportionally more than the
straight line difference in
thickness for most materials.
However, though a thinner
gasket is more economical and
limits torque loss and creep
relaxation, it must be cautioned
that a switch from thicker to
thinner gaskets may not be
feasible. In flanges which
distort, are not perfectly flat and
rigid, or have pitted and marred
faces, sealing may be adversely
affected. The gasket must be
thick enough to assure that the
required sealing stress is
effected along the entire gasket
surface.
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retention properties. Caution
must be exercised since denser
materials require greater seating
stress to seal, and light flanges
may not be adequately sealed
by turning to a denser material.
3. It has been fount that
increasing the total bolt load
tends to reduce the adverse
effects of stress relaxation.
Greater torque losses will invariably
occur in flange-bolt materials of
dissimilar metals, primarily due to the
thermo-mechanical effects of the
metals. For example, an aluminum top
flange bolted to a steel bottom flange
will each expand at a different rate as
temperature increases. Aluminum has
a coefficient of expansion roughly two
times that of steel. Expansion and
contraction upon heating and cooling
will produce a greater physical
movement than the gasket can
accommodate or which may cause
severe deformation and plastic flow of
the gasket itself. Sealability is
therefore in jeopardy.
 
LUBRICATING, BOLTING &
WASHERS
Further, minimizing of torque loss may
be obtained through refinement of
hardware holding the flange together.
As a rule, the higher the initial gasket
load the less torque loss occurs. To
obtain a higher torque load, the
following alternatives can be
considered:
1. Adequately lubricating the
mating parts, threads, nuts
washers and underside of bolt
heads to reduce friction.
2. Selecting bolts of a superior
alloy which have a higher yield;
however, only to the extent that
the flange would not be
distorted by excessive torquing.
3. Using a conical washer
instead of a flat washer, the
following results should occur:
(a) it lengthens the bolts to a
slight degree, thereby allowing
for more bolt elongation.
(b) the washer has an elastic
effect, and will partly
compensate for some of the
gasket resilience loss.
Tampa Rubber and Gasket Co. Inc - TORQUE DATA

RETAINING THE INITIAL SEAL

Obtaining a good gasket seal on the first go around doesn't necessarily
insure against gasket failure. The function of a gasket is to seal and retain
its seal in operation. Replacing a "leaker" in a relatively inaccessible
gasket location may result in considerable expense and downtime. Even
proper flange design, adequate bolting and sound installation practice do
not always insure against the subtle changes that take place in a
gasketing joint once in service. Changes in addition to creep relaxation of
the gasketing material itself may adversely affect the seal. Due to fatigue,
heat, mechanical vibration (the total dynamic process affecting the flange
unit), or chemical attack the gasket material may undergo physical
changes that may reduce its resilience that the total bolt load holding the
gasket in place may drop below the force required to maintain a seal. In
such cases leakage occurs.
 
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
The effects of temperature lead to the classification of materials as to
torque retention as shown in the table below. Under ambient conditions,
most gasket materials will not show any significant torque loss. As
temperature rises above 200 degrees Fahrenheit, torque loss becomes a
serious consideration and requires a gasket material which will be
minimally affected. If the gasket material is suitable for the temperature,
re-torquing at room temperature may compensate for torque loss. Studies
have shown that most torque loss occurs within 24 hours at temperatures
above 200º F. However, re-torquing adjustments are not always feasible
or desirable, and the gasket user should select the gasket material with
the most suitable torque retention characteristics. As shown in the table
below, flexible graphite is the most temperature resistant gasket material,
with compressed asbestos the best of elastomeric bonded materials
under extreme conditions. This statement should not be interpreted to
mean that similar performances for all types and grades of compressed
asbestos can be expected. The stress relaxation qualities even among
this one class of materials is variable. Only tests and the experience of
the gasket manufacturer or user will determine the most desirable.

Gasket Maximum Rank in Order of

Material Temperature Torque Retention
Flexible Graphite 5400º F * 1

Compressed Asbestos 650 / 1000º F 2

Compressed Non-Asbestos 600 / 750º F 3

Asbestos Beater Addition 450 / 650º F 4

Non-Asbestos Beater Addition 350 / 750º F 3-4

Expanded PTFE 500º F 5

Vegetable Fiber 250º F 6

Rubber (Chloroprene / SBR) 212 / 250º F 7

Cork-Rubber 250º F 8

Cork Composition 250º F 9

* = Non-oxidizing environment
Notes:
1. Non-asbestos compressed and beater addition exhibit a wider range of torque retention values
than asbestos counterparts.
2. For specific service temperatures, consult the manufacturer.

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Tampa Rubber and Gasket Co. Inc - TORQUE DATA

 
Numerically rated from 1 to 10, indicating comparative torque retention, i.e., "1" is best, "10" is
worst.
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