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LITERATURE REVIEW
Shah et al (1981) evaluated the mechanical properties of unidirectional E and glass fibers singly
and in combination as a hybrid reinforced in polyester and epoxy resins. Their results showed
that the E-reinforced polyester laminates have much better properties than the resins alone; but
the properties are inferior to those of glass-reinforced plastics.
Pavithran et al (1987) determined the work of fracture of natural fiber composites. They showed
that, E fiber composites have the maximum toughness followed by pineapple, banana and coir
fiber composites. Vinyl este fiber-unsaturated polyester, BFRPusp (0.68 fiber volume fraction)
and vinyl este fiber-epoxy BFRPepoxy (0.63 fiber volume fraction) composites have been
developed and their tensile, flexural and impact properties were evaluated and compared by
Seema et al (1992, 1993). They found that BFRPusp composites have marginally lower
properties than BFRPepoxy composites.
Jayamol et al (1995) evaluated the influence of fiber length, fiber loading, and orientation on the
mechanical properties of short pineapple-leaf-fiber-(PALF)-reinforced low-density polyethylene
(LDPE) composites under optimum conditions. The mechanical properties were found to be
enhanced and elongation at break reduced with increasing fiber loading. Longitudinally oriented
composites showed better properties than randomly and transversely oriented composites.
Devi et al (1997) analyzed the influence of fiber length, fiber loading and coupling agents on
tensile, flexural and impact properties of pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) reinforced polyester
composites. Fiber length was increased from 5 mm to 10, 20, 30 and 40 mm maintaining the total
fiber content 30 wt%. They found that the mechanical properties increase with the increase in
fiber length upto 30 mm. Similarly fiber content was varied from 0 wt% to 10, 20, 30 and 40
wt%, maintaining the fiber length as 30 mm. They found that the tensile and flexural properties
are maximum for fiber content of40 wt% and 30 wt% respectively.Mechanical properties of
untreated woven E fabric reinforced in general purpose polyester resin have been evaluated by
Gowda et al (1999).
Sapuan et al (2006) evaluated the tensile and flexural properties of wovenbanana fiber reinforced
epoxy composites. They found the maximumvalues of tensile stress, tensile modulus, bending
stress andbending modulus in X-direction and Y-directions. Arib et al (2006)investigated the
tensile and flexural behavior of pineapple reinforcedpolypropylene composites as a function of
fiber volume fraction.
Bisanda et al (1991) studied the effect of mercerization and silanetreatment on mechanical and
physical properties of E-epoxy composites with different fiber volume fractions. The authors
concluded that mercerization of E fibers leads to improved wet ability and reduction in water
absorption of the E-epoxy composites. Mercerization and silanetreatment improve the
compressive strength without significant effect on flexural properties of E epoxy composites.
The process ability characteristics and mechanical properties of coir fiber-reinforced natural
rubber composites have been investigated as function of fiber length and surface treatment
(Geethamma et al 1995). The optimum fiber length of coir fiber was found to be 10 mm in order
to achievegood reinforcement in natural rubber composites. From the mechanical properties, it
was observed that coir fibers should be immersed in 5 % sodium hydroxide solution for 48 h for
maximum tensile properties. The effects of different fiber treatments such as alkali, isocyanate,
permanganate and peroxide on tensile properties of E fiber-reinforced LDPE (low density
polyethylene) composites were investigated by Kuruvilla (1996). Alkali treated fiber showed
better tensile properties than untreated composites due toothier rough surface topography and
increase aspect ratio.
Gassan and Bledzki (1999) found that, at alkali treatment under isometric condition (20 minutes
at 20oC in 25% NaOH solution), the tensile and flexural properties of unidirectional E/epoxy
composites are considerably improved (upto 60% with 0.40 fiber volume fraction). The Young’s
modulus of untreated E/epoxy composites is 50% lower than glass fiber-epoxy composites,
whereas for alkali treated E fiber-epoxy composites, it is 30% lower.
Mohanty et al (2000) investigated the effect of surface modifications like dewaxing, alkali
treatment, and cyanoethylation of E fabric on properties. Their results indicated that alkali
treated E fabric composite has the highest tensile, bending and impact properties compared to
properties of composites treated with other processes.
Razera and Frollini(2004) prepared composites based on phenolic resin with both untreated
antalkali and ionized air-treated E fibers with different fiber lengths and fiber content. E fiber
treatment with a solution of 5% NaOH exhibited the highest tensile strength. The composite
reinforced with 5% NaOH treated fiber showed the highest impact strength when it was
combined with ionized air (30% of fiber)
Mohan et al (1983), Mohan and Kishore (1985) reported that E provides a reasonable core
material in E-glass hybrid laminates. They evaluated compressive properties (1983) and flexural
properties (1985) of the E-glass fiber reinforced epoxy laminates fabricated by filament winding
technique using flat mandrel. They found substantial increase in flexural and compressive
properties with hybridization.
Clark and Ansell (1986) conducted tensile test, fracture toughness test, environmental test and
fractography studies on E-glass composites with various stacking sequences using E in the form
of randomly oriented chopped strand mat and glass in the form of plain and twill weave fabric.
They concluded that five ply laminate PJPJP (P-plain weave glass, J-E)with glass with its
protective outer glass plies has a most balanced set of properties compared on cost basis with
other arrangement
. Pavithran et al(1991) determined the work of fracture by impact testing on E–glass hybrid
composites with two arrangements, one with E shell and glass core and the other with glass shell
and E core. They showed that the E shell laminate has the higher work of fracture compared with
glass shell hybrid laminates of equivalent volume fraction of E and glass fibers. The mechanical
properties of coir-glass hybrid composites containing varying amount of glass fiber have been
evaluated by Pavithranet al (1991) and compared with those of glass reinforced composites
(GRP)containing equivalent volume fraction of glass. Sandwich laminates with GRPin the shell
and coir or coir-glass intermingled hybrid composite at the core were prepared
Thwe and Liao (2002, 2003) studied the effects of fiber length, vinyl ester to glass fiber ratio and
coupling agent MAPP (maleic anhydride polypropylene) on the mechanical properties. By
incorporating 20 %( bypass) glass fiber in a total fiber content of 30% (by mass), the tensile and
flexural modulus of BGRP were increased by 12.5% and 10% respectively; and the tensileand
flexural strength were increased by 7% and 25%respectively compared to those of BFRP. The
tensile properties were further improved by using MAPP compatibilizer.
Mishra et al (2003) studied the effect of glass fiber addition on tensile, flexural and izod impact
strength of E fiber reinforced polyester composites and pineapple fiber reinforced composites
and found significant improvement in the properties by incorporation of glass fiber.
John and Naidu (2004) have studied the unsaturated polyester-based E-glass composites with 5%
and 8% total fiber volume fraction and found a considerable enhancement in impact,
compression,flexural and tensile properties. For 50:50 E-glass hybrid composite, the increase in
the impact strength for 5 and 8 vol% total fiber content over that of the matrix were found to be
120 and 301% respectively.
Butthe compressive strength of the reinforced samples was decreased by 6.5 and23
19.5% for 5 and 8 vol% total fiber content, respectively from that of
unreinforced matrix. The tensile and impact properties of oil palm fiber-glass
(2005). Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) in mat form and E-glass strand
mat fibers were used as reinforcement in epoxy resin. The authors found that
2.3.2
were prepared with coir fibers (treated and untreated) chopped to a length of
strength, 40% increase in tensile modulus, flexural and charpy impact strength
polyester resin. Laminates fabricated from alkali treated coir fibers showed
better mechanical properties than those fabricated from the untreated fibers.
TDI treatment. From their study, it was concluded that the titanate treatment
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and impact strength of E-glass composites with 24.3 E wt% and 5.7
glass wt% (optimum fiber contents) are studied. Among different chemical
for 50:50 E-glass hybrid composite, the effect of alkali treatment and silane
50:50 E-glass hybrid composite has been obtained from alkali and silane
treatment.
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(UV) radiation. Their results revealed that best mechanical properties were
composites at 1:3 weight ratio, showed the best charpy impact strength which
is 41% higher than untreated E-glass hybrid composites.
2.4
PERFORMANCE
the properties and performance of both natural and synthetic fiber reinforced
when immersed in liquids and in humid air. Rao et al (1981) investigated the
and epoxy resin systems, under constant humidity (ø) and ambient
increased with increased fiber volume fraction, whereas the time needed to
impermeable fibers like e.g., glass, graphite etc, in the same resin matrices.
Bonnian and Bunsell (1981) used single phase and two phase
diffusion models which are based on Fick’s law to study water diffusion
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They showed that the first hardener material (diamine) followed single phase
diffusion, the second (dicyandiamide) followed two phase diffusion and the
third (anhydride) was found to degrade in the presence of water. The moisture
absorption by the laminates and its effect on flexural properties were studied
by Mohan and Kishore (1983, 1985) by immersing the flexural test specimens
in water for 145 h, after which the specimens were tested. The reduction in
strength is found to vary from 11.1% for E reinforced plastic to 2.7 % for
hybrid with higher glass volume fraction indicating that the hybrid possesses
forms (chopped and woven) of same reinforcement (glass) has been studied
(CSM) and woven roving (WR) of glass in different sequences within the
laminate. They found that the laminate containing the alternative layers of
CSM and WR with woven roving as the top layer has the lowest diffusion co-
efficient. They also studied the effect of water absorption on short beam shear
strength of the composites for different periods of immersion and for different
fiber volume fractions. They reported that, higher the volume fraction in the
specimens, greater is degradation on exposure to wet environments.
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properties of vinyl este fiber composites (BFRP) and vinyl este-glass fiber hybrid
significant drop in the mechanical properties for all the three cases of
composites.
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composites. The fabric was obtained using banana yarns in warp direction,
with alternate bundles of banana and glass yarns in fill direction. Huang et al
and flexural tests were conducted on samples immersed in water for 7, 14 and
21 days. The tension test results indicated that the tensile stress decreases with
increasing trend with increasing water immersion time. They concluded that,
higher uptake of water in thin panels, and filling of voids and cracks with
They reported that the thickness swelling and water absorption of the
2.5
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES
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mosaic model, fiber undulation model and bridging model for stiffness and
strength investigation of plain and satin weave composites. They applied the
and 800 g/m2 woven glass roving (WR) reinforced polyester laminae, using
tensile and rail shear tests. Also the elastic properties of both types of laminae
were predicted from resin and fiber properties and the fiber volume fraction
experimental and predicted values has been made. They found that for CSM
direction (ET), a large deviation (15%) was noticed. Similar observation was
made with regard to the measured and predicted Poisson’s ratios. For woven
30
fabric reinforced composites. Tensile and shear tests were performed as per
test results and Poisson’s ratio predicted by Voigt and Reuss was not
Ey and Poisson’s ratio υxy were determined by tension test and shear modulus
Gxy was determined by shear test, using biaxial strain gauge instrumented on
the samples. The elastic properties predicted by the model were compared
with experimentally measured values for materials like E-glass-vinylester
E-glass woven fabric/epoxy, 2/2 twill carbon woven fabric/epoxy and 2/2
values.
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2.6
discontinuity, as a result of which the load carrying ability of the material will
behavior since the crack growth in these materials is not self similar. Hence
extensive research has been carried out to analyze the fracture behavior in
(PSC) and Average Stress Criterion (ASC) based on the normal stress
distribution adjacent to the notch edge. These criteria involve the parameters;
model is not material constant and proposed a modified PSC model which
construction made from unidirectional tape Prepregs. They showed that the
Damage Zone Criterion (DZC) based on the assumption that a damage zone
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the tensile strength of the notched laminate reaches the tensile strength of the
unnotched laminate. Taking into account the stress redistribution by damage
Naik et al (1990) addressed the effect of the stacking sequence on the notch
(1995) reported the effects of hole size and specimen width on the fracture
layers
on the notch sensitivity by testing six different lay ups with increasing number
of ± 45
0
layers ranging from (0)5 to (45)5. Belmonte et al (2001) conducted
laminates made from woven glass fabric in epoxy resin. In addition to Point
Stress Criteria (PSC) and Average Stress Criteria (ASC) models, they
zone near the notch edge propagates stably initially and then catastrophically
strength by PSC, ASC and CDG models were found to agree well with the
experimental observations.
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2.7
tolerance of these materials was evaluated based on three parameters, viz. Ec,
b and Nc. Ec is the critical incident energy above which significant damage in
N/ log Pm
o) versus
th
impact), Pm
cycles. Smaller the value of ‘b’ means more damage resistant material. The
parameter ‘Nc’ is that value of number of cycles, at which the maximum load
appreciable level of damage in the material. From the values of Ec, b and Nc,
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resin laminates. The planar delamination and fiber breakage were found to be
response to predict the threshold values for damage initiation does not require
tolerance. They found that, the impact response and energy absorption are
dependent on laminate geometries, and the initiation of damage can be
with the experimental results. They found good agreement between predicted
and experimental values with less than 10% error. Low velocity impact test
showed that the delamination and fiber breakage are the predominant failure
silane coupling agents viz., 0.01, 0.4 and 1.0 wt% γ-MPS (γ-
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at elevated temperature.
thickness, impactor kinetic energy and impact velocity on low velocity impact
plies. From the maximum deflection versus incident energy plot, they found
that 10-ply specimens are stiffer than 5 ply. They concluded that through
accurate estimate of the ILSS was made for the 5-ply tests. However, for 10-
ply specimens, the same method gave a value half this value since the
glass composites. Sugun and Rao (2004) conducted low velocity impact tests
on glass, Kevlar and carbon fiber composites, under repeated drops. They
concluded that the repeated drop weight impact tests provide a very good
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between damage width and CAI strength. The second method involved
idealizing the damage zone as a circular hole, and using point stress failure
criterion, the CAI was predicted. The predicted results were compared with
the measured CAI strengths and good agreement (less than 5% error) was
achieved.
fabricated and tested. From their study, they found that, hybrid composites
exhibited stiffness that was greater than that of glass-epoxy and less than that
of carbon-epoxy laminates. By providing glass fabric on the back surface,
higher strain to failure. They concluded that the damage tolerance of the
rectangular low fiber volume hand laminated woven roving E-glass polyester
and different weights of woven roving with different degrees of fiber crimp
They concluded that addition of Kevlar and hybrid to the face sheet
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face sheet.
2.8
FEW OBSERVATIONS FROM LITERATURE SURVEY
components.
not be a feasible attempt when the cost, time and effort involved
into consideration.
• Most of the models proposed in the past for prediction of elastic
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literature in hand reveals that, neither the CLT nor the models
elastic constants.
fracture models for notch sensitivity prediction etc, has not been
date