V E C TO R ANALY S I S

AN INTRO DUCTIO N

V E C TO R -
M E TH O D S
AND THEIR VARIOUS APPLICATIONS

P H Y S I C S A ND NI A TH E M A TI C S

5 3 1 V
3)

BY

J OSEPH G EO RG E O FFIN, BS Pu D
C . .
, . .

(m s rN s r
'
T E CH .
’
98 A ND 0 m m: Ue nns rrr
'
O3 )
A O A
. .

Ex SS TE r a o r ns s o n o r r m src s AT rn n co mmo n o r m
'
-
CI

CI TY OF NEW Y ORK

CO UL
NS

G E NE R AL A B
L
T I N G AN D D E V E O PM E NT E N G I N E ER

K IN G C OM A
P NY
W ITH m

S E C O N D E DI T I O N

To ta l Iss ue Se v e n Tho usand

JOHN WI LEY SON S, I N C .

LO NDO N : C HAP M AN 8: BALL, LIM IT E D

 PREFACE

i ce the eve e t Q t y
Wi i w it the
EV E R s n d lopm n of ua e rnio n anal sis , by
“
Ha m l
eh e the e ee i ee i th t
Sir ll am Ro an o n, a nd of Ausdehnungs

the e ec ce e y i we e
l r
”
,
by G r ass m an n ,
r has b n a gro w ng f l ng a

ehi ct tifici c e
o ld r a nd m o r o m m o n pro ss s o f a nal s s r in

e i t it ch ec the ewe
so m way ar al and o m pl x .

eth ie y e t y e i y
T s fa x s s, fo r is su ,
b ause se n r

e i ect y y the c ce ti e et
m o ds a nd d as appl m or n a urall ,
m or s m pl a nd

ech ic the tic hy ic th th e of

m or d r l to m an of on p o ns g om ry ,

cce t
m an s an d ma ma al p s s, an os lo ng

W the h ve the itt v t e

a p ed .

ve ti the eth we e e d ad an ag s no t led to a

hy n a se adm m ore

th t the e e ch e i e e th ht
uni rsal a do p on of se m ods The a ns r se m s to be

t ti ic we w th t ch e
a r q ui r d a ng of d as , o f m ann r of o ug a nd

ev ve w y th h y ev ti w
Of no a on , was too rad al . I t is ll kno n a ang s

ce the y cee the e t

ol sl o l ,
and al o ug to m an ,
olu on is far too slo

e i ity i i t the e i e e t
a p ro ss , o nlway to pro .
d is to aid to b s of

t ie e ve the ic ti
on
’
s ab l in br ng ng abou d s r d r sul .

the tic y i hy ic e et ic and

One who has s ud d labo r d o r a ppl a o ns

e t y e ct ce i c the ii
of ma ma al a nal s s to p s al an d g om r al pro b

t t ew w c y fa m l
l m s, na ura ll has r lu an to d s a rd o ld ar

i ee t e
lo o ki ng fo rm ulae and s ar an in an un kno n a nd radi all

d ff
weve e t the i e ity h the
r n languag .

Ho
i ee vi e te the e
r gr a s kill a nd n g nu s o wn by

w y e t the th ht the i e t e t th t c Q
p on r in s ol ng p r o b l ms by ua rni o ns , r wa s

e i e i te etwee the the eth

al a s l f o ug to unb as d s ud n a a la k

t e t e t ch c te y e e i t it
K of p a r all l sm x s d b n Old a nd ne w m o ds

y i the t ye th t eth e
of r a m n . Su a la k undo ub dl do s x s , b ut is
onl dur ng las fe w a rs a a m od has b en
v
vi RF P E ACE .

v ve which v i t i t e ect chiefly th h

the i e vi i e th t yi
e ol d ds h s fa al d f
a o . I t is ro ug

o f G bbs a nd H a

ee e ecte hich y e w y ith the

labors s d a a n a n al s s has

c e ity th y
b n p rf d w no t o nl do s a a w unnec

e t ict y t the e e i ect i e a nal

essa r y o m pl x a nd artifi ciality of o er se s but

tit te i e the e ti e wi e and s

off rs a s r l na ural a nd r fo r as d r m pl a

v i ce e the
subs u as p o ss bl . a nd, a t sa m m in no s is at

hi yet eth ect y i it

a r an , but runs p a ra ll l to m .

i e withi it e t the v t e th Q t
T s ne w , o ld m od is V or Anal s s; co m

i te i y i
b n s n s lf m os of ad an ag s o f bo ua e r

ti ect y i e the
n o ns a nd o f Car s an Anal s s .

t e i icity ect e with it the t e

The a dop on o f V o r Anal s s is urg d on gro un ds

e i ce e e t ht ce y
o f na uraln ss , s m pl a nd di r n ss ; ru

i e e i e evi ti tie
m a n ng of p ro ss s a nd r sul s is broug o ut a s l arl

itt th t t i ht c e thi e t
as p o ss bl ,
a nd d s ra bl a bbr a on is ob a n d .

t ti adm

the tic eth fice ch

I t is e d, a to a s ra g a nd l ar n k r, al m o s

ch e t ti eth e h y
any no a on or ma ma al m o d suf s , a nd to su

w th hi e e y tt i e the e t
a o ne, an g s in no a on o r m od m ay app ar a rdl

He has
hich e ce w the i te i e t i i ti
or W l . alr a d a a n d o ne of r sul s

vect eth thi the e e t the

w , p rfo r ,
fo llo n ll g n a ss m la on of a

tt i e t i e t ti which the ic c
or m od o f n ki ng . To him r is l f but

c e th ht A e e vect
a a nm n of a s m pl no a on is lo g al a e o m

ce t ti the e e ci e the t ch te
p a ni m e nt o f l ar o ug . few x a m pl s o f o r co n

thi the e vect t ti ith t

n ra o n are to be fo und in x r s s of las ap r

But
the i i ht c e c ce ti which h O t i the
of s bo o k . sol use o f o r no a o n, w ou

e ti e ith t v e wh t eve viti te the

ns g a nd l ar on p o ns s o uld b a n at

vect i t view c t y the i it it

s am m ,
is w ou a ny alu a so r, a s

t ece y t te th t the i the

or p o n of , a nd is o n ra r to sp r of .

hy ici t ht the ty e we e e ifie

I t is alm o s unn ssa r to s a a m nd o f

the i y h the i e ce
p s s o ug to be of V l S ll al p so ll x m pl d in
He
eei the et th t they c ti
m nd of Fa ra da . s o uld se e l n s of fo r

withi the et w the i eye

m rg ng fro m m agn ; see a a re on nuo us

theyt i i ce c cev tii c thee he he hwhich ve thee

m al ; fo llo m, in his m nd s
’
n , as

are d spla d by a r o us aus s ; s o uld a so m

etic w ve t ve i th h the ethe

so r of a v sual on p on of m ann r in
lectro m agn
w -
a s are ra l ng ro ug r
 RF P E ACE . Vii

the ive e ce the ive e c

he e h h ve i e e i
around him ; to him d rg n a nd d rg n e

i the th thi the t y the tic

t or m s o uld a a s m pl m a n ng .

hy ic t e e y e ie ytic t
To a m nd o r an s, s ud of ma ma al

ti with t the vit ity thei vi i ific ce

m us be m l s o f a n al al ra ns fo rm a
p s s r a s r

e y ytic i i ti ct the vi i t
o ns ou al of r sual s gn an . To

ty e the eth ect y i e ce itt e

p ur l anal al m nds , as d s n fro m sual o r n u

e th ytic h th the i t itive i

itiv e p ,
m o ds o f V or Anal s s r du to l l

h weve they i i tive i yi wi

m or an a n a nal al s or an d . To n u m nd,

the i the h w ite the e e ti ct

o r, a re llum na a nd s m plif n g, allo ng

t ti e e ith the e e y e
m nd to grasp and a nd to r ss n al fa s

i e c e ty t i y i i ie
a nd ra ns fo rm a g o ns , un m ba rrass d w n rall un d

t y y ect y i e
s rabl o m pl xi o f Car e s a n s m bo l s m I t is m poss bl .

h ve i ev i vee th ht e c e e ett
to s ud a nd to appl V o r Ana l s s to pro bl m s a nd no t

d a nd m ad l a r r and b by
’
to a on s as o ug er

he e ve y e the e v t e
t he labo r n ol d .

t e we c te with titie c e c
T r are r go o d r a s o ns fo r all s ad an ag s . In

hich h ve i e it e y with the

Na ur are o nfro n d q ua n s all d s ala rs

titie c e vect hich h ve i ecti we a nd

w a s z or m agn ud o nl ,
also o r

t e e i te vect
all

titie
q ua n s d o rs w a d r on as ll as

O e eth they we e ec i t th ee
m agni ud . In o rd r to m a n pula or q ua n s by
t he
th ee it y e the e ti e
ld r m o ds , r d o m po se d n o r co m

the e c e t it evi e t th t the i i

p o ne n ts a lo n g r a rb ra r a x s a nd o p ra o ns m ad

th ee it y e tifici ce th t
upo n s o m po n n s . Is no t d n a br ng ng

the ec iti the vect i t c e t the e

in of r a rb rar ax s is an ar al p ro ss , a nd a

e tifici t eve W i ect y

d o m po s on of or n o o m po n n s alo ng s

the vect it e i te it with t e

ax s is also ar al, unn a ural n? hy no t go dr l

with t c e t thi ie the

to or s lf m an pula
a nd ou a x s a nd

wi e tte t e h w it
ou o m po n n s? To do s , is p o ss bl , a n d in

e
foll o ng p g
a s a n a m p is m ad to s o ho w m ay be
don
he e ti the i ee t e
.

t y ect y i th ti y hy i
T r is s ll an o r gro und for urg ng m or x e nd d

cith tt ie we thei h ve eee e c hive te i eth

s ud of V or Anal s s a n no w o b a ns . SO m a n p s

i i ity Whe
s s o f r no n a b n on r d to its m o ds a nd use

ch et e vi i e i
a to gno r r l a d rs p is an m p o ss b l . n

su m en as Lo r n z, FOppl, H a s d ,
Bucherer G bbs , ,
viii PREFACE .

h je e B ee h y the
c ve te it hi h ti e th t the t e t
Abra am , r kn s , So m m rf ld, Co n and m an o rs are

hi e e t with vect t ti eve

on r d to its use , is g m a s ud n fa m il

ec e e e t
iarize m s lf at l as o r no a o n, n if no t to

e y the v t i ve e t th t t e
b om an xp r in its use .

ce e ye
No o ne c an

c ce ti
d n

hy ic as m pro m n a has ak n

ce e wi e y th t e t thi i ve
l in rec nt ars, in o ur on p o ns o f p s al pro
p a ,

e t ee the i e i t ce with the ve t

ss s ; a nd few ll d n a a larg p ar of s m pro

vect eth th ht
m n has b n due to d as n ro du d ad n

of

h t i ithe e t ce he tech eceic it ti ie y

T a
or

Lagra ng
m o ds o f

r du
o ug

d all o f
.

m an s to a pur l a na

ce t i y w e cc i h e t ch
lytical bas s w ou , as bo as s, n ss a d agra m s ,
ng

ce e e e e t the e ti ec e ive with

is r a nl a o nd rful a o mpl s m n . Ye t ho w m u

e i the e ic t ti et
l a r r a nd m or l gan if q ua o ns b om al

t e wh t t ce O t i e
m a n n g, if to alg bra ra ns fo rm a o ns a m n al p ic

we ve e i e e e ce v the
ur of a is a ki ng pla is b a n d !
Ma x
eth whe he i e t the ti
ll ga a spl nd d r f r n in fa or of new

the
m o ds

ht the ject e the we d, in of

n sa sp a ki ng abo u mo on
“

e e chi y i th th t the c c
to p , Poinso t has bro ug s ub und r po r

which i e t e the ce y i te i i e
of a m or s ar n g an a l s s an a of al ulus , in

e e e e ti
d as ak pla of s m bols a nd n ll g bl r
p p
o o

ect y i the v t e
sitio ns sup rs

e
d
”
q ua o ns .

eth we th e the i e ic eth

Anal ha s ad an ag s o f La grang
’
V or s s s ana

lytical m o d as ll as os of d alo g al m od

w it e
o f Po ins o t

e the ejecti
.

ythi v e eth wh t eve

The r er do s no t, in a ny w ay , urg r on of

we it i te e th t the eth ect y i

an ng of alu in any m od a so r. I t is no t

h e e ti y i e e t th e which the
ll no r is n nd d a m o ds o f V or Anal s s

t et e cc t e ct it ee
s o uld be ss n all d ff r n fro m os to

the th h t t ev ve y i which
s ud n is s uppo s d to be a us o m d. I n fa ,
has b n

the w e e the e e i e i te y ie
ai m ro ug ou hi s b o o k to ol a n a nal s s to

e thi y i th t te i e ti
all kno l dg of r ad r c a n be mm d a l appl d,

i e i t y w itte vect t ti c ve y
a nd to so xpo und s a nal s s, a Car s an qua o ns m ay

he e ti the i t v t e which h
be m m d a el r n in o r no a o n a nd on rse l .

ve e th t vect t ti j t vect
T r is s ll a no r m po r an t a d an a g ,
s ould

not be o rloo k d, a is , or no a on us as or
 R FA P E CE . ix

h ht e ti e y i e e e t ch ice e
e e e e ce yet the t ti the vect
t o ug ,
is n r l nd p nd n o f any o o f a x s, or

ti i t the y t e i i the e e e
p la n s of r f r n ,
a nd ra nsfo r m a on o f or

w y e te ey e y ve th t
e qua o ns n o o r s s ems, r q u r ng s ax s or p la n s

i v i t ch e e wy e
is al a s x r m l as . To pro a a na tural inv ari

the w ite e t e e y i h O e ti w te
a nt is n ar an to a a ng o f ax s, has al a s app are d

ti e hi yi th t the tic the y

to r r an x r m l foo l s p ra o n a nd a as

i v i t ch e ty e ic e e i
Of m . T s is n o t sa ng , a in a ma ma al or

i t ctive i t e ti e e th t
Of n ar an s su a p p
ro r o f an al g b ra xpr ss o n is
But to
e tie the i e ce which e i
no t ns ru or n er s ng . say , fo r xa m pl , a

ce i ht e the i e
the p rop r s of l n s of fo r c ut a se t o f qu po

e e e t the tic e e
te n tial surfa s at r g angl s , l n s F V V)

ve tit thte vthey with thew te tie ee e thee ei tit

m ay be d p nd n upo n p a r ular se t o f ax s us d to
i n s ga m , is a as of m to s ay l as . How

tt t the tic i e ch
c an a ru ar languag us d in xpr ss ng ?

e t e ve y c ce the i icity ct which it

No a emp at ma ma al r go r is m ad . Su re fi ne

the e e e ci te e ce
m n s s r o nl to on al s m pl of fa ,
is

e te e the ite c i e e ti e y
the aim of s p g
a s to lu da . The app a ra n of

ce th the the h
x nd d proo fs , wr r o ns d rs to be n r l o ut of

e v the tic i th he the i t

p la in a boo k o f i s ki nd . On o r a nd, no o ne is

i y e i i t i c i wh e e e ce w e
mor in fa or of ma ma al r gor an ; p o n is

the tte ti t y the i i e the e t

s m pl to l m na e d s uss o ns os pr s n o uld l ad

c e whe eve e t ti e ti y the

a n o n as ra fro m ma n d as o f a rgu m n .

ti i the e t ei y
In a ny as ,
n r a d m o ns ra on do s no t sa sf

e cie y e et i het ti w ev te
fa s d ous , r s ul s m ay be found m o r r go ro usl ,
if no t

m or l arl ,
s a bl s d in or ks d o d to m athem a t
i c ally
t e t wi with itt e t y th t he e i y
r g o ro us d m o ns ra o ns .

ti t evectw ectt ti e ive te i t ti i ect y

The s ud n ll fi nd a l l s ud a m ay as l
ak do
e i t i wi c vi ce th tti e
l in Car d l
n ur s , n s an no a o n, r
g

i e wh t ti e i t t th t e ti
n o o r no a on . S r o us r al ll on n him a m

wi e t thi e
is ga n d and a is s ll m o r m po r an ,
a q ua o ns

ch ce th t the w ite i i i e hi e
ll be , m ust be , und rs o o d if s is do n I t is by pre
.

with the t ti jec te th t

cise ly su a pro ss a r r fa m l ar z d m s lf

Wi i
sub t .

the e t e ic hy ici t
The no a o n a do p d is a of Pro f . llard G bbs , o ne

of to o fe w gr a Am r an p s s s a nd m athe m a
-

x R FA P E CE .

th the e i
ticians . e e
Thei thi c ice
r aso ns y l ad ng to s ho a re full se t

fi t t the ev te c ci e t e t
for in App nd x .

e t the e t i ci e the ject the

The rs p a r of boo k is d o d to a on s r a

e i i ch te the ic ti the y i
m n of funda m n al p r n pl s of sub ,

the tic hy ic i c i e et y
r ma n ng ap rs , to a p pl a on of a n al s s to the

ech ic eti e ect icity he t hy y ic

begi nni ngs of ma ma al p s s, n lud ng g om r ,

ece y it y e ti ic ti
m an s, m agn sm , l r ,
a a nd drod na m s .

e ticity e ect the y the t hy ic

I t w as f o und n ss a r to om m an b au ful a ppl a o ns

e e the i e the e withi

in las ,
l ro n or a nd o r pa r s o f p s s in

t e t t e the te ch t e
o rd r to k ep s z of v o lum n bo unds .

ii ce t i e te t with the ject the ei

The s ud n w ho a k s up la r ap e rs , is suppo s d to

c tie
be fam l
the e ch te i te e h w the
ar , to a r a n x n ,
sub s r n

ei t i thee c c t te w ite e the et tee thee thethi e

on a n d, a nd s ap rs a re n nd d to s o

b g nn r ho w to ra nsla a nd d m o ns ra or ms

y ce t i ece y c ic e e ce the
n o ne w al ulus . The r r r fo r mak s s his

t e t et et t thee t v i te tiject c e t
apolo g fo r a r a n n ssa r la k o f lo g al s q u n in

ie ject
r a m n of a r o us s ub s .

ee itt ec e ctic y eve y e

The r a m n o f al rn a ng urr n s and all d sub s

the ject the t ti the eci vect eth

has b n om e d, b a us in pra all r m od rn bo o k

e ye ye i e e t it
on sub no a on of sp al or m od

h e th t e ti e i the te t
m plo d, is full x pla n d in so m p ar of .

th e c ecte the e
I t is op d a but few rro rs s ll r ma n in x .

e ti eci i c tie with i ti

The au or , alo n ,
o rr d p ro o f,
but num ro us

t ti e e e the c ecti ve y i c t
q ua o ns and sp al d ffi ul s met i n pr n ng i n

i
a ne w n o a o n, r nd r d o rr o ns r d ffi ul a nd

c y ee e e e
labo r o us .

the tic the e e the ity Saur l, pro f sso r o f

The op has b n r ad by Pro f .

the th wi he c w e e he e i e te e
ma ma s in Coll g o f C o f Ne w Yo r k, a nd

the i e we y v e e ti
au or s s to a kno l dg r his nd b dn ss fo r

et i e i t w Q t i e e e
k ndn ss as ll as for m a n a luabl s ugg s o ns .

e y e c e i i hy i he
Ad a l d l s of o r ks o n ua e rn o ns is r nd r d unne c

Ma fa rla n B bl o grap
the ci ti the ti the t y Q
by Pro f bl d
’
ssar sso r s p u s
“

t i which h veie ee thee e i y c i e ie t

by Asso a on fo r Pro m o on of S ud of ua
e rn o ns a nd All d Ma m at cs ,
”
Dubl n, 1 904 , b ut a l s of

wo rks a b n s p c ia ll o nsult d is a ppe nd d to

 PREFACE . xi

e ce the w ite he e c w e e i ti
the thi ccee i i the
the pr fa , an d r r r a kno l dg his o bl ga
s o ns

th tic i t view i i yi i e
to all o f m . If s bo o k su ds in m ak ng pla n

c i i e i e ee c e e th e e he wi ee
’
au or s p a r ular p o n of ; i n s m pl f ng d as , o r in

ye i i t e ci wh t
a us ng s m pl d as to s m l ar r an b fo r ,
ll f l

ve
am pl r p a d for any p a ns ak n in pro du ng a w as to
him a l ab or of lo .

J . G COFF IN
. .

NE W YORK , April 9, 1 909 .

PREFACE TO SECOND EDI TI ON

thi e iti e e which

c i y i c t i c ve
IN s new

w i v vi
d on a num b r o f sm all rrors are

y i e e t i ty e h ve ee c ecte
pe u l arl d ffi ul of ds o ry in a ork n ol ng so

i ce e th the w ite the e e

m an d ff r n k n ds of p a b n o rr d . The

c e e t h ve e t y he e thi evi i
s n r anks of r r are due to larg num b r o f

th e t te th t we e
o rr sp ond n s w ho a gr a l lp d him in s r s on .

the etic e ee i c ve e the e e t

The au o r is gla d to b e abl to s a a to his kno l dg

ti e
but one or al rror has b n ds o r d up to p r s n

e t i ti h ve ee ew itte tee e
m .

te h ve ee e the e i
C r a n p o r ons a b n r r n and four n p g
a s

tic ht iei i e e t v ietie

o f no s a b n a dd d to ap p nd x .

vect ce t i iti e iti e e ti e et y

In p ar ular a s or d gr ss on o n d ff r n ar s of

w th e e e ce c e ce w ich ee e i te e ti
o rs ; r a n add onal d fin o ns of diff r n al g om r

e the e t ti v e
i r f r n to urv s in sp a h s m d n r s ng

ce c ve i te e ti e e vect e i
an d us ful ; d m o ns o n of Frene t aluabl fo rm ulae
’
ra s

ie the ti the i e e ti e ti
fo r sp a ur s ; an n r s ng xam p l of o r r aso n ng

ti ap p l

e ect etic fie al
as d to so lu on of d ff r n q ua on of

t e he e we w
mo o n of an l ro n in a m agn ld ; tw o new p ro o fs

t e ti e vect y i
ok s

iti
fo und in
’
of S T or m no t as far as kn o any

he e the e i te ti
’
r a s of o r anal s s; an a dd o na l p roo f o f G auss s

the ive e ce he e
T or m; and p ro o fs o f tw o or m s in n gra o n analo

gous to D rg n T or m .
 RF P E ACE .

Both the i he the ite e i hte w th the

ece ti cc e thi itt e thi c t
publ s r and wr r are d lg d i
r p on a ord d s l l boo k in s oun ry and

ite the i i th t e t y e t
abroad .

the tic hy ic e e e t y e i y e t
The wr r is of op n o n a a gr a m an r sul s Of

the t e t e i e the i ht the t e

ma ma al p s s are l m n ar and as l und rs oo d

the e y fi hi e iti i ht e the

by s ud n if xpla n d in gr way , and s ud nt

e i c t e te i whe he c e the hi
r b n ds ms lf in a po s o n to go r g ah a d in

w itte with t t view ctic y

m or d ffi ul x ns o ns , n om s to m . T s

e e e t y c e the tic hy ic
boo k was r n ha end in . It is pra all

h e th t y wi thi v e he the
an l m n ar o urs in m a ma al p s s .

He al so
t et c i iti the et ect o lum
op s a no t o nl ll s lp

y i th t e t it wi w e
s ud n to an a u
q s on of fundam n als of V or

An al s s , but
e i e the t y th t t e ti e e iv
a also , and no t l as ,
ll a ak n in him a

che t y M he tic hy ic
d s r fo r fur r s ud in a m os b au ful an d xt ns e

e ieve th t thi c t the e we th te

o f all bran s o f s ud , at ma al P s s .

He b l
i the i i i t i ve ti t thi i e
s a in s o un ry r is a al of ma

they e c e ch the hi he che with

r al for m ak ng o f br ll an n s g a o rs in s l n ,
if

the e th t it ey thei c i itie

are n o urag d to appro a g r bran s

the e e e e the e c e e t
o ut f ar a is b o nd r ap ab l s .

He
e t h vi i ity thi i ecti th t it
r fo r m ak s a p l a fo r n o urag m n of stu

e i th t we
d n s a ng ab l s d r

the t the
in o n so a soo n c an n o

the W e they t
long r b e sa d a are no t up to s andard o f in

we h ve ee h ic e we h e the c
v estigato rs o f Old o rld Tru , . had a long s ar t

y e t the
and a b n an d app d, but op in o urs e

o f a few ears to be abr as o f m .

J . G . C O F F IN .

NE W YO RK , J une 191 1 , .
 C O N TE N T S .

H
C APTER I

L NTAR CT R
.

E E ME Y OPE RA ON
TI S or VE O A NAL YSIS .

D efi n itio ns V ec tor Sca lar

Gra phica l R epre sen tatio n of a V ector
Eq ua lity o f V ectors Neg ativ e V ector Unit V ector
R ec iprocal V ector
4 . Co m pos itio n of V ectors Addit ion and S ubtrac t ion V ector
S um as an
5 . Sc alar a nd V ec tor Fields Po int F unc tio n Defi n ition
-
of

Lam é Co nt inuity o f Sca la r and V ec tor F un c tions

D ecom pos ition of V ec tors
The Unit V ectors l j k
V ector E quations Eq uat io ns of Stra ig ht Line and Plane
C o ndit io n that Three Ve ct o rs Te rm inat e in a Straight Line
Exa m p les
E quation of a Pla ne
Pla ne Passing thro ugh Ends of Three Giv e n V ec to rs
Co ndition tha t F our V ec to rs Term inate in a Pla ne
To D iv ide a Line in a Giv en R atio Cen troid
R e la tions I ndepe ndent

RC ROB L MS
of the Orig in Ge neral Co n dition .

EX E I S E S AN D P E

HA R
C PTE II

CALA CTOR ROD C

.

S E AN D VE P U TS o r Tw o V E CTO RS .

S c alar or Do t Produc t Laws of the Sca lar Pro duct

—
Line I ntegral of a V ec t or
S ur f —
ac eI t gn e r al o f a V ec tor
V ec tor or Cross Produc t De fi n ition
D istribut iv e La w of V ec t or Pr oduc ts Physica l Proo f
Cartes ian Expans io n of the V ec to r Produc t
xi ii
x1v CONTENTS .

AR T .

21 . Applica tions to Mec ha nics Mo m ent

22 . Mot io n of a R ig id Bo dy
Co m position Angular V eloc it ies

C RO L M
23 . of

EX E R IS ES AN D P B E S

HAPT RC E III

CTOR S CAL R ROD C CTORS

.

VE AND A P U TS O F TH EE R VE .

Possible Co m bina tions of Thre e V ec tors

Triple Sca la r Product V a - ( b xc )

Conditio n that Three V ec to rs lie in a Pla ne Ma nipula

tio n o f Sca lar Magnitudes o f V ec to rs
Triple V ec to r Product q a ( b xc )
x Exp a nsion and Proof .

D em o nstratio n by Cartesian Expans ion

Third Proof .

Products of More than Three V ec tors

R ec iprocal S ystem of V ecto rs
Pla ne Norm al to a. a nd Pa ssing thro ug h End of b Pla ne
thro ugh Ends o f Three Giv e n V ec to rs V ec tor Perpen
dic ula r fro m Origin to a Pla ne
Lin e through End of b Pa ra ll el to a,

Circle a nd Sphere
R eso lution of Syste m o f F orces Ac t ing on a Rigid Body
Ce ntral Ax is Minim um Co uple
EX E R C
IS E S AN D P ROB L MS E

HA R
C PTE IV

CTORS
.

D IF F E R N A ON
E TI TI OF VE .

35 . Tw o Ways in w hic h a V ec tor ma y V a ry D ifi ere ntia tio n with

R espec t to Sca lar V a r ia bles
3 6 Differentia tion
. of Sca la r a nd V ec to r Produc ts
37 . Applicatio ns to Ge o m etry Ta nge nt a nd No rm al
38 . Curv a ture Osc ula ting Pla ne To rt uosity — Geode tic Lines
 CONTENT S. XV

ART . P AC .

39 . Eq uations of Surfaces Curv il inear Co ordina tes Ortho

g o na l S yste m
40 . Applica tio ns to K inematic s of a Par ticle Hodographs
Eq uat ions of Hodographs .

41 . I nteg ratio n w ith R espec t to a S c alar V aria ble Orbit of a

Plan et Harm on ic Mo tio n Ell ipse
42 . Hodograph and Orbit under Ne wt o nian F orces

CS S ROBL M
43 . Partia l D ifferentia tion Origin of the Opera to r V

EX E R I E AN D P E S .

HA ER V
R NT AL O
C PT .

THE D I FF E E I PE RATO RS .

8 a 8

S calar and V ector F ie lds

Scala r an d
V ector F unct ions of Positio n Mathematical
and Physic al D isc o ntinuities

46 . Pote ntial Lev el or Equipo tent ia l Surfaces R ela tion

betw een F orce and Po te nt ial
V applied to a Sca la r F unction Gradie nt I ndependence
of Ax es F o urier s Law
’

48 .
V app lie d to Scalar F unctions Effec t of V on Sca lar
Product
The Opera tor 8 l V -
,
or Directiona l Deriv a tiv e Tota l Deriv ar

50 . D irectio nal Deriv ativ e of a V ec tor V a pplie d to a V ec tor

Po int F un c tio n
-

D iv ergence The Operator V o

The Div erge nce The orem Exa m ples Equa t io n of F low
o f Hea t

Eq uatio n of Contin uity Sole no ida l D istribut io n of a V ector

(hi rl The Operato r V "
Exa m ple of Curl
Motion of R otation witho ut Curl I rrota tio nal Motion .

V, V °
, V x
applied to V ar ious F un c tions Proo fs o f F o rm ula

Expansion Analogo us to Ta ylor Theorem

’
s

S to kes Theorem
’

Co ndit io n for V anishing of the Curl Co nse rv a t iv e System

of F orces
m CONTENT S .

F AG.

60 . Co ndition for a Per fect D ifi ere nt ia l 1 29

61 . Express io n fo r Ta ylo r ’
s Theo re m — The Ope ra to r 13 1

62 . Eule r
’
s Theore m on Ho m ogeneo us F unc tio ns 13 1

63 . Operators I nv o lv ing V Tw ice Possible Co m bina tio ns

ROB L M
64 m
Differe ntia tion of r by ’
.
V
ExERCIS ES AN D P E S

CHAPTER
L CA O N
VI .

APP I TI S TO E LE c I C AL THE OR Y .

Gauss s Theore m
’
S olid Ang le Theore m for the
’
Ga uss s

Pla ne Sec on d Proof .

66 The Po te ntial F unct io n s and La pla ce Eq ua tions

’
Po isso n
’
. s

Ha rm o nic F unc tio n

Theorems
’
Green s

F orm ula
’
Gree n Gree n F unctio n
’
s s

S olut io n of Po isso n Eq ua t ion The I nte g ra ting Ope rator

’
s

d”
Pot
If ] : 2
V ector -
Potentia l
Sepa ratio n o f a V ec tor F unc t io n in to So le no idal
-
an d La m ellar
Co m po nents Other S yste m s o f Un its
Energy in Terms of Potential
Energy in Terms of Field I ntens ity
S urface a nd V olum e Density in Te rm s of Po lar iz a tio n
Electro -
Magnetic F ield Maxw ell s ’
Eq ua tions .

Eq ua tio n of Pro pa ga t io n of E le c tro -

Magne tic Wa v es
The ore m R a dia n t V ec tor
’
Po ynting s

Magnetic F ield due to a Curre nt

Mec ha nical F o rce o n a n Ele m e nt of Curre nt
Theo re m o n Line I ntegral of the No rm a l Com p o ne nt of a

V ec tor F unc tio n .

Elec tric F ield a t a ny Po int due to a Curre nt

Mutual Energy of Circ uits I nduc ta nc e Ne uma nn
’
s

I ntegral
V ec tor Potential
-
of a Curre nt Mutual Energy of S yste m s
o f Co nduc to rs I ntegra tio n The o re m .

Mutual
M
84 . and Self En e rgies
-
of Tw o Circ uit s

ExBRC I S ES AN D P RO B E L S
 CONTENT S . xv ii

CHAPTER VI I

L CA ONS NA CS C N CS DROD NA CS
.

APP I TI To D Y MI ,
ME HA I AN D HY Y MI

Eq uatio ns of Motion of a R igid Body — D Ale m bert s Equa ’ ’

85 .

tio n Eq uations o f Translatio n Mot ion of Ce nter o f

86 E quatio ns
. of R otatio n K ine tic Energy of R otation
Mo m ent of Inertia

Linear V ector F unctio n -

Insta ntaneo us Axis
Motion of Rotation un der No F orces — Po insot Ellipso id
Mom ents and Products o f I nertia Co ordina tes of a
Linea r V ec tor F unctio n — Princ ipal Mom ents of Inertia
-

Principal Axes
Geo m etrical Represe nta tion of the Motion I nv aria ble
Plane I nv aria ble Axis
90 . Polhode and Herpolhode Curv es Permanent Axes
Equations of Polhode and Herpolhode
Mo v ing Axes Motion Theore m of Coriolis
and R ela tiv e
Transforma tion of Equat ions o f Motion —Centrifugal Co uple
Gyrosc ope
E uler
’
s Eq uations of Motio n
Analytical Solutio n of Euler ’
s Equations under No I m pressed

Ham ilton s Princ iple

’
Lagra ng ian F unc tio n
Exte nsio n of V ector to More tha n Three Dim ensio ns
De fi nitions
Lagrange Generaliz ed Equa tions of
’
s Motion The Op
ato r VL 0 Conta in s the Whole
a
o f Mec ha nics

Hydrodyna m ics F unda m e ntal Equatio ns Equa tio n of

Co ntinuity Euler s Eq ua tio ns o f Motion of a F luid

’

Tra nsform ations of the Eq uat io ns of Motion

S tea dy Motio n Prac tic al Applica tio n
V orte x Motion No n -
c rea t a ble in a Fr ic tio nless System
Helmholtz s Eq ua tions ’

Circ ula tio n Defi nit ion

V eloc ity Pote ntial
-
Circ ula tion I nv ariable in a F ric tio n
less F luid

EX E RC S SI E AN D P RO L MS
B E
 CONTENTS .

APPE NDIX

TAT ON
.

NO I AN D F O RMUM .

Va rious Notatio ns in Use

Hea v iside

Co m pariso n of F o rm ula in Diff e re nt No ta tions .

No tatio n of this Bo o k

F O RM L
U E .

R ésum é of the Principal F orm ula of Vec to r Analysis

Ve cto r a nd Scala r Pro duc ts Pro ducts of Tw o V ecto rs

Produc ts of Th ree Vec to rs
Difi ere nt iatio n of Vec to rs
'

The Opera tor V , del

Linear V ec to r F unc tio n
Note on D ifi erent V ariet ies of V ecto rs
Defi nitio ns of t he No rm a l, No rm al Pla ne, Principal No rm al Ri
norm al an d R ect ify ing Plan e for a Spa ce C ur v e .

For mula for Sp ace C urv e

’
Frenet s a

M otio n of an Electron in a Uniform M agnet ic F ield

Theo rem
’
Proof of Gauss s

Index
 BIBLI OGRAPHY
Works Specia lly Cons ulted i n the Prepa ra tion o f this Book .

LL
APPE Tra ité. de Mécanique KE LLAND d TA T an I . In tro duc
R a t io nelle Q
tion to ua ternions
K R
.

O
.

B R N
JE K V orlesung en uber Hy
ES .
I V l
C HH FF . o r esungen ube r
dro dyna m ischen F ernkr afte M m i h
a the
h a t sc e P ysik
A RA
.
.

BUCHE R E R Ele m ents der V ek

L G Mé i N GE . c an u
q e Analy
tique
.

RN D i d ANTON Th
tor Ana lysis
O
.
-
.

L VE f El Theo ry o astic ity

BU
MA
P
. .

of
SI
Eq ua t
E an
o ns
. eory
LL El i i
XWE ectr c ty an d Mag

C
.
.

CL ORD El m f D mi i m
net s .

M AULAY
IFF e ents o n
y a c
Utility of Qua tem ions
. .

D R D Th
U E fO i . eo ry o p t cs .
in Physncs .

EMTA C E Intro duction the

to Oc tonions
N
. .

C
Mathem a tical Theory of Elec MI N C HI Treatise on Sta tic s
tric ity and Magne tism
. .

PI E E , B 0R Elem ents o f the

F EH R
Mé thode. V ectorielle de Theor of the Ne wto nian Po
. .

F I S HEC
Grassm a nn
R
V ektordifferentia tio n
.

un d V ektor in tegrat io n
.
teutia F unction
PO I N S OT Theo rie Nouv elle de la
R ota tio n des Co rps
.
.

O
. .

F O PPL Maxwell .
’
sche Theo rie R UTH R igid Dynam ics
. .

der Elektric itfi t .

STE I N ME Tz Alternating Current

AT
.

Phe no m ena .

T I . Dynam ics .

G AN S E inf ii hrung in die Vek

.

B tora na lys is WAIJI ON Problems in Mec ha n

‘
.
.

G IB
HA E
S

VI S I
.

D
Collected Papers
E Electrical Papers
.

.
WE B S TE The D
Pa rt ic le and of
R .
'

cs
igid, Elas tic
of a

H NR C
Elec tro m agnetic Theo ry -
.
a nd F luid Bodies
RN R
.

E I I and TU E V ec tors .
The Theory of Elec tric ity

IBB
a nd R o to rs w ith Applica t io ns

ETS
o f E las tic ity
ON
Mathema tical Theory
.

.
.

m
L
WI L AMSON
a nd Mag netis m

I
e nta ry
and
Trea tise
.

T ARL ON
on
ET Ele
Dyna m ics
.

J AUMAN N . Bewegungslehre .
W L ON GI S , I BBs V ec tor An
JO LY . Ma nua l of Quaternions . a lysis .
S UG G ESTIO N S FOR WRI TIN G V EC TOR AN A LY SIS
ON THE BOARD
A num b e i i ie h ve c e i ite
vect the c e th t the ce om
r of nq u r s a in as k n g how to wr

ty e ect y ti ct y it
o rs o n b la kbo ard . It s em s a bold fa d -

c ce e it i ctic e ce ch i e
p orC la re n do n is pe rf l sa sfa or as far as p r n is

e ce ch w itte y e t e te t the e e
on rn d, but is m pra abl to p ro du su a d ff r

e cc ci t
n in al k -
r n s m bols . To a g r a x n s s am

he e eve eth
tro ubl
i e e ti ti vect
s also o ur in m anus r p .

ey c which h ve ve ti ct y
T r are s r al m o ds o f d ff r n a ng o rs fro m

t ti ive the t t e ti y ctic e

p ur l s alar sym b ols a p ro d sa sfa or .

efi it h t e te vect ic i
The no a on g n in ex is n re l p r a abl an d

e te thei it e e te
d n e . T a is, if a , b o r r d no o rs in any d s uss o n ,

thei ecti it vect e ective y

let a o, bo o r To d no r m agn ud s a n d a l , bl or n d no
r dir ons o r un o rs along a , b o r r r sp l

h
.

T us a a oa l

he e he e i ht ch ce i ity e ti
.

T r is r a sl g an o f am b gu in the qua on

j a 0 17: az ask

whe e the c e t ht c e with the

it vect ite e c i e thi
r i -
o mp on n of a mi g be onfound d

e i jecti i e it we th t y y fi i
un or alo ng a . The wr r do s no t o ns d r s a

c ty with thi tte e the t y

s r o us o b on . Lk Ta say a an bo d n d ng

vect
diffi ul s sm all ma r has b gun s ud of

the eth ce i e h ve the vect

ors too so o n !

Ano
y th t e te vect the t e
r m od is to pla a l n or das o r or

i ecti c et
s m bol . So a if 6 d no s a o r, na is its m agni ud ,

ti th th whi h the w ite ve ti

61 is its d r o n a nd a , is its i -
o m pon n .

h vi e ht i t t ti e e ve
S ll ano er me od to c r r is ry p ar al,

Ham l
the ee h t vect
b is to
’
a ng en bro ug up o n on s no a on , r s r

th t vect
abe

it e
Gr k alp for o rs .

i ecti whi c et
So a if a is a ny o r, d o o r a is its m agn ud , an d a;

is its d r on , le cl, a s a re its i j k o m po n n s -

.

XX I
xxii SUGGESTION S
t e i the
Af tice evie we t
e ii the e e ti e i ity i
er r ad ng boo k no s and r ws are sill Of

t ti ve the twith t i the itici

’
the sam op n on as to ss n al sup r or o f G bb s

hich we e ecte W h ve eve c e th t

no a on o r o rs , no s a nd ng cr sm s o f it

y et ic f we c i th t the h
w xp d e a. n r lai m d a a xb was a

y et ic i i
s mm r al uncti on, but do la m a no ta ti on of bo t

e the y et ic
a b and a b is s m m r al The m nus S gn in w b
. bxa ,

t i t e y with thi te t i vec al

does not m ak nota ti on uns mm r .

Alm os s m ul
y i the t i the tici i
an o usl s x was ss u ed a to r
an al s s by I al an ma ma ans Bural Forti
-
an d

M ar co lo ngo
he e e t e e h ve i ve te ti the t i
.

hich i i which e y the ( evec t )

T s g n l m n a n n d s ll ano r no at o n

c ct i ve te (
w is s m lar to o urs but m plo s X larg ross

ct W th the y et y thei t ti we
for a s alar p ro du an d an n r d V A) fo r a c or

v why i t ce e t ti whe the

pro du . i s mm r of r no a on a re in

e y y ic
fa o r, but n ro du any m or no a ons n re

hi ti t ti which thi
m an to p k from ?
wt
a re al r ad so

i h
the i it the eth e ch i ivi ve
T s ques on o f no a o n , has no ng to do

hi e W h ve e ye wh t e ieve the ual to sol

of m o d, is fo r nd d fo r
s
p r a

e t we h ve e e te e th
m s lf e a. m plo d a we b l to be Sim

v
ples t an d b s an d a p r s n d at l n g o ur a rg u
m ents in fa or of it .

J G C OFFIN , 1 91 1 . .
 V E C TOR AN AL Y SI S

CHAPTER I

S SS
.

ELEM ENT R Y A OPER ATION OF V E CT OR ANALY I .

De fi nitio ns

i ecte e e t t i ht i e whic
.

ti i he i iti te t vec
1 . A V e c to r is a dr d s gm n o f a s ra g l n on h

th it e i cti ity which

are dis ngu s d an n a l an d a rmi na l p o in . A to r

e e t h et c e vect
us has a m agn ud an d a d re on . Any q uan t

tity i t ce thi e e i e c ce ti
c an be r p r se n ed by suc a s e gm n m ay be all d a or

e i y e t whe it c i e e th t ti
q uan The m p or an
. of s g n r al z d on p on i s

ce e t ve city cce e ti ce e ect ic c e t

as l und rs o o d n is o ns d r d a m o o n o r dis

etic i e ce i
pl a m n ,
lo ,
a l ra o n, fo r ,
l r
,
urr n ,

c he t fli iv v t
m agn flux , l n s of fo r ,
stresse sna nd stra ns due toany
e two p ar
it e i ecti
flo w
titie vect
ause , of a a nd o f u ds, all n ol s, i . e .
,

ch
' -

titie the the h

m agn ud an d d r on . All su q ua n s a re or

q ua n s .

tity which th h
vi it e e i v ve i ecti e e and
A Sca la r on o r is a ny q ua n al o ug

e ity te e t e e e y tity he t e ect ic

ha ng m agn ud do s no t n ol d r on . For x a m pl ,

chch e iteth i te ce t e ityt i ti e ic t tic tic

m as s , d ns ,
mp r a ur ,
n rg , q uan of a ,
l r

arg , p o nt al, o an d p hs , ra nfall, num r al s a s s

titie
su as b r ra s, m o r al o r po pul a o n , are all s alar

c the ce i e t te eey
q an s .

e ch ey w i y e
A s alar , n , redu d to its s m pl s rm s is m r l a

y i vect h weve i v vi i ecti

num b r and as s u ob s a ll the la s o f o rd nar alg

ti e ic it e yi
b raic a nal s s . A o r, o r, n ol ng d r on in
a ddi

it the w which e ive

on to its num r al m a gn ud has an a n al s s peonl
i a r to se lf, la s of are to be d r d .

vect
tity e te hic y w
2 . G ra phica l R epre se nta tio n of a V e ctor . Any or

q ua n m ay be r
presen d grap all by a n arro .
2 V R A ALYS S ECT O N I .

t i the w c e the i i the he A,

c e the e i
The a l of a rro , 0 , is all d or g n; ad,

y ic y vect e te ett
is all d e nd o r t r m nus .

the fi t i ic ti the i i the ec

S m bol all a or m ay b e d no d by tw o l e rs ,

i
rs o ne nd a ng or g n, s o nd o ne the

w te ce ve the ett i
te rm nus .

A sm all
c t e e ct y th t the tity c i e e vect
a rro is of n pla d o r se l e rs to ndi

a e m or xa l a q ua n o ns d r d is a or

h e te the vect e i i e i
.

A,
i ti the i ecti hi t ti
T us , 0A d no s or b g nn ng at 0 , nd n g at

whi e e ti e c e e e ce e y
a nd po n ng in d r on fro m 0 to A T s no . a on

H
vect wi e t i e ette which i v vi
l us ful is at m s um b rso m . n m or us uall

e th e e c i te i e e t y i ti h
a or ll be d no e d by a s n gl l r, n ol ng
m or
it ey c titie
an a m r s alar is p r n d d ff r n l to d s ngui s

h the ve t e the i the i t ce

fro m pur l s ala r q ua n s, i . e .
,
i n Bo ld fac e d Type-
.

0A
the i ecti
T us c or a * m a ns go n g o f . d s an

in dr on 0 to A fro m a ny poi nt i n space a s origi n .

FIG . 1 .

i e h vi the e e th
it e the e e e vect wh teve
3 . Equality of V e ctors . All l n s a ng s am l ng

thei i i h e
or m agn ud a nd sa m s e ns a re q ua l o rs a r

vect
r or g n m ay b e . T us in F ig 1 , 0 A . a nd OA
’ ’
a re q al
u

v ve t h vi the e
o rs .

e th i ecti the ite e e efi e

Neg a ti e V e cto r . The c or 0 A a ng sam

l ng and d r o n as a but o ppo s s ns ,

is d n d
The te rms Ste p , St ro ke , br Dire cte d Magnitude a re sometimes used
' ‘

o nym s o f Vec to r .
 R A LYS V ECTO NA IS . 3

t e tiv w itte vi e t y 0A
the e tive
as he n ga e o f a and is r n a . E d n l also
"

ecti t vect m
0 A
is ga n of

c ci e y e e e te vect h vi the e e e
Unit V ecto r . The dir o nal p ar o f any or a ay

i ecti it e th ch vect
be on s l r p r s n d by a or a ng s am s ns

c e it vect wi e te i the
and d r on as a but o f un l ng . Su a or is

the y e e e ti the vect h

all d a un or a nd ll be d no d by add ng

vect h vi the e i ecti it

suffi x 1 to s m b ol r p r s n ng or . T us a , is

e th
a or a ng s am dr on as a, but of un

e th ve t te e it e i e
l ng .

te v e eti e the te te
The l ng of a c or is rm d its m agn ud ,
s z ,
or

t e vect wi w itte
its ab so lu alu . So m m s, also , rm nso r is

i the e ette th t which e te the ve t

use d . The m agni ud o f a or a ll be r n a,

i te ty e wi eti e c ve ie t
us n g sam l r as a d no s c or but

e te the it e i the c i t
p r n d in i ta lic p . It ll be so m m s on n n also

th
to d no m agn ud of a by add ng subs r p 0 to a

us :
a

vect the c i ee ti e
.

he ce we w ite
The or a n m ay b e o ns d r d as on e, a m s as

long as a , and n m ay r

a a al or ( )
1

vect the e e e te the ct

Any
it vect i t it e
or n m ay be r pr s n d by p ro du of its

e ei e te ve t ti e
un or n o its m agn ud as in

h vi the e i ecti ti e it e
The x pr ss o n m a d no s a c or m m s as lo ng as a ,

ti ie wh t ee i t e tive
a ng s am d r on b ut m m s its m a gn ud The .

vect eve e vect

m ul pl r 1 fro m a h as b n sa d abo u n ga

e vect wh teve thei it e i

o rs , r rs s a or .

Par all l o rs a r r m agn ud are s a d to b e

ct ve t e wh e
colli nea r .

e th the eci c the e th i the

R e c iproca l V e o r. The c or p ar all l to a but os

eci c
l ng is r pro al o f l ng of a is sa d to b e

th t
r p r o al o f a .

So a if a
 ad d ed ,
t he sum or t h e nrs t I.

m ay bet a ke n a nd the third a d d

n to the resulta nt add the ne xt o ne a
t s c o nsi d e ra tio n o f Fig 3 will S h o w t
’
.

FI G . 3 .

t o rs o ne afte r the o th e r in a ch ain e a ,

an d o f t he last o n e d ra w n the line jo i n i

,

2 4 0, N o te on D iffere n t V ar ie ties of V ec to rs .
 V R A ALYS ECT O N IS . 5

the vect
the the fi t
the
o ri gi n o f the te i rsthe t o ne to r m nus o f las o ne is

c i e ti wi h w th t the e
o r sum o f m all .

A
w ch they t e i te i e
o ns d ra on of Fig 3 . ll a lso S o a o rd r in

i the e the e vect

hi are ak n is mm a r al . The sa m c o nstruc

e fi i the e t t the ce whi h w

t on n is us d to fi nd sum o f a ny num b r o f o rs

e e e te the e vect e e the i t ce

as is us d in nd ng r sul an of fo r s c o uld

H
v t
be r p r s n d by s o rs . nc m po r an of

t ct ve t the fi t the ec
ec o rs in mecha nic s .

eve e e te i the e e th itiv

To sub ra two c o rs , a dd to rs s o nd o ne

e tive vi
r rs d . The x ns o n of s rul s to bo p o s e

a nd n ga is ob o us .

F IG . 4 .

c ve t
ee it i fi ite e i fi ite y h t
V ec to r Sum as an In eg ratio n. Any ur m ay b e c o nsid

vect th i e ti ei eve y i t the

r d to be bu l up o f an n n num b r o f n n l s or

t e t the ve
o rs , eir d r c o ns b ng at r po n alo ng

ch e ie ve t i e
to
a ng n c ur .

the fi it e fi ite ve t
The sum o f su a s r s of c o rs d ff rs in no way

e ee t the e vect the i

fro m sum of a n e num b r o f n c o rs . If d a
s n s a ny o ne of s s m all o rs , n by a dd ng
r pr

the me t tall tie

the e ti
r sul an AB is ob a n d
. The o p ra o n of
6 V R A LYS S ECTO NA I .

i thi i fi ite e i fi ite i vect

e e e te i te ti i th
add ng s n n num b r o f n n s m al o rs m ay be
r pr s n d by an n gr a on S g n us :

the c ve
If e whethe e c ve
ur is a c lo s d o ne , r a pla n ur o r no t ,

the n Ac i ci e
a nd
f
B o n c d and AB 0 or da aro und a lose d

p th e
a is z ro .

c
Sca lar a nd V e tor F ields a nd th e ir Additio n

t ct eve
.

iti it ei e tity
5 . Po in -
Fun io n . De fi nitio n of Lam e . I f for ry

e efi ite v e i e it it i c
p o s on o f a po n in a r g o n o f sp a c a q uan has o ne

ti the i t e c ci e y i ti W
or m or d n alu s as s gn d to ,
is sa d to be a fun

h ve th c vect i t cti
on of p o n ,
or m or on s l ,
a po n t -
func on . e

t c ie
m ay a bo s alar a nd or p o n -
fun o ns .

te ti it i t i ti tte
As an E xa m ple of a Sc alar Po int Func io n , -
o ns d r t he

v e c i e the te ti
po n al a t any p o n due to a ny d s r bu on of ma r

M,
the e i t the i t i ti te
a nd le t its alu be V , . No w o ns d r p o n al a t

v e he the te ti
sa m p o n P due to any o r d s r bu on of ma t r

M2
h e t ethe i y hi v e
an d le t its alu be V 2 T n po n al a t P due

i t ethe the
to bo t m ass s og r is s m pl V, V, . T s alu is
found by a dd ng og r two s c alars V, and

Pe rhaps the fo llo w ing e xa m p le o f s ca la r fi e ld w ill be c lea re r to

so m e m inds . Co nside r a po int P a nd let it be illum inated by a so urc e
of light M Ev idently e v e ry po int in the v ic in ity o f the so urce is illu
m ina ted to a g re ate r o r lesse r e xte nt a cco rding to its dista nc e fro m the
so urc e The illum inat io n o r inte ns ity o f light at all po ints o f the spa ce
.

c o ns ide re d m ay b e re p re se n te d by a s c a la r p o int f
a
un c
-
tio n . Le t no w

a no the r so u rce o f light M 2 be b ro ught into the spa ce unae r co nside ra

tio n . This so urc e p ro duc es a ce rta in inte n s ity o f illum ina t io n a t

e v e ry p o in t o f the sp a ce , o f c o urse including the po in t P . The to ta l

a mo u nt o f illum inat io n no w re ce iv e d at the po int P is the scala r sum

of the a m o unts it re ce iv es fro m e a ch indiv idua l so u rce . This is t rue

O f e v e ry o the r p o int in the fi e ld . SO that in ge ne ra l in o rde r to fi nd the
illum ina tio n a t a ny p o in t due to se pa rate so urces , o ne sim ply a dds the
 V ECTO R A LYS NA IS . 7

we
Practica l De finitio n
i t ce e Sca lar Po int F unc
of Co ntinuity of a

b
j ce t i t the it e the c i t cti
tion . I f, as g fro m any p o n in spa to a ny n ar

ad a n po n ,
m agn ud of s alar po n -
fun on

F IG . 5 .

sufi ers
'

t ch e the cti
no abrup i a ng ,
fun on is sa d to be co n

tinuo us
t c c i e the
.

ce tt cti
As
it the tt cti
an E xam ple of a Vec or Po int Fun tio n-
o ns d r

the hi ce evi e t y vect tity

fo r of a ra o n at any po n P due to a ra o n of

m ass M
it efi ite it e efi ite i ecti th t
T s fo r is d n l a or q u an , as

e e e t ti e i e the vect
has d m agn ud a nd a d d
'

a n n r o n , so a

thi vect i i y the vect e e e t

its r pr s n a on r q u r s use o f a o r at P ; le t F,
ing
the ce the tt he the e
be s or . S m larl le t F , be or r p r s n

M
the c i e cti the vec
fo r at P due to ma er T n fo r c at P
o n o f M , a n d M , is

t t i e the w vect
due to omb n d a to r sum

ti the e we the i t
o f F , an d F, and m us be o b a n d by la s o f o r addi

the i t Q e the it e
on ; i e , p.a r.all lo g r a m l a w I f go fro m po n .

P to ano r po n i n sp a c m agn ud s and direc

v alues of the sep a rate intens it ies the po int due to the se pa rate
at

so u rc es resp ect iv e ly . This co ns t it utes a n a ddit io n o f s ca la r fi elds .

The fi elds a re he re sca la r fi e lds b e c a us e w e a re co nside ring o nl

y the
amounts o f the illum inatio n re c e iv e d a t a ny p o int .
8 V ECTO R A ALYS N IS .

tithei the e ce
o ns o f Q he ce e
e ch e
s fo r s F, and F, at , a nd n ,
in gen ral,

r sum , F, F, , at Q und rgo ang s

FIG 6

t t
. .

c we
Prac ica l De fi nitio n
i t ce e th e Co n inuity
of of a V e ctor Poi nt

j e t i t the i e ti we the it
F un tio n . I f, as go fro m a ny p o n in spa to any n ar

the ve t i t ti t ch e the
ad a c n p o n ,
d r c on as ll as m agn ude of

cti i c ti
c or po n -
func on suff e rs no a brup ang ,

fun on is sa d to be on nuo us .

c t t
it evi e t th t ve t c ie e e c the
6 . De o m po sitio n o f V ec o rs into Co m po nen s. F ro m § 4
is d n a any c or q m a y b e o ns d r d as

e t ve t whi h whe j i e
s um o f a ny num b r of om
p o

ve t i d
n n c o rs , c n o n

ti the fi t e i the
e nd to e nd , as in c or add

ii the t e b g
on, rs o ne ns a t

the te i h
or g n of q , and las o ne n ds

at rm nus o f q . T us

he e vect ee
e ect which
T s o rs n d no t lie in
FI G 7

e the e e i
o ne p la n . V o rs a ll o f

tic it te c ve ie t ec e v
lie in or p arall l to sam p la n a re sa d to be copla na r .

I n p ar ular is of n on n n to d o m po s a ec tor
 V R ALYS ECTO AN IS .

it th ee c e t i ht e e ch the
c e the ve t e c i e ti c
n o two or r o m po n n s at r g angl s to a o r;

whe they c
two in as all c o rs und r o ns d ra o n are oplanar ;

thr ee , n are no t o plana r .

i e the i ht h e
te i y te e th ee it vect the
7 . Th e Th re e Unit V e cto rs 1 j k . Co ns d r r g
-
and d

e c e j e ective y evi e t th t
Car s an s s m o f ax s . T he r un o rs alo ng

x y z ax s are all d i k r sp l I t is d n a

vect e iv e t ce t vect
.

any or r is qu al n to a r ain or 0A alo ng 0X ,

plus vect a or vect AB alo ng OZ , plus a or BC alo ng OY

FI G . 8 .

the w e te the it e the e

vect e ective y we w i e vect wh
In o r o rds , if x y z d no m ag n ud s of s

c et
o rs r sp l ,
m ay r t fo r any or r ose

o m po n n s are x, y, z,

x i + yj + z k .
10 V R L SS ECTO ANA Y I .

j the th ee je ti the th e
e e ive y the i ecti e
3: i , y , a nd z k a re r p ro c o n s o f r alo ng r e

B
vect e the evi e t y
ax s r spec t l . If a , , r be d r o n an gl s o f a ny

or p ar all l to 0 0 , n d n l

x = r c os a

hi e iti ve t i t th ee
e t the t t i t e the
T s d c o m p os on o f a c or n o two or r re c t a n

e ti i etwee the th ee i e i
gular c o m po n n s is of u m os m po r an c and is
Co nn c
ect y e e e tive y
ng l nk b n tw o or r dm ns o nal Car

vect ive
tesian and V or Anal s s , r sp c l .

If two o rs are g n,

a a ,i a, j a, k ,

b b, i b, j b, k ,

thei evi e t y
r sum is d n l

( 3 b1 ) i “

i
“

(
as bal k

hi e te e e vect
h w th t the e t the e
T m ay be nd d to num b r of
”
s x a ny o rs

the c e t th t
s o s a c o m po n n s of sum are q ual to

sum s o f o m po n n s , so a

2 z j 2 Ea i a, u, R C,

hi the e the iti ce

i e e ve ve t i t th ee et
T s or m is o f use in c o m po s on of fo r s . I t is

e th ee c vect h e
bl to r so l a ny c or r n o r c o m po n n s
po s s p ar

ti e i y ee i e cti y e
a ll l to a ny r no n -
o pl an ar o rs ; and suc a r so lu

the ect c e t vect e ti

on is as l s n t o b e un q u . Pra c all ,
in o rd r to

e ye h t
fi nd r a ngula r o m po n n s o f a o r, q ua o ns (5 )
are m plo d, so t a

r ( i c os a
(8 )
th h the it e
I f we div ide ,
ro ug by m agn ud of r the e e
r r m ai ns

i cos a + j co s fl+ k co s r,
 V R A LYS S ECTO NA I . 11

th t ect c et
w y i ecti c i e
So a the r a n gular o m po n n s of a unit

i ect it evi e t th t
al a s its d r on os n s .

By nsp ion of Fig 8. is d n a

FI G . 10 .

c V e tor Equatio ns

t
.

6 t
v e vect with i i vi e c
. E quations of th e S ra ig h t Line and Plane . Le F be a

t vi i ecti th t
aria bl or , or g n at 0, an d s a ar abl S alar ;

it is hen e dent on nsp on F i

( g )9 . a

r s a

e ti t i ht i e i th h the i i
the
e i y ee th t
Is qua on o f as ra g l n p a ss n g ro ug or g n

and llel to I t is also l F

( g 1 0)
’

p ara a . as s n i . a

r = b + sa
12 V R LY ECTO ANA SIS .

the ti the t i ht i e th h the t i

e e e ti the e
is e qua on o f g
s ra l n roug erm nus o f

By m ans
ti i e i th h the e ive
b and par all l to a . of qua on ( )
1 1 q ua

vect e i y e ive
on o f a l n p as s ng roug nds o f any two g n

o rs a and b m ay as l be d r d .

F IG . 11 .

ve t he e e ti
AB is (b
i e th h the te i e
The c or a ) ,
nc by qua on ( )
1 1
l n roug ) rm nus o f a p ar all l to (b a is
a t (b a )
whe e v i e he e e ti
,

i t the e i y e e e e
r t is a sc alar ar abl . T s qua ons m ay be
n o as l r m mb r d form s
r = tb ( 1 — t) a ,
a nd by analogy
sa ( 1 s ) b .
(12 )
evi e t th t the i e ti the c i te
t e the the it e
It is d n a if d r c o ns o f o o rd na ax es

be a k n alo ng a and b, n m agn ud s o f a and b

 V R A ALYS ECT O N IS . 13

tive y the i te ce t the i e with h

e the c e i te i e ti i
res pec l are n r p s l n m a kes t ese

ax s , o rr spo nd ng Car s an q ua on be ng

i e e et e
e iy v e
the e the e e y
All probl m s in l n g om ry are no w r ad l so l abl .

e vect he the
If all lin s of p r o b l m lie in o n e pla n ,
t w o , a nd o nl

e ee t the e th ee
tw o , a r bi tra ry no n -

p a r a ll l o rs a re c os n a nd all o rs

i the i e e e e te th ee y
x p r ss d in e rm s o f m . For a p ro bl m in r dim e n

th ee it y c vect
s o ns all l n s are xp r ss d in rm s o f r , and o nl

r ,
a rb rar no n -
o pla nar ors .

t
t tti e ti the
9 . Co nditio n that Th re e V ec o rs S h o uld Te rm inate in th e
Sa m c S ra ig h t Line . Pu ng q ua on ( )
1 2 in fo rm

s a + (1 — s) b — t = o

it ee th t the i e e ti c e ti th ee vect
whi h the e t i ht i e the the
is s n a in l n ar r la on o nn c ng r o rs

e e the w
c e nd in sam s ra g l n sum of co e ffi

c ie nts is q ua l to z ro . Or in o r o rds , if

xa + yb + zc = 0

th ee v ct ece i y the
t i tie i
the r e o rs a , b, a nd c n ss ar l e nd in s am e

i e e e the e e eth
s ra gh l n , and are s a d to be termi no -
colli nea r .

ce e ve th t the i e
E xam ple . As a s m pl x a m pl of g n r al m od of

eet i t which i ect the th e

p ro dur ,
let us p ro a d a go n als of a p ar all lo

i i the c e w ite w the e ti the

gra m m in a p o n b s s m bo . Ta k the

i te the ve t
or g n at o rn r 0, a nd r do n q ua on of

d agonals OC a nd AB in
tice th t the i i h e it i y 0A
rm s o f a and b, c o rs

and AB

he ce t e i i y the e ti
No a . or g n m ay b e c o s n arb r ar l

e y O te h weve it ette e the i i

and n m ay be ak n so as to S mpl f q u a o ns .

eci fi ite i t th t e y et y
V r f n, o r, is b r no t to pla c or g n

the e ti e ti
at a ny sp al o r de n p o n , so a m or s mm r is
pro duce d in r sul ng q ua o ns .
14 VECTO R ANA LYS IS .

The e qua ti on o f 0 0 is

th t AB is
ti s (a b ), by equa on ( )
1 0

e ti )
an d a of

r ta ( 1 t) b, by u on ( 1 2

whe e vi ec i te ecti th
q a

e ti t ti fie the e v e he ce
r s a nd t are ar abl s alars . F or n rs o n, bo

e i qua o ns m us be sa s d by sam alu of r ; n ,

q uat ng,
s ( a b) ta ( 1 — t) b .

F IG . 12 .

hi vect e ti ct y e v e t c
ti fice ete i e the vect
T s or qua on is a uall q ui al n to two s a l ar

the i t i te ecti te
e qua o ns a nd suf s to d rm n 3 and t, fo r or r

the vect th t the c c e ie t th

to p o n .
of n rs on is uniquely determi ned in rms

vect th i e e ti t e ctiv y
of o rs a a n d b, so a s alar o ffi c n s of ese

c e ficie t ive
o rs o n bo s d s of q u a on ( )
1 4 m us be r spe el

e qual . The o f n s of a g

a nd Of b s =

hi e the v t the i t i
ecti the tit ti thi v e
T s ma k s 8 t }
a
, a nd ec or to p o n of nte r

s o n is n, by ) subs u ng s l
a u fo s
r i n r = s (a b

hi ic e ie e
th ee i e i eth e ti
T s pr i nci ple is appl abl to any kind of l n p ro bl m
I
n tw o o r r dm ns o ns . The m od o f q ua ng the
 V R LYS S ECT O ANA I .
”

15

c e ie t the e ve t th i e e ti
the ti e ity c e
o ffi c n s of sa m c or o n bo S d s o f an q ua on

i i y e e i th t
is a n a lo go us to co ndi o ns fo r q ual of two o m pl x

m ag nar xpr ss o ns ; a is , if

e the y et ic eth
ve th t the e i t i e eet i e i t
E xam ple . As an ex am pl of s mm r al m od to

which t i ect e h the h e i t the

p r o a m d ans o f a r a ngl m in a s n gl po n

e the t i e i i efi e the t i e
r s s ac of m . C o os a ny p o n no t in

the th ee ve t the i i ve tice

l n of r an gl fo r n , a nd d n r a ngl by
p a or g

W ch e the i i the e
r c o rs a, b, and c fro m or g n to its r s

A, B,
the t i e th t we i e e t vect
an d C . e oos or g n o ut of pl a n of

te w e e y the i i we e
r a ngl s so a m ay use three nd pe n d n ors

t e the e e
ins ad o f but tw o , as o uld be n c ss ar if or g n r

ak n in s am pla n

he
.

T OA } (b )
'
n a c ,

AA is '
xa + ( 1

BB iS '
r y b + ( 1

C C iS
’
zc + ( 1

Equa te the c e ficie t o f n s in ( ) a and (b) fo r i te ecti

n rs on ,

2 ( 1 y):

I ( 1 x ) y)
i ( 1 — y)

th t thei i t the ve t
,

ti
a x } a nd c or to r po n of interse c
so y
4

on is
c 0D r
a b
I

hi evi e t y the i t i te e i the t i i e

3

with eithe the fi t y ey

T s is d n l p o n of n rs c t o n of h rd l n

r of rs two , by s m m tr . I t is el se th e .
16 V ECT O R A ALYS S N I .

FIG 13

e it e ie e w
. .

m an po n of A, B, a nd C, as x pla n d b lo I t is the

i t t i e ti e e i we t i
.

the e e t th
AA ob a n
’
po n of r s c o n, b c aus add n g to a, }
4 of

sa m r sul ,
us :

FIG 14

ch i the i i the ve ti e the

. .

By
et y t i i ect e h t e e
oo s ng or g n at o ne o f r c s sy m

e i v vi e i e ficie t i te
m r is lo s but a ga n in d r n ss a nd s o r n ss is m a d .

e ic e the y et ic eth e e y e e
I n pro bl m s n ol n g al g b ra c co f n s ns ad o f n u

m r al o n s s mm r al m od is g n r all pr f rab le .
 R A LYS S V ECT O NA I . 17

vect i t the
e ete i e the vect i th h
10 . Equa tio n of a Pla ne . The or to any po n in

the i i evi e t y
p l a n d rm n d by o rs a a nd b a nd p ass ng ro ug

or g n is d n l
t b, ( )
whe e v i e the
r s a 1 4

i i e ve the i i ve t th h the
r s and t are two i ndependent sc alar ar abl s . If

te i which the e e e
or g n be r mo d to or g n of a c or c , ro ug

the the vect i t the e ive

rm nus of l n ll l to a and b p ass s,
p a p a r a

n or to a ny p o n P in pl a n is no w g n by
r c + s a + tb .
( 5)
1

t
of
11 .

v c
To fi nd th e
ticeth
evi e t y the e e y
th e th ree no n
—
-

—
tthevec
equa tio n o f a

c o p la na r e
pla ne pa ssing th ro ug h th e ends
to rs a , b, a nd 6, n o a

By mplo
the evi e ti the e ti w itte
o rs (a c ) and ( b c ) d n l l ie in p l an .

ing pr o us q ua on q ua on m ay be r n

r = c + s (a —c) + t (b — c) ,

w ich i t e iy e e e e l m mb d form ,
e
h m ay be put n o as r r an alo go us

to q uat io n ( 1 2)
+ t b + (l — — t) c
( )
1 6
vi e t th t the i e ti i te e
r sa s .

the the i te ce t e
It is e d n a if d r c o ns o f the c o o r d na ax s

be ta ke n along a , b, a nd c , n n r p s m ad by the
18 V ECTO R ALYS S AN I .

F IG . 16 .

e with the e the e th

the c e i te i e ti ei and 0 resp e c
l n se ax s are l ng s of a , b,
p a

tiv ely, o rr sp o nd ng Car s an qua on b ng

a b c

c
12
Pla ne
.

e i e ti
.
Co nditio n tha t F our V e to rs Term ina te in
R arran g ng q ua on

s a + t b + (1 — s — t) c — t = o

ee th t whe eve the e i e e ti etwee

,

vect they te i te the e e

it is s n a n r r is a l n ar r la on b n

the the c e cie t e the w

any four o rs rm n a in o ne and sam p l a n

if sum o f o ffi n s is z ro . Or in o r o rds , if

and ( )
1 7

a, b,
—
te i te
c , a nd the ede i
rm na in s am pla n and are s a d to b e
termi no coplana r .

v v
the v e vect whi h ivi e the i t e etwe
13 . To D i ide a Line in a Gi en Ra tio . Ce ntro i d . To fi nd

it ive ti it i
alu of a or c d d s d s an c b en

two po n s A and B in a g n ra o, m to n s ay, is s m ply

 V ECT OR A ALYS S N I . 19

y e the vec the evi t

i
ne c essar to xpress to r r in fo r m , de n on

ins pec t on,

r (b a )

FI G . 17 .

vity
I t iswe a w e e t ech i th t the e t
ivi e the i e j i i
ll kno
-
n r sul in m an c s a c n er of

he i ve e y the e e th t
g r a of tw o m ass s m, a nd m, d d s l n o n ng

t m n rs l as s m ass s , so a by ( 18)
m ,a , m ,a ,
mi “
l m,
“

FI G 18

c the ce te thei
. .

th thi i t wi h
is the ve to r to ir n r oi
-

m a ss or r cen troi d . If
no w e re is a rd po n a, t m as s m , adde d t o th e .
20 V R ANALYS
ECT O IS .

y t the ce t i wi th t
with with i
s s em , new n ro d ll be a of the two m asses r
,
m ass (m, m, ) and a , m ass m, , or aga n by
m
( , + m ) r + m fi m ,a , + n + m ,a, 2 ma
, , , ,
( )
1 9
2 m
e e i ti i e i te M e t the
tt the y te tic e the vect
The g n ral za on is mm d a . If 2 m d no e s

thei ce te
o al m ass o f m a nd i ‘
s s of p ar l s or to
r n r of m ass ,
M? 2 ma ( )
20

the e c ti y
.

ec e
If m ass s form a on nuous bo d , the form ula
b om s

whe e the e ity the e e e t v e

i te ti t e th h t the v e
r p is d ns and dc is l m n of o lum .

The n gr a ons are ak n ro ug ou olum .

It ai + yi + 2k

and xn i y n j zuk ,

e i t the th ee we w
th ee the ce te
fo rm ula (20) br aks up n o r ll kno
-
n o ne : for the
r co Ordinates o f n r of m ass ,

m2 ” .

ii y
S m larl ( )g
2 1 ive th ee the
s r of fo rm

dz dy dz
 V R A ALY ECTO N SIS . 21

h t ce t
vity the e e the j t e ive
14 Re latio ns I ndependent of the Orig in
. . T a the n er

i e e e t the i i h w the w
o f gra and r fo r all fo rm ula us d r d are

e i
nd p nd n of or g n m ay be S o n by follo ing

i the i i the vec the ce te

r aso n ng .

vity the e
Ta k ng or g n at 0, to r to R, n r of

gr a of two m ass s m a nd n is, by

ma + n h
m + n

c e the i i the vect the

e ei the vec the t i i
No w hang or g n to new ors to

ei
m ass s b ng a
’
and b ’
and tor to fi rs or g n

fro m the new one b ng 0 .

F IG . 19 .

The vt
ec o r to the ce te
n r of gra vity fro m 0 is
’
no w g ive n by

ma
’
b
’
+ n

m + n

But i ce thi e ti
itt
s n a
’
a c and b ’
b c, s qua on m a y be
wr en

ii )
m + n
22 V R A ALY ECTO N S IS .

which
e e y th the ce te
sa s vity the at ne w n r of gra is sam e as

wi tice w iti the

b fo r , as r
’
r c .

It ll be no d on r ng ( )
24 in form
— (m + n ) r — ma n h = o

thhit the
T e the
a e ic l
the
a ds
c
a lg c e cie bra s um of s ala r o ffi nts is ze ro .

s to

cie t c iti th t i e th e
I ndependent of
G e nera l Co nditio n for
'
a R ela tio n

v t e ti e e e t e ti i e e e t the
Orig in . The necessary an d suffi n ond on a a l n ar

i i th t the the c c e cie t the e

ec or q ua on r p r s n a r la on nd p nd n of

i e e the e ti
is sum o f s alar ffi n s of u
'

or g n a o q a

t on be qual to z ro . Let q ua on be
) m ,a , m ,a , 0 ( 2 5

h e the i i i c t t
.

vect the i t ce e ch the ve t

C ang or g n fro m 0 to 0
’
by a dd ng a o ns an

etc the e ti the ec e

or 1, d s an fro m 0 to to a of c o rs ,

a ,, a , , a, , .
; q ua on n b om s

thi i e e e t the i i the

the c e ficie t tv ih
If s is to be nd nd n of or g n, i s am e as
p . e. ,

o f n of I m us an s ,
or

0 .

EX ERC I E S S AN D PRO BLEM S

v
.

1 . Prov e that the e ctors

i a i b i

t
c

whe n drawn from a comm on origin te rminate at the v er ices of a

i w i
pa ra lle le i
pp d
e .

2 . A pe rson trav el ng e ast 3 m le s an hour fi nds ard at a rate of

that the wind see m s to blow dire ctly from the north ; on doub ling

i iy
his spee d it appears to come from the northeast F nd the v e ct or . i
w i
w nd v elo c t .

3 . A ship
curre nt runni ng due wi
hose head is point ing due south is ste am ng a cro ss a
e st ; at the e nd o f two hours it is found t hat

w t yti
i
the Ship ha s gone 3 6 m le s in the dire ction 1 5 est of so u h E nd
i y
°
.

the v e loc tie s of the ship and curre nt, graph call and anal cally .
 V ECTO R A LYS S NA I . 23

4 : A we ight W hangs by a string a nd is pushed aside by a hori

z o nta l force until the string m a ke s a n a ngle o f 4 5 with the v e rtica l
°
.

F ind the horizo nta l force a nd the te nsio n of the string .

5 . A v e c to r is the re sultant o f t wo v e ctors

r a a nd
b w hich m a ke
a ngle s of 3 0 a nd 4 5 w ith it o n opposite side s
° °
. How large a re the
latte r v e ctors

j
6 . A car is
y ho ur a nd a m a n um ps fro m
running a t 1 4 m ile s
it with a v elo cit o f 8 fee t pe r se c o nd in a dire c tio n m a king a n a ngle
an

y
i
o f 3 0 with the dire c t io n of the ca r s m o tio n What is his v e loc it
° ’
.

y
re la t v e to the gro und

7 Ve rif , by drawing, the truth of the law s o f a sso c iatio n a nd

.

c o mm uta tio n , ta king a num be r o f v e cto rs , a , b, , ( 1, e t c , t o sca le ,

a nd Show that the re sulta nt is inde pe nde nt o f the orde r o f a dditio n

c .

o r subtrac tio n

8 . G i v en the
.

v e ct o r

a ,i + azl

de riv e the v e ctor o f sa m e le ngth pe rpe ndicula r to it through the

o rigin .

De riv e the v e cto r pe rpe ndicula r to the o ne you fi nd Com pare .

w ith the o riginal o ne .

9 F ind the re la tiv e m ot io n o f tw o pa rticle s m ov ing w ith the

.

sa m e spe e d o ne of w hich de sc ribe s a circle of rad ius a w hile t he

o the r m o v e s a lo ng a diam ete r .

10 Two particle s m ov e w ith spee ds v a nd 2 1) re spe ctive ly in

.

v
p o sit io ns is the r re lativ e v e lo c it g i
o pp osite dire ctio ns , in the c ircum fe re nce o f a circle
re a te st a nd le a st , a
I n w hat
n d w hat y .

11 . w
alue s ha s it at those positio ns ?

Dra the v e cto rs

1+
4 10 k
4 j — l Ok
fi j — l Ok
10 1 + 4 k

Fi nd the ir sum graphica ll y a nd a na l y y tica ll .

12 . The equation

(r a ) . (r b).

rcpresentst he plane bise c ting a t right

,
a ngle s the line AB .
24 VECTO R AL S SAN Y I .

two
13 . i
F nd the equa tio n
fi xed pla ne s .
of the locus of a p o int e quidis ta nt from

14 . j
The line which o ins o ne v e rte x of a paralle logra m to the
m iddle point of a n opposite Side trise c ts the diago na l .

15
tw o
.

giv e n l nei
To fi nd a line which pa sse s through
s in Spa ce .
a giv e n po int a nd cuts

16 . If
=
xa + yb 0

w+ y = o

Show that a a nd in m a gnitude a nd dire c tio n

b a re e qual . Or w hat
is the sam e thing , tha t m easure d fro m the sa m e o rigin, a a nd b e nd

a t the sa me point .

17 . If
z a + yb + z c = 0

x + = 0
y + z

S how thatb, a nd c te rm inate in the

a,
the n sa id to be te rm ino co llinea r -
.
sa m e stra ight line ; t hey a re

18 . If

Show

sa id
tha t a , b ,
to be te rm ino
c , a nd
-
d te rm inate in the
c opla na r .
sa m e pla ne ; t he y are t he n

19 . A tria ngle m ay be c o nstructe d w hose S ide s a re e qua l a nd

pa ra lle l to the m edia ns o f a ny g iv e n t ria ngle .

20 .

i
Giv e n a quadrilate ral in spa ce
j
Find the m iddle point of
the line wh ch o ins the m iddle po ints o f the dia go nals
j
Find the
m iddle point o f the line o ining the m iddle po ints of tw o oppo site
.

side s .

y
Show that the se tw o po ints a re the sam e a nd coincide with
the ce nte r o f grav ity o f a s stem o f e qua l ma sses pla ce d at the
v e rtice s o f the quadrila te ra l .

21 . Discuss the
y
if the satisfy two
v e cto rs

each of which is ze ro
co nditio ns

.
im pose d upon three , four, or fi v e
e q uatio ns , the sum o f the c oe ffi cients in

22 . Take
assigning a rbitra r

cente r o f m ass
y
a num be r o f

m asses to the m
is inde pe nde nt o f the
po ints a t ra n
.
do m o n a shee t of
pape r,
Ve rify by draw ing that the ir
o rig in chose n in fi nding it .
 R A ALYS V ECT O N IS
. 25

i 23
i t
If a system of masses, ea ch m ass conce ntra ed at a point, be
.

i y
d v ided into a num ber of part al syste m s , and each of the se be
re pla ced by its re sulta nt m ass , the n the new s ste m ha s the same

c e nte r o f m ass as the orig nal o ne

i i
.

24 . A
i
is be nt a lo ng a d ago nal unt l the two
ca rdbo ard squa re

iy
iw
p a rt s a re a t right a ngle s F nd th e pos itio n o
. f the ce nte r o f grav t .

ON y ii i
25 F orce s a ct ng at a point 0 a re re pre se nted by 0 A, OB, OC ,
Sho that if the a re in e qu l br um 0 is the ce ntroid
.

o f the po ints A , B, C ,

i ji
N .

i 26 The m iddle po nts of the line s w hich o n the points of

.

b se ctio n of the opposite sides o f a quad rilateral coincide whethe r

i
t he four side s be in the same plane o r not
i h
.

27 The b se ctors of the angles of a triangle m ee t in a po nt whic

.

v Em plo unit y
t rise cts ea ch of the m
v .

e ctors along tw o of the Side s as nde pende nt i

ii
e c tors The bise ctors are the n a ,
. b , , e tc .

28 .If two forces act ng a t a po int 0 a re re pre se nted by the

v e c to rs n a and b the r resulta nt is re pre se nted in m agnitude and

dire ction by the e ctor (n v 1) 0G, the point G be i ng take n on AB

so that BG nAG
w
This allo s the resultant
a nd p a rt o f anothe r
.

.
of two fo rce s to be drawn kno wi ng o ne

29 . If two forces are e qua l to n oA . a nd m OB, the

. re sulta nt

fig
n
passe s through the point G dete rm ined so that
m

e qual t o (m )
n CC in m ag n tude i .

30
librium
. Force s F , , F , ,
. Any transv e rsal cuts
a cting

the ir lines
in a pla n
i
e

o f act o n
at 0
in p
a re

o int
in e qui
s L L

L“ ; and a le ngth 0L, is positiv e whe n in the same directio n as

OL

31 . t
Show tha the resulta nt of a ny num ber of concurre nt forces,
F F, , F , ,
l, ,
may be found thus : m easure off any le ngths l, , l, ,
from the point o f m ee ting alo ng them re spe ctiv e l ; pla ce a t
FJ F’
y
the e nds of these lines particle s o f m asses proportional to ’
l. T.
26 V ECTO R ALYS S
AN I .

F’ let G be the ce nte r of vygra it of the se pa rticles ; the n 0G

a

is the line
nitude is
of a ctio n of the i
re sulta nt of the g ven force s and its mag

F
0G x
2 l

j
32 . A particle placed at O is by force s represe nted in
m agnitude s a nd dire ctio ns by the line s 0 A, , DA, ,
o in 0 to a ny fi xed po ints A, , A, ,
a cte d upo n

0 A” , w h ch
whe re m ust 0 be placed
i
so that the m ag nitude o f the re sulta nt fo rce m a y be co nsta nt

Ans If r re pre se nt the m agnitude of the re sulta nt, 0 m a y be

yw
.

placed an he re o n a sphere of radius I described around the

.
ce n
n
tro id of the fi xed po ints
w
a s ce nte r .

33 . ABCD is a q ua drilate ra l o f
C are oppod te hich A a nd

v e rtice s Two fo rce s a cting at A a re repre se nte d by the side s AB

.

a nd AD ; two at C by CB a nd CD Prov e that the re sulta nt is

re pre se nted in m agn itude a nd dire ctio n by fo ur times the l ne

jo ining the m iddle po ints o f the diago nals o f the q uadr late ral
.

i .
i
pa ra ll
34
e
Show that the resulta nt o f the three v e ct or diago nals of a
lo
.

i
pp e d m ee ting at a po int 0 is re pre se nte d
diagonal of the pa ra lle lo pipe d draw n from the sam e po nt
by tw ce t he

i i
.

35 If through a ny po int within a para llelogram , paralle ls be

.

draw n t o the side s , the corre spo nding diago nals o f the two new
ll l m s th u fo rm ed a nd o f the o rigina l o ne m e et in a point
pa ra e ogra s .

The m iddle points P, Q, R o f the diago nals

36 . of a ny com plete

q uad rilate ral ABC DE F a re c o lline a r .

j
Show
37 . Any point 0 is oine d t o the
that the sum o f the v e cto rs t o the v ertice s is four t
v e ctor to the inte rse ctio n o f the dia go nals
v e rtices o f a

.
parallelog a
r

i
mes the
m;

What conclusion do you de riv e from this fact

38 . ABCDEF A is a re gular he xago n
Show that the resultant .

of the fo rce s re pre se nted by AB, 2 AC , 3 AD, 4 AB, 5 AF is re pro

se nte d by a v e ct o r o f m a gnitude V 3F1 AB , a nd fi nd it s d re ctio n i .

39 . ABCDEF A is a re gular he xago n Find the re sultant

. of the
force s re prese nted by the line s AB, AC, AD, AE , AF .

\ 40
O is any point in the pla ne o f a triangle ABC, a nd D, E , F
.

are the m iddle po int s o f the side s Show that the s ste m o f fo rces
OA, OB, 00 is equiv a le nt to the sv ste m OD, OE, OF
. y .
 V ECTO R ANA LYS S I . 27

41 . ABC is a tria ngle with a right a ngle at A ; AD is the pe r

1
p e ndicula r o n BC . Prov e that the re sulta nt of forces
2119
-
a cting

a lo ng AB a nd
Y
R?
i
a ct ng a lo ng AC is i
AD
a cting a long AD .

42 P , , P, ,
. P" are points which div ide the c ircum fe re nce o f
a circle int o n e qual pa rts If a pa rticle G l ing o n the c rcum
. y i
s ho w
fe rence be a cted upon by fo rce s re pre se nted by GP , , GP, ,

i
GP” ,
that the magnitude of the re sulta nt is co nsta nt whe rev e r G is
ta ken o n that c rcum fere nce .

It is n X 0G, 0 be ing the ce nte r of the circle .

43If 0 be the ce nte r of t he circum scribed circle of a tria ngle

.

ABC , and L the inte rsectio n of the pe rpe ndic ulars fro m the v e rtice s
o n the Side s, prov e tha t the re sulta nt o f fo rce s re pre se nted by LA,

i
LB, LC will be re pre sented in m a gnitude a nd dire ct io n by 2 LO .

44 .

ce nte r o f
D is
its i
a

i
po nt in the pla ne of t he tria ngle ABC , a nd I is the
nscribed c rcle Show that the re sultant o f the v e ctors
.

a AD , bBD, cCD is (a b c I
) ,D whe re a, b, c are the le ngths of

t he Side s of the tria ngle .

w
45 . The chords APB a nd CPD of a circle inte rse ct at right

a ngle s . Sho that the re sultant of PA, PB, PC, a nd PD is re pre

se nted by twice the v e ctor PO, whe re O is t he ce nte r o f the circle .

46 Prov e that the m ea n ce nte r of a tetra hedro n is (a ) t he inte r

.

jo ining the v
se ct io n o f bise ctors of opposite e dge s ; (b) the inte rse ctio n o f line s

i
e rt ice s to the me a n po ints o f t he opposite fa ce s

t ha t the form e r lines b se ct one a nother, a nd that the la tte r quad

Show .

rise ct one another

47
iw
. A, B,
h
.

C being three g v e n p oints in a p la ne Show that

and i i i
a ble eights to these p o nts i
a ny po nt in t is pla ne c a n be m ade the r centro d by giv ing suit

w .

i
48 .Sho that the m edia ns of a tria ngle interse c t in a point
w h ch is the m ean center of the v ertices A, B, C with weights
1 , 1 , 1 ; that the altitudes intersect in a po int which is t he ce n

i
c i wi i
t hat the b se ctors nterse ct in a po nt which is the centro d of the
v e rti es w th e ghts eq ual to the lengths of the Oppos te s des
i
tr oid o f the v ertices with weights, tan A, ta n B, tan C , resp ectiv ely ;
i
i i .
 CHAPTER II .

SCALAR AND VECTOR PRO UCTS OF TW O VE C TORS D .

Th e Sca la r or Do t Product .

vect e t
v i w ite c
15 . The Scalar Product of two o rs a and b, d no e d

fi e the e ti
by a -
b , S a b, a b or ( ab ) by ar o us r rs , is a s alar de
n d by qua on

a -
b a b cos ( ab ) b o
a.

FI G 20
. .

T his e thet h ctth tthe e h c the

qua ion s o ws a the s cal ar pro du t m ay be loo ked

ti ie the je ti p du
the it o f one o f
upon as ro of l ng t two v e c
to rs m ul pl d by p ro c on oi the o r upon , or

A
O X O D = OB X OC

vi e t y the ve t e e ic
.

e h the thei c ct
E d n l if two c o rs a an d b are p rp nd ular
,

c iti the e e ic ity fi ite e

h)= 0 a nd r s ala r d is
to ac o r co s (a pro u z e ro.

of

th t thei c ct e
The o nd on , n, o f p rp n d ular two n v c tors

r s alar pro du be z ro

the
1 a .

a -
b 0, n a J b . .

28
 V ECTO R A LYS S NA I . 29

If a a nd b a re p a r all e vect
l o rs , c os ab
( ) 1 and

a oh a b,

a nd in par tic ul ar if b a

The c ct
the e the vect th
s alar vect
p ro i
duitof
te w tte of a or nto se lf is of n ri n
as s quar or, us

a a

ee t i the it e vect i e i
o

it y e e y e it the e t the e
I n g n ral , to o b a n m agn ud of a o r al x pre ss o n

te v e it e
is o nl n c ssar to s q ua r , and r sul is s quar

of its abso lu alu or m agn ud .

e the vect we thei Multipli

Th e Scala r Product Obe ys th e O rd inary Laws of

i e thei jecti
Co nsid
ca tio n. r tw o o rs C an d d as ll as r

the vect
s um (
c d) . Cons d r also r p ro o ns upo n a ny

o r or b .

FI G 2 1 . .

jecti the jecti

the jecti he e
The pro on o f c o n b is OE, p o
r on of d on

b is E F , pro o n of ( C d ) o n b is O F ; nc

C b d b (c d) b b (C d) (28 )
hi e t e i y e te e the ct the
- - : °
.

e vect
T s r sul is as l x nd d to sc alar pro du of

ic ti the e e
s u m s o f any num b r o f

the it ve t j
o rs .

e t i t ce ivi i e i te y
The appl a on o f s r sults to un c o rs i, ,

a nd k is of gr a m po r an , g ng mm d a l
i i = ji = k k = i j k = 1
- -
2 2 2
-

L] jo
i j -
k k -
j k i o
30 V ECTO R ALYS SAN I .

If the two ve t c o rs a a nd ive b be g n in te rm s o f t h eir

co Ordin ateS ,

a,i a, j a, k

bl i s bak ,

the n, by (28 ) a nd

a -
b ( a,i a
, j a,k ) o
b
( , i b, j b, k )
a ,b, a , b, a , b, (3 0)
it ve t thei jecti the th ee
.

e e thei i ecti i e i ce thi

If a , and b, are un c o rs , r pr o o ns o n r

ce the
ax s a re q ua l to r d r on cos n s ; and S n in s

as a, b, co s n, by

j j
-

a , . b, c os cos (a,i ) co s b i
( , ) co s (
a, ) co s b
( , )
co s a ,k
( ) co s
the i i te i e et y the e
etwee i e te thei i ecti c e
fa m l ar fo rm ula of Car s an g om r for angl

b n t wo l n s in rm s o f r d r on o sin s .

FIG . 22 .

we w e ivi i t y
it e e t vect te
The ll kno
-
n a nd us ful for m ula g ng d re c l the

theie ive theit e wi the e e etwee the

m a gn ud of the r sult a n o f any t w o o rs in r m s of

the t i e
r m agn ud s an d a n gl b n m , m ay be
d r d in follo ng m ann r . In r a n gl ABC
a + b .
 V EC TO R LYS S ANA I . 31

S quar i ng to fi nd its m agn ud it e ,

“
C
3
c (a b ) (s o
b )= a s o
2 a -
b bbo

a
”
2 a b cos (a b or 0) b ”

”
c a
”
2 a b co s (915) b,
”

whe e ther qS is supp l ee m nt to the e etwee a n gl b n a an d b .

t y
ve y i t t e h ic hy i
16 . Line Integ ra l
-
of a V e c to r . The s cala r p ro duc p la s

e the w e r Ole

e the i e e t
a r m po r an in m c an s and p s cs . Fo r ex

efi iti
a m pl ,
o rk do n by a forc F in d spla c m n dr
is by d n on

F dr co s (F dr ) F dr
-
.

the ce w i e ti it e eve y
it th the w
If fo r is kno n in d r c o n a nd m agn ud fo r r

e ve i the e
p o n of its pa , o rk

do n in o rco m ng fo rc s

fro m A to B m ay be fo und by
ev ti the i te
alua ng n gr al

hi c e the i e i te
the ve t te i the ve
T s is all d l n -
n gr al

e i te
of c or F alo ng c ur

AB “

vect ve th
. The rm l n -
n g al
r

e te the i te
of a

the o r alo ng a c ur
”
us

it
d no s n gr a l of

e e e y t te the
ta ngen ti a l com pon en t alo ng .

wi e e te the ve t
unl ss x pr ssl s a d o r

s .

e city fl i the i te
If q d no c or

v lo u d, n gr al
32 V R A ALYS S EC
TO N I .

ve th the fl i c e the
th cet theth i te e t the e ect ic e i
o r any pa in u d is all d ci rcula tion alo n g

a pa . If e d no e l r fo rc a t a ny po n t in
spa , n gral

tth et th hi th ive i the

ak n

te
alo ng a ny p a g s elec tro

th
-
moti ve forc e
eti alon g

t ce he hy i
a p a . T s ki nd o f an n gral is us o f gr a m por
an in all b ra n c s of p s cs .

i ie
17
e
. Surfa c e I nteg ra l
-

w
of a

vect fie ethe e
V e cto r . AS ano r xam ple ,

e
vi fl i the vect ve city ete
m ag n a surfa c S dra n in any or ld ; fo r x am pl ,

in a mo ng u d . Let q be or lo ,
d rminate

FIG . 24 .

eve y i t the e i i e e ie
the fl i the e e w w
at r po n in r g o n c o ns d r d . The l n s of flow of

t i i which e tw th h the
u d are r fo r kno n and m ay be dra n . The
am o un of l qu d p ass s o u ard ro ug e le
 V R EC TO ANA LYS S I . 33

et dB in it ti e i t the ce
tw c et ti lie the e
m n un m a t a ny p o n on surfa is the
ou ard norm al o m po n n of q m ul p d by ar a dB,
or

q cos , ( q) S
n d q o
u dS

whe e the it w
t t tw th h the ce the the ce
r n is un outwa rd dra n no rm al to ( 18 . The
o t al o u ard flux ro ug surfa is, n, surfa

in e gral .

t To al Flux

t e ve the e e ti e i y ee
th t thi e e the ve t hy i
ak n o r surfa c in qu s on It m ay as l be
. s n

vect h e ect ic e eti e vit ti

a in s xa m pl c o r q m ay b e any p s c al

e he t the
o r suc as l r fo rc ,
m agn c fo rc , gra a o nal

te ce i te ve t ve c
fo rc ,
or flux of a ,
and o rs .

wi the wi e te the i te the tw

The rm surfa -
n gr al of a c or o r any surfa e

c e t ve the ce e the wi
ll in follo ng d no n gr al of ou ard

e y t te the te t
n o r m al o m po n n o r surfa ,
unl ss o r se ex

ce i te e e e ve y i e ct
pr ssl s a d in co n x .

i t ce we w the ti eve y t
The surfa ) n gral (3 2 xpr ss s a r s m pl fa .

fl i it h i e e t the eti y
I f, fo r ns a n ,
kno mo on of r p a r of a

ch the fl i e ve e te ive e i
u d, s o uld be po ss bl , at l as or c all ,
to fi nd

c i ei ch e th h eve y t the
o ut ho w m u of ud l a s or n rs a g n r g on

by
i ce the e i i the e t
o ns d r ng ho w m u p as s s ro ug r p a r of

t ethe the t i th h
bo und ng surfa of r g on a nd add n g
:

r sul s

e t the e we t evi e t y i e y the

og r . To fi nd a m o un p a ss n g ro ug any ele

e t the c e t fl i t e ti
m n of surfa c m us d n l c o ns d r o nl

c e t the e t e the ce al
no r m al c o m po n n of urr n of u d . The a ng n

i te the the ti e e i thi of

o m po n n c urr n do s n ot p a ss through surfa .

ti e e e t the t t tw th h the
The n gral is ma ma c al x pr ss o n o f s c o nce p

ce e the i w the e t wi
on and r pr s n s o al ou ard flux ro ug

e tive ch fl w tw th h
surfa S . Of c o urs if flo w is n ards r sul ll

ti the ce the e fl w i w e ewhe e the

be n g a , an d if as mu o s ou a rds ro ug o ne

t wi e
po r o n of surfa as r o s n ards ls r

resu l ll be z ro .
34 V EC TO R A LYS S NA I .

The V e cto r or Cross Product

ve t
.

w itte i ti ti the ct
18 . Th e v e cto r p roduct of two c ors a a nd b is a vec tor ,

i e e t th efi e the
r n a xb (in d s nc on fro m a - b, do t pro du ), also

e ti
V ab or [ ab ] by d ff r n au o rs, a nd is d n d by

q ua on

a xb ea b sin ab
( ) ba r, (3 3 )
whe e ve t the e
i e te th t t the fi t e vect i t the
r e is a c o r , no r m al to pl a n o f a and b a n d so

e i t the i e ti th t i ht h e
d r c d a as y o u urn rs na m d or a n o

c ew c c ew w e t e thi e
s c o n d o ne b, 6 p o n s in d r c on a a r g
-
and d
S r ( or k s r -

) o uld p g
ro r ss if urn d in s sa m

sin (a b ) z a x b

FIG . 25 .

the w e ve t e e ic
th wh e it e e ee t
m an n r . In o pr o rds , a x b
to is a c or rp n d ular

the f
bo a a n d b and os m a gn ud m ay be r pr s n e d by

e e thi ve t e y ve ti
a rea o the pa ra llelogra m o
f which a a n d b a re the a dja

t e c wi h the e y te e
cen t si des . The s ns Of s c or is pur l co n n o n al

the i ht h e
but is ak n to o nfo rm t m o r usual s s m o f ax s ,

i thi ve i the t efi t
i . e .
,
r g
-
a nd d o ne .

i te Ac co rd
the t y i ee e w
ng to s co n nt o n if fac or b c am rs

the eve the e e th t

ns ad o f a , in p ro duc ,
the o nl d ff r nc o ul d be
in r rs al o f s ns o f 6, so a
 LYS S V EC TO R ANA I . 35

thi h e i whe the e the ct

ch e th t the vect t ie the t
I t is in s c ang of S n
g , n o rd r o f fa o rs is

i y e ic titie the e e
a ng d, a or p ro duc d ff rs fro m p ro duc

ece y whe i ti ve t ct e e ve
o f o rd n ar a lg b ra o r sc al ar u n I t is fo r
q a s . r

the e the t ch e eve y ch e

n ss ar n m an pula ng c o r pro du s to pr s r

e i t ce i i ct
o rd r o f fac o rs un ang d o r, at r ang of

tic fi ite vect

o rd r , to n ro du a m nus S gn as a fa or .

I n par ular if a and b be n o rs and

the a b 0, n a I] b

the i e thei i e e t e hi the

the iti e i the vect
as s n of r nc lud d an gl m us be z ro . T s, n,

i ce v ct e it e
is c o nd on fo r parall l s m of tw o o rs a a nd b .

S n any e o r is p arall l to s lf,

a s —
t 0
(3 4 )
ee ee ice i thit t thew iti ve et i te yj the efit iti y
.

R m mb r ng a un c o rs i, , and k are mu uall

th t
p rp n d ular , fo llo s mm d a l fro m d n on

j
j
x
k i kx j,
kx i ixk ,
j i x
k ji x

tice the yc ic e the t ve e

.

ti
No c l al o rd r o f fac o rs abo qua

W h ve
o ns .

e a also , by
ix i jj x
k xk E 0 .

v vi
the efi ti th t
19 . D istributi e Law for V e cto r Products . I t is ob ous

m d ni on o f a b a

a x
b a
'
X
D, ( )
3 6

he e the c e t B e e
the e e the e
w r a
’
is o m po n n of a L to b
_ . caus in F ig .

e e t with the W e t th t the ve t

and b in sa m l a s a a nd b, is sa m
’
as a are p a n e as

=ao sin
e e
also sa y
’
b fo r ,
and ao e m ay a c or

th t vect t we we wi h e ce
du of b co m po n n of a pa r a ll l to b is z ro
p r o c .

the vect e thet the the

So a in any or pr o duc m ay , if s ,
r pl a

w th t ch i the v
o ne o f o rs by its n o rm al c o m po n n to o r, and

v i ce versa , i ou a n g ng alue o f pr o duct .

36 V R A ALYS S ECTO N I .

ee i thi i we ve th t the i t i ti
h vect ct y th t
K p ng s in m nd, m ay pro a ds r bu ve

law o lds fo r or p ro du s , o r, in s m bo ls, a

( b) b
whe e vect
a x c a c x x c .

w
r a and b a re any two o rs.

the e the e
Let c be dra n F
( gi . 27 ) L to .

t w the e e p la n of p p
a r a t O a nd

the c e t
ards and
’
o r ad r . Let a

he ce yi
b be o m po n n s of a and
’

the e ve t
b i_ to .
c and n l ng in the
pl ane of p p .
a r The c o rs

F IG 26 FIG 27

wi e ectivethey e the e
. . . .

a
’
xc an d Ms ll also lie in pl an of p p
a r p p
er e n

dicular to a nd b l
’ ’
a r sp .

'

71
bc sm
’

2 b
'
7: a
a c sm
l

the t i e r an gl s OA B and OA B
’
i i he ce
’
are s m lar, n

a nd OB is L to OB
’
. . Co ns qu e e ty n l

OB
’
(
’
b
’
) OA
’
AB ’ ’ ’
b
’

e e c i
a x c a x c xc .

We
ve th t
an d b by a and
’ ’
m ay no w r pla c a b ac o rd ng to
abo ,
so a

( a b) c x
me bxc .

See equatio n ( 1 ) for no tation .

 V R A ALYS S EC TO N I . 37

e and
If C itthee cthe i e ee e i e
f,
s lf be o ns d r d to be m ad up o f t wo v ect o rs

n by sa m r aso n ng

ax e ( f )= a s a nf

bx (e f) b e bxf ,

so th t a

(a b )x (s + f ) = a s a xf be bx f

and so o n fo r e vect
any num b r o f ors .

Ph ysica l Proo f
ve the i t i tive
of v vect
th e D istributi e Law . I t is i cte e t
nt r s

e the wi hy t tic the e we

in g to pro d s r bu law for or p ro du s by
m a ns of follo ng dro s a or m . I t is ll

FI G . 28 .

w th t c yhe ce i e e
fli e ii i e the hy t ti e
kno n a any lose d pol dral surfa mm rs d in a

e e et e the i i he e e e
u d is in qu l br um und r no rm al dros a c p r s

ce ce the ce the yhe which

sur s x r e d upo n its fac s by l qu d T s pr . ss ur s

ti thei e the e e
p ro du fo r s nor m al to fa s o f po l dr o n

te vect e e i the the e th

a re p p
ro o r o nal to r ar as an d m ay r fo r be re pre

ch i ti the t t e e the
se n d by o rs p rp n d c ular to m, l ng of

c which it e e ic c iti e i
ea o ne be ng p p
r o o r o nal to o al p r ssur on

the th t the the e vect e

fa e to is p rp nd ular The o nd on fo r u
.
q

h t th h e t t hi e t e
librium is n a sum o f s o rs be z ro , i . e .
,

t a ey av e no r sul an . T s r sul is s en to b e SASS

38 R YS S V ECTO ANAL I .

e e i e i it the i iti
ce yhe with i fi ite e i fi ite y
tru for any curved surfac by c o ns d r ng as lm ng

e cet the th ee
as of a p o l dro n an n n num b r o f n n l

ie ti e t e e )
the i
S m all, p la n fa s . Le t a, b a nd (a b be r

which thi t i e thi vect the t hei ht

S ds of a r a n gl ,
ak n in o rd r . Fo r m p r s m of

e e e the e ce thi i
s r an gl an d any rd or C is S lan g

e e ive y viewi he the t i e

or dg . The ar a s of la t ra l fa s of s p r s m are

r sp c t l ,
ng t m fro m ou s d ,

a s b a nd ( a b )xc ;

the e the ce i i y
ar as o f e nd fa s a re s m larl

} a b an d } a xb

the ece i hy t tic the e vect

1 1 .

the ce
No w by
e ce e he ce p r d ng dro s a or m the o r sum

of fa s o f an y c lo s d s urfa is z ro , n

a s b — (a b) C x
l a x b —
} a xb 0,

ivi i
1

g ng a ga n (a b) C x a c x
b

hi which ive e y hy i i te e t
.

t yi th t the vect e c e ce
T s p roo f,
is g n p ur l fo r its p s c al n r s ,

e e e ti h h weve e y
a m o un s to sa ng a or ar a o f any lo s d surfa

e the e
is qu al to z ro . The r la on o lds , o r n arl p a r

h w h whe ie the e
all l to p la n of a a nd b, C m ay be . I t m ay also be

i th t the i t i tive h the

s o n to o ld n C l s in p l a n o f a an d b Co n .

hy t ti the e e ye the ve w
v e rse ly , assum n g a d s r bu law o lds ,

i e i te y
dro s a c or m m plo d in abo p ro o f follo s

mm d a l .
*

e
te c ve i t e e vect ct t I t is
20 . Ca rte sia n E xpa n sion fo r th e V ctor Pro duct .

c e t vect erm s o f
of n on n en to xpr ss a or p ro du in the
o m po n n s o f its o rs .

Let a a,i a, j a, k ,

the
b b, i b, j b, k ;
n axb a, i
( a, j b, j b, k )

whi h the e te i by ns o n o f (3 8 ) b c e om s

j
c x e

axb a , b,
( a , b, ) i a, b,
( a , b, ) ( a ,bz a , b, )k .
( )
3 9

Still ano the r p ro o f othe distributiv e law m ay b e fo und in F Oppl :

f
Einfii h rung in di e Ma xwell sche Theo rie de r Ele ktricitat, pp 1 6 and 1 7
’
. .
 V ECTO R ALYAN SIS . 39

hi e e i c ve ie t y c e e i
ete i t
T s xp r ss o n m ay be on n n l ond ns d nto the

d rm na n

e e ic the vect c AS
evi y t te the vect ct e the vect
Thl S is a us ful mn m on form fo r or p rodu t .

fi ite e hi c iti te thei

p r o usl s a d, if or p ro du is z ro o rs ,

jecti the e ive tici th t ) the

if n , a re p a ra ll l . T s o nd on in rm s of r

t ee t e te y v i h
p r o ons o n ax s is g n by no ng a in (3 9

i the ete i t tici th t k m us

hr co efi cients of i. i . and s pa ra l an s ,
or

w t ti th t
a ga n fro m d rm na n form by no ng a two
ro s m us be propor o na l, o r a

ai as as

bl bz bs
we e t
t vect the i e thei
a ll known r sul .

c e e the titie
If a, a nd b, are uni o rs a l b is s n of r

ei the thei i ecti c i e e ective y

in lud d
i bl , D
a ngl 0; qua n s al , a2 , a s, and 2 , b3 ,

) the e e t
b ng n r d r on os n s r sp l . Sq ua r ng
fo rm ula (3 9 r r sul s

i (
s n
z
0 r w (
a, b, w o a (a s . A a s. a

e e the t i tive the ete i t

.

we t i the wi iti the e

If we xpr ss di s r bu law in d rm na n

form
t the thi e m in determ i
ob a n fo llo ng add on or

n a n s of rd ord r .

1 i k i j k i j k
ai as as aI a z a s aI az a s

b
( l 01 ) (e
b 02 ) (be Ca ) bl bz b3 01 02 03

et
t i t efi e
Ap pl i cati on to M ech a ni cs
the ct the
M o m ent
ce
21 . . . The m om n of

ce i t e e ic i t ce the i t
a fo r F a bo u a po n 0 is d n d as p ro du of

fo r n o its p rp nd ula r d s an from po n 0, or in

sym bo ls , by
F X O =
A FX r Sin 6
L ( )
4 1

Co nv ersely, assum ing the addition theorem for det ermin es “ , th

distributiv e law of vec tor produc ts follo s imm ediat e w “
e
40 V R YS S EC TO ANAL I .

hi e t the fi e i ht e t vect
e e ic the i ti i ect y
T s m om n ,
in gur ,
is r g
-
hand d abo u a or

th t vect it e thi i ecti w

p rp nd ular to p p
a e r a nd p o n ng d r l up , so

F X CA in
e e e t the e t t ve y c ve ie t
a a or of m agn ud s d r on o uld

e c i th c ve ti the vect
r pr s n mom n of F abo u 0 in a r on n n

m an n r . Ac o rd ng to is on n on or

M P ( )
4 2
e et the e t
L

t whe e the ve t the i t ic ti

r p res n s in magni tude and di recti on m om n of F

the e the ce the e t t e

ab o u 0, r r is c or to po n o f appl a on

e ti the e i t ic ti
of forc . If fo r F is r sul a n o f a nu m b r

the
of fo rc s F, , F, ac n g at sa m po n o f appl a o n,

n by (3 8)
D P F
( , + F, + e + e +

the e t the e t t t i t e e the ce

rx , ,

o r, mom n of r sul an o f any num b r o f fo r s

the e te e t hi ab o u a p o n is qu a l to su m

the e h w th t e
of s p a r a mom n s . T s

ey the e
or m also s o s a mom n ts

y i the t th thi
ob p a rall log ram law . C on

the e e t the
v e rs el , assum ng ru of s

tive vect ct
or m of m om n s, dist ribu

ece y c e e ce
law for or pr o du s is a

h ve c e t M
n ss ar o ns q u n .

c et
If F a o mp on n s X Y Z,

M the t
o m p on n s a: z, and com
'
l
y
M M
t the i i ts m om en
p o ne n
r si n 6 , ,

i e i te y w itte
of F abou o r g n m ay be
F I G 29
) mm d l n do wn by (40
’

j
a r

I k
M e a: — y — z —
i (yZ z Y ) + j(eX :cZ ) k (z Y yX )
X Y Z

So th ta M , (yZ zY ) ,

M, (eX
M 2 ( TY y )
X e
 R A ALYS S 1 V EC TO N I . 4

M otio n ie ti
t ti i i y t i with c t t R igid Body
22 . of a . Co ns d r the m o on of

ve city ve city t ti ei ece

ro a on of a r g d b o d abo u an ax s , a o ns an

e i it ve ie t e e e t thi
a n gular lo to A . lo o f ro a on b ng o f n s

t vect wh it e ti
s ity ab dut so m ax s , is co n n n to r pr s n s kind

the ve city wh e i e ti c i ci e with the

of m o i on by a or o se m agn ud is pro po r o nal to

i t ti i e ti th t the c e
a n gular lo a nd os d r c on o n d s

t ti i y e e e te
ax s o f ro a on . Its d r c on an d a of o rr spond

the y
in g ro a on m ay be s m pl r pr s n d

ti e th t thi the e ti
by s m bol in Fig 3 0 . .

e i ti e etweei i ectietic fie c e t
No c a s is al so r la on

x s ng b n d r on of urr n

h e i i the i
a n d c o rr sp o nd ng m agn ld .

t ti c ie it
C oo s an or g n on ax s of

ywhe e the y the and

ro a on F ig . 31 o ns d r a p o n

v city the i t
P an r in bo d ,
to fi n d FIG . 30
.

elo
the i vect w the Le t P be
po n P .

e ve city ht es
by r ad us or r dra n to it fro m

it ei ive the e e i
gin lo q of P is a t rig an gl to a) a nd

m
.

to r, its a gn ude b ng g n by xpr ss on

‘
i

q e sin d, r

the fi e te w
I
e

it e we
In h o rd i
'

See n I n gur . o r sq s re p re

o nly in m agn ud but i n di rec tion as ll, by

q a x t .

i
( )
4 4

i te
I

Com po sitio ri wf Ang ular V e loc itie s S an gular

‘

e ci i vect whethe
23 . . n

i us sch

hey c cc i the e J
V lo t es m ay be rep ese nte d
‘
by o rs let r

ve thi efi ite y the y h v

t o m po un d a o rd ng to p a ra ll logra m aw . To

p ro

e citie t e i th h the
s d n l ,
let bo d a e S ev era l angula r

i he the i e ve itie e te y
v lo s a)" a), abo u ax s p a ss n g ro ug

due to
e
o ri g n . T n l n ar lo c s of P s p a ra l
thes are
42 V R A LYS S ECTO NA I .

and

neo usly
he e the ve city
nc the
lo of P due to m all a cti ng sim ul t a

is

the e t t ve city the e the y

t te with ve city t i th h
or r sul an lo q of P is sa m as if bo d

ive it i ecti
ro a d an an gular lo to abo u an ax s ro ug 0
g n in m agn ude and d r on by

T hi ve the ve t te e t
s p o
r s a bo s a m n .

FI G . 31 .

the y h ve iti ve c ty
ve i city t ti the e t t ve city the
If bod a in add on to its an gular lo i a

t i y r ansl a r s ul an
lo of on q . lo q o f
p o n P is s mp l
Q: w"
 V R A ALYS S EC TO N I 43

the c e th t the e t i e i t
whi h i t t e y e t hi i e et i e
In as a q : is . i to. a) , r m us be a l n of po n s

the c ti
c are ns an a n o usl at r s . T s l n is d e rm n d
by o nd i on q 0 or

15 0 ) ( It, ( )
4 6

which t ht i e e h e the i i
i t th i e the e e i the ve ity e ce
is a s r ai g l n p ar all l to a) . C a ng or g n to a

the
p o n 0 ’
on is l n ,
xpr ss o n fo r lo c r du s to
fo rm "
q wx l

whe e the vect i t the y

,

ec e it i t c e t
r
’
r is or fro m O to
’
any p o n in bod . If q:

ch th t
is L to d o m po n n s a nd qt
’ ”
no t . to, o m po s n o tw o qt

we the cee
’ ”
su a q: q: q t .

H
e e with th ee th t the t e e ti
Let qt be to a), and q t 1 to a) , m ay d
’ ”
. . n pro as

i e i i y th t t ti t ce t i
b fo r Q t
”
I t is u s s n a . m o s g n r al m o on

ve city t ti it the w
p o ss bl o f a r g d b o d is a o f a ro a o n ab o u a r a n

ew t
a xi s an d a lo of ransla o n alo n g ; in o r o rds , a

v i e thi h t e i t t
scr m o ion .

th h the i ecti itch the c ew ti

If a) and q : are ar abl s o lds ru at any n s an ,

iy c e c ti y ch i
al o ug d r o n an d p of s r mo on m ay b e

t ti t which i i y t ti ive
ra p dl and o f o urs on nuo usl an g n g . The axis of

i t t c e the t ti the
ro a o n abo u a r g d b o d is ro a n g at any g n

y i t fi e the ve city e the i t

ns an is all d instantaneous a xis o f ro a on . If

i t ti w y e th h thi fi e
b o d has o ne po n x d lo q: is z ro a nd ns a n

it e ti the i t t e he
t a neo us ax s o f ro a on al a s p a ss s ro ug s x d

ve the c iti th t
p o n . The qua on of ns an an ous axis is t n

gi n by o nd on a

r m

EX ERC IS E S AND PRO BLEM S .

1 . Show that the tw o v e cto rs

a = 91 + j — 6k
a nd b = 4 i — 61 + 5 k

a re at right a ngle s to e a ch othe r .

2The cobrdinates of tw o points are (3 , 1 , 2) and (2 ,

. 2,
fi nd the cosine of the angle betwee n the v e ctors o ning t he se points
to the origin .
j i
 V ECTO R ANA LY SIS .

8 . Write out in the fo rm

se v e ral pa

Write
i
rs o f m utua ll y p p
e r e nd c ula r i v e ctors.

4 . o ut in the fo rm
a

the e xpre ssions for se v e ral unit v e cto rs .

v
x 5 .

e cto r
Find a v e ctor in the ij pla ne w hi ch has the
-

= 4 i —2 j + 3 k
sa me length as the

t
a .

Find a v e ctor in the jk plane hav i ng the

-
sa me leng h, a nd the sa me
j
y
j p ro
-
e ctio n a s a .

6 . Let a a nd
b be two unit v e cto rs l ing in the ij plane Let a -
.

be the angle that a ma ke s w ith i , and Bthe angle b makes with i ;

the n
a l eo s a j sin a ,
b i cos fi j sin fl
ii
.

F orm the dot and cross product s a nd Show that the add t on
the ore m s for the cosine a nd sine follow from the ir inte rpretation .

7 Let .

a a ,i a, j a, k

and

be the unit v e ctors to the points A and B Find the distance betwee n .

A and B and its dire ctio n co sine s in term s of a , , a, , a , and b, , b,, b. .

Three v e cto rs of le ngt hs a , 2 a , 3 a meet in a po int and are

8 .

dire cted a long the diago nals of the three face s of a c ube, m eeting at
the point Dete rm ine the m agni tude of the r re sultant
the re sultant in the fo rm
. Find i .

i + yj + k

i
r x z

and from th its m a gni tude l

s ca culate .

9 The sum of the s qua re s o f the dia gonals

. of a pa ralle lo gra m is
e qua l to the sum of the sq ua re s o f the side s .

Parallelogram s upo n the

10 . sa m e base a nd be twee n same

pa ra lle ls a re e q ua l in a rea .

The squa re s of the Sides o f any quad rilate ral e xceed the
11 .

i
squa re s of the diago nals b y fo ur tim e s the square o f the line
Iins the m ddle points o f the d ago nals
hich
i .
w
 V ECTO R A ALYS S
N I . 45

12
v e ctors
. Unde r what conditions w ill the resultant of a
of m agnitudes 7 , 2 4 , a nd 2 5 be e qua l to ze ro ?
y
s stem of

y V 2 mee t in
13 . Three v e ctors of le ngths a , a , a nd a a po int and
are m utuall at right angles Dete rmine the magnitude of the
.

resulta nt and the angles betwee n its d re ct o n and tha t o f e a ch i i

com p one nt

i
.

14 . ABC is a tr in BC
angle , and If PQrepre se nt
P a ny p o int .

the resulta nt of the forces re pre se nte d by AP , PB, BC, Show that

15 The a ngle in a se m
.

Take e quation of c rcle

i i
the lo cus of Qis a straight line pa ra lle l to BC

i c rcle is a right a ngle .

.

fl — 2 wr =
Q

i i ij i i ii
factor w ith r and inte rpret .

j
1 6 If tw o
. c rcle s nte rse ct , the line o n ng the
i centers is

iw i i
p e ndicula r to the l ne o n ng the points of inte rsect on .

17 . O is a fi xed po nt , AB a giv e n stra ght line A po . nt

ta ken in the line OP dra n to a po int P in AB, such that

OP OQ I 2
t: ( a m ust ) .

i
To fi nd the locus of Q

i
Appl cation to problem s in I nv e rs
.

i on .

18 .

ii i
If any l ne pass through the ce ntroid of a number o f points ,
t he sum o f the perpend cula rs o n this line from the diffe re nt points,

i
m easured in the same d re ct on , is ze ro

v
Applicat on to method of Le a st Square s
.

19 . Write out the e cto r pro duc t o f the two v e ct o sr

a = Gi + o3 .
l 5k
b -
O1 1

w ii v
.

a nd sho by ca lculat on that the re sulting e cto r is perpe ndicular

v
to e ach of the const tuent v e cto rs of the product .

20 . Find the area of the tria ngle dete rmined by the two e ct ors
46 V EC TO R A ALYS S N I .

21 . Find the a re a o f the pa rallelogram dete rm ned by the i v

e cto rs

i + 2 1 + 3 k
—3 1 k .

Expre ss the re lations betwee n the

22 . sides a nd opposite angle s

of a triangle .

In a ny triangle of v e ctor Side s a b , c,

take the v e ctor produc t o f a with this a nd interpret .

23 . By m e ans of the e quatio n of § 20 fi nd the Sine of the angle

betwee n the two v e ctors

a = 3 1 + j + 2k
b = 2 i — 2 1 + 4 k

i
.

v Show that the

24 .

ectors b and c is
e quatio n o f a

a a:
line pe rpend cular to the two

b xc

i i
.

25 . F nd the perpe ndicula r fro m the or gin on the line

a (
r b) 0

i
.

26 Deriv e
. a n expre ssio n for the a re a o f a squa re o f wh ch

a ,i a, j

is the se m i d iago nal

-
.

i
27 If the m iddle point o f one of the non pa rallel side s of a
j
trape zo d be o ined to the e xtrem itie s of the o pposite side , a tria ngle
-

y
is obtained whose a re a is o ne half o f that o f the trape zoid -
.

three
28 . Find the
m utuall y re latio ns betwee n tw o right ha nded s ste m s o f

p p
e r e ndic ula r un it v e cto rs See G bbs Wilson, .
-

i -

i
p 1.04 .

29 . G v en c a b .

Expa nd . he right -
hand side of e a ch o f the eq uations

c c -
(a b) c ,-

c c -
(a b) -
(a b ),

nd g iv e the geo m etri c i

nterpretat on of i the resul t .
 VEC TO R ANALY I SS .

G iv =x a + yb +

c v h
30 . en r zc

w here a b c
hand side of
are

the
three
eq uat on inon -
oplanar ectors . Expand the rig t

(x a + y b + z c) + yb )
i i
r- r zc

w
the geometric nterpreta tion
w i i
and g ve of the result .

31 Sho that the ork done by a force dur ng a d splacement

.

is eq ual to the sum of the quant t es of work performed by its

i ii
hi
components during the d splacem ent .

fl
vv i
32
v elo c tyw
.

i h A
is flowing across a p lane surfa ce wit a uniform
uid
h c is represented in magn tude and dire ct on by the i
ector I]

i i t
If n is the unit norma l to the p la ne, show that the
.

o lume of the fluid ha t pas ses through the unit area of the p lane

h w i
in un t t me is q u o .

i i iv
33
i S o that a system of forces
i ireprese nte d in magn tude,
.

d rect on, and pos it on by the

is eq u alent to a coup le wh success v e s

ose mo ment is
des of a

eq ua l to t wi
plane po lygon
ce the

i w i
a rea of the po lygon .

i
34 . If 0 be hatev er, e ther in the plane of the tri
a ny po nt

h i
a ngle ABC or o ut of that pla ne , the squares of the s des of the tri

a ngle fall S ort of thr ee t m es the squares of the dis tan ces of the

i
of the mean po i
a ngula r po ints fro m O, by the sq uare of three t mes the distan ce

from O
i
nt .

t he
35 .

ang ular
The

t i sum of

po nts of
the squares of

the tria ngle

the distances

i
excee ds the
of any

i
sum o f
po n

the
t 0 fro m
squares

of its dis ances from the middle po

i nts of the S des by the sum of

h wt
t he Sq uares of ha lf the s des .

36 S . o hat
( b )x (s b) 2 axb
iv ii i
a .

w t
and g e its geometr c nterpreta t on,

37 . Sho tha

i t ( b) ( b) 2 2
a -
a a b
a nd nterpre .
 CH PTER II I A .

S DUCTS V
VECTOR AND
S
CALAR PR O INV OL ING
THR EE VE CTOR .

v
v
24 . F rom th e th ree ,
e ctors a , b, a nd C th e fo llo w ing co m

b inatio ns m a y b e deri ed :

1 . ve t a (b )( efi e
e a )
c or 4 . a (b )( n otd) d n

ve t
2 . a -
( b )( a s ca lar ) 5 . a- (b -
C ) (ab surd )

3 a x
(b )( a c o r) 6 a x
(b -
C ) (a b surd )

the e e e i e i e
. . .

ec e they the t vect

Of s S ix x pr ss o ns , 5 an d 6 are m an ngl ss a nd

ct e ective y
absurd , b aus are sc alar pr o duc and or

h ct e i e ve t i e the c
pr o du ,
r sp l , o f a vector ( )
a a nd a sca la r (b -
C ) ,
and

i ce efi iti the ct ve t with

suc p ro du s r qu r a c o r o n ea ch s d of do t or ro ss .

As to 4 ,
c ee e it yet e e
s n no d n on of pr o du of two c o rs

thi we h i e h ct W aningl ss
o ut a dot or a ro ss has b n m ad ,
is as m .

h c i e et i the th ee e i i t i e ct
In s bo o k s all no t c o ns d r suc p ro du s . e

fi t the e i y thevect ti ie
s all ons d r in d a l r r ma n ng r pl pr o du s .

the c ity vect the e

o ne o f
The rs s , a ),
(b is s-
m p
C l or a m ul pl d

ti ti e e hi t i e ct
by s alar quan t (b C ) a-
nd is a or in sam dire c

the e i ic tie e
on as a , but be co s (be ) m s lo n g r . T s r pl p odu
r ,

n , o ff rs no ne w d ff ul s, a n d m ans

a ( b -
C ) a
x be co s b
( )
e .

e e t the v e e i e which the th e

25 . Th e Triple Product V a- (b ) is a s c ala r and rep

c te i e e hi e i y e
r s n s o lum of a p a r all lo p p d of r e

the c e the e the e e e e te

on rm no us dg s are a , b, and C T . s is as l s en to

vect thi e the c ct

be as , as b is ar a o f bas r p r s n d by

ve t wi thi e ti ie the jecti

O78 L to
a or _ s b as ; s alar pr o du of a and the

the t hei ht it
O78
the w the v
c or ll be s ar a m ul pl d by p o
r o n of

evi e t y thi v e tie i

slan g a alo ng ,
o r , in o r o rds , o lume .

As d n l s o lum , V , m ay be ob a n d by for m ng the

48
 V R LYS S EC TO ANA I . 49

vect ct the th ee vect

th ivi the e the e i the
or pr o du s o f any two of r o rs a , b, and C

t thi vect e with the e i i thi

( us g ng ar a o f o n e o f fa c s ) and fo rm ng

vect it w th t
s c al ar pr o duc of s o r ar a-
r ma n ng rd

or, follo s a

V b a

the vect t e th t they

te e with e e tive y the the
If ors (C a x
) (
,
a b ), and (b ) are a k n so a

v e i e e itive the c i e te the

fo rm an a cu an gl b, C , and a , r sp c l ,
n

o lum is to be c o ns d r d po s ,
os n rm in

FI G . 32 .

ct ei itive the wi e the v e

c i e e e tive c e the i ve i the ct
s c alar pro du b ng p o s . O r s o lum is to be

the ve t ct h ch e the i
o ns d r d n ga . Of o urs n rs o n o f fa o rs

th t we h ve
in c or pr o du s s o uld an g S n
g , by so

a a

V E b -
(C a
x
) ( C a x
)-
b b -
(a C x
) ( ar c )-
b
C o
(a b )
x
( a x
b) C
-
C ~
(b xa
) (b x
a ) C -

a -
( b ) (b )o
s a -
(b )
By c i e ti the e e itie the wi w
ee h
a o ns d ra on o f s qua l s fo llo ng la s

i the c i e t ch e
m ay be s n to o ld :

1 The
the cyc c e the ct h e
. S gn o f s ala r t r pl pro duc is un an g d as

lo ng as li al o rd r o f fa o rs is un c ang d .
50 LYS V EC TO R ANA IS .

i t ce
2eve.y ch e cyc
Fo r ic e r i ang of l al o rd r a minus S gn is

the c i te ch e
n ro du d .

e itie c e the
3 . The dot a nd ro ss m ay b e n r ang d ad li bi tu m .

The qual s ( )
48 are all d by Heaviside Pa ra lle l o
p ped Law
ct ) w itte te the
i .

ect th ee ect te i
The pro du a- (b m ay be r n in rm s o f co m

e
po ne n ts o f i ts V o rs alo ng any r r angular Car s an

ax s as

aI b
( zs
c bacz) de b
( 3 l
c b163 )+ a3 (b1 62 “ '
bc )
ai bz ba + 02 bi: bi + 03 bi bz
0: 03 on CI CI 03

hi the i i ete i t e e i v
e i e with c e the i i
T s is fam l ar d rm n a n xpr ss on for the olum e

e i e i ci e the e e e the ctth t

of a par all
lop p d o ne o rn r at or g n .

the cyc ic e the w ch e the et

The parall lo p p d pr n p l , n, xpr ss s fa a as

i t ch e th t eve y i te ch e
lo n g as l al o rd r of ro s is un ang d d er

cyc ic e i t ce i i ct the
m n an is also un an g d, but a r n r a ng of

t e t i i with e e i t thi we w
l al o rd r n ro du s a m nus S gn a s a fa or . To

e ty ve e y i thi e ty et
s ud n fam l ar d t rm n a n s s is a ll kno n

i t ve the e ti ( i e te y w
p p
r o r . Co n rs l ,
assum n g s p p
ro r of a d er

twe ve e e i te w itte
m n an as pro n, qua o ns 48 ) m m di a l fo llo .

eci y evi ti t e
The l xpr ss o ns ( )
4 8 are of n r n in o ne , as

[ a bc ] ,
a sp al s m bol o f a bbr a on ak n fro m Grass
m a nn .

h th ee fi it e vect
26 . Co ndition that Th re e V ecto rs Lie in O ne Pla n e .

e the v e the e i e they t

S o uld the r n e no n -

p a r a ll l o rs a , b, a nd C lie

ie e e e the c iti th t the th

in o ne pl an o lum of par all lop p d de er

H
e vect h e th t
m n is z ro . nc ond on a ree no n

p ara ll l ors s ould lie in a pl an is a

a bc ]
[ 0 .
 V R A YS S EC TO NAL I . 51

the e e i the vect e

the v e the e i e i evi e t y e
In xpr ss o n [a bc ] if any ,
two of o rs are p arall l
o lum of par all lo p p d is aga n d n l z ro

e ce e e
.

H n in g n ral, [ aa b ] 0

it the we
, .

To loo k at in ano r way , m ay put, by (4 8)

a ( a x b) (a a x
)b
the th t t i e
- -
,

ct the vect e thei t i e

a nd as a a x 0, n a -
(a xb ) 0, so a in a r pl s c alar

c ct e
pr o du if a ny two of o rs are par all l r r pl

the ete i t ve thi e h vi

s alar pro du is z ro .

w ti e ch the the e t ei
In d rm na n ( )
4 9 ab o ,
s c o rr spo nds to a ng

we w i e tic y e
a ny two ro s p p
ro or o n al to a o r, r sul b ng,

e the i e ei h
as is ll kno n, d n all z ro .

e ty ece y y the i te et ti
The par n s s in an xpr ss o n suc a s a -
(b ) is in

with t e i ei the vect ct c

r ali unn ssar , as its o nl o r n rpr a on (a-
b ) C x

vect e the e i t ce
is ou m an n g, b ng or pr o du of a s alar

h weve whe i the i te et ti e e ie

( ab ) and a or C . The par n s s are n ro du d,

it i t t
o r, n by so do ng n rpr a on is m ad as r .

e e w ich cc i c ve t
Sca lar m ag nitudes of th e v ectors , is m po r an to

ct ce the e e i
r m m be r , h o ur in a ny k nd of s alar or c or

ct
p ro du s m ay be pla d in a ny pa r t o f xpr ss o n as

e
fa o rs .

For exam pl ,

a -
( b ) as ,
-
(b )

etc
a bc a ,

ba , . e tc .

ve t thi
e i the e the i e e ti y
27 . Th e Triple Product q ax (b ) is a c o r. In s

ece y i thi t
e x pr ss o n par n s s, o r so m s p ar a ng s m bo l, is

h e eve y ti e the e the ct

n ssar ,
as ax (b ) 5A ( a xb )C x
. The S gn o f s pro duc

h e whe eve the e the t

c ang s r m o rd r o f fa o rs a a nd ( b ) is

ch e vect t ei wy
c ang d in ax (b ) ,
or n r o rd r o f fac o rs b

c th et e e ic
a nd C is ang d in (b ). The or pr o duc b ng al a s

we M he ce
p p
e r endi ular to bo of its c o m po n n s , q i s p rp n d ular

to a as ll as to ,
n

q -
a 0 a nd q (b -
) 0 .
52 V R LYS S EC TO ANA I .

ti h w th t ie the e e
eithe eei th t it e e i i
Equa on (53 ) S o s a q l s in pl an as b a n d
sam

whi h it e e e ic i t t t
C, r by (50) or by s ng a is p rp nd cular to a l ne

thi e t c e y vi i e h it vi i ti
c is s lf p rp nd ular to b and C It is m po r an tha
.

h tiv te it e t i t e the t e t
s r sul be l arl sual z d. The ab of sual z a on

wh teve i y i he i tic y
s ould be c ul a d, as is o f gr a m po r an c to s ud n

thi ytic i vect y i

a r k nd o f an al s s be us ng, but par ularl so in

v t e
s . To a p ur el y an al al m nd o r anal s s o fi e rs but

ie the e it i e e e
fe w ad an ag s .

As q l s in pla n of b and C is poss bl to xpr ss q in

the form
q xb c
y r

whe e c ti ie ete i
the titie i ce e e ic
a: and are s alar m ul pl Let us try to d rm ne
‘

r y rs .

qua n s a: and y Sn .
q is p pr nd ular to a.

a q xa h y a C = O

the e e
- o -

and, r fo r ,

x zy = a -C : a -
b or x = na C -
,

y
whe e r ct
n is ti ity th t
a s alarc fa or of p p
ro o r o n al . So a

W h ve th t i e e e t
t e i c i ti vect i e
e s all no w pro a n is nd p nd n of the m agni

e e t thei it e ec e they t e
ud s and n l na o ns o f the o rs a , b, and C . I t is nd

c e i ie t e i i te the e
p nd n of r m agn ud s b aus m ay be a k n o ut

ti i ce we e i with the t e ti etw e

by ( )
5 2 as sc alar o ff c n s a nd l m na d fro m qu a

th ee vect we h e the it i y
on . S n are d al ng mu ual r la o ns b e n

th t e ce the e i i
an y r o rs , m ay c o os o ne of m arb rar l .

ve t i t ce the the vect

Let a o ne be a . Le t us no w r pla o ne o f r ma n ng

he
c o rs , C, for ns a n , by sum of t wo o r o rs d
and e . T n

ax bx d
( ( n [ b a -
(d e ) (d e ) a oh ] ,

a x
(b d ) x a x
(bxe
) n [ b a- (d e ) (d + e )
or fi y nall ,

— =
n d d a b] n [ b a (d ) (d ) h]
i
” , a -
a -
e e -
e + e a o
.
 V R A LYS ECTO NA IS . 53

h ve e h e th t
the we e te c e fi ie t thevect and e are no t co
If (I a nd e a b en c o s n so a b, d,

th i e h
p la n ar , n m ay qua o f c n s of o rs b, d, and

e on bo s d s T us
.

d )
’
n a -d n we n a- ( e .

n a
’
-
b na -
b,
”
b b,
hich e e it te th t
n a -
na -

w n c ss a s a
’
n n

c e ficie t e ti th i e e e t
the e e e i t t
The o f n n in qua on 5 i
( ) s
4 us nd p nd n of

v e we i e ty i e eci e
a, b, and C , and is, r fo r ,
a num r c al c o ns an . To fi nd

it vect
its alu are no w a t lb r to c o ns d r a sp al c as . Le t

hi the e iv e t i i
a, b, C be un o rs . Le t a C a nd let b be pe rpe ndicu

W the h ve e ti
lar to C . T s is j q u al n to w r t ng a k, b ,

C k . e n a fo r qua on

d ki k) k (k )l
j
x x
n °

j x k i and kx i ,

j k k -
1 and k - = 0

the e the e ti e e
fo re u on r duc to

he e
r q a s

j n (j); nc n 1

th ve the ve y i t t e ti
.

W e haVe us pro d r m po r an r la on

a x
(b ) b( a-C ) C a-b ( )
hich h d e i e
,

w S o ul be m m o r z d .

28
hi e ti tie e i e
De m o nstra tio n b y Carte sia n E xpa nsio n
. A d mon .

te the te i c e t the ve t
stratio n o f t s qua o n m ay also be o b a n d by x p a n d n g

hi eth ve y wh the e t
in rm s of Car s a n o m po n n s of c o rs .

ti e i y i e e y thi e
T s m od is a r use ful o ne en no o r d m o ns ra

h the i v t e ei e e
r ad l o fle rs ts lf, but g ne rall in
'

on ( no t s c as )

tt e e e ti the ve t ti No
as d sad an a g of b ng lo ng a nd c um b rso m .

th yi h h e ch
be er x am pl s o f the c o n c ntr a on of c o r no t a on

ti
m ay be found
t the i t e the e by a num b r o f su
an c a rr ng t ro ug

transfo rm a o ns . On a cc o un of m por anc of q ua

54 V ECTO R A ALYS N IS .

ti ive e e the e xp ansi o n

eth e e e t ti thi eth w

on and also to g an xam pl of

by m od ill be
c ie
m o d in g n ral, its d m o ns ra on s

arr d out .

thec e t
As o m po n n s o f (b ) are
b, b,
c, c,
b, b,
c, c,
and see ( )
4 9

we w ite m ay r by

j
,

i k
“l “2 “3
—a 8 (b8el
'

j
a x
( b x c ) i [ a2 b
( 1 2
e -
b2cl I
bzb3 bsbl bl bz
[a,, (b, c, b, c, ) a, b
( , ,
c
Ceca C3 01 01 62
k [0 1 (03 61 bl ot ) az b
( ,,
C bi o 1 °

The te rms m ay no w be e
r arran g e itd n o

ax (b ) i bi (0 c ' “2 0 2

j z
b 0 2 62

k bs “262

i cl ( a i bl '

l
'
a zbz c abs )
i ca ( a l bi a zbz " "
l d ebs )
k cs (a l bi a zbz at bs )

The
e i
fi t th ee i e
The e te h ve ee
ne w und rl n e l n s are
d rms a b n add d and sub tc
ra ted .

rs r

j i
( ,b b, k b, ) b( a -C )
,

the t th ee las r are

i ) i
( .c cz k eg ) (a -
b =

he ce n

ax ( b ) b (a -
C ) C a ( -
b) .

ht
wthe vect i e fithet the te i e vect ct
29 . Third Pro o f . T a n 1 in (54 ) m ay also be prov ed
as follo s: Cons d r rs r pl or pro du in whi ch
two of o rs are sam ,

b (bx
) n (b b -
C -
c b b)o
.
 R ALYS S V EC TO AN I . 55

i the c ct thi h te r language ,

yi it we t i
Ta k ng s alar pr o du of s a nd C , o r , in s or

a ppl )
ng C dot (C o
to ,
ob a n

) bx (b n[ (b C )
2
bz z
c ]
i te ch e the the c
C - -
.

But by
ch e y ic e the e t h i e e e
an n r ang of do t an d ro ss and o ne

a ng of c cl al o rd r l f -
a nd s d b com s
?
(b ) (b ) (b ) (b ) ( b )
w h weve th t
-

W e kno ,
o r, a

(b b z z
c

efi iti
,

as by d n on
z z
b
( ) S in b
( ) bc
2
bc
z 2 2
bc z 2
C

e iv e t it he ce the i ht h the fi t e ti
co s e

thi e th c i with we
is qu al n to ; n r g and o f rs q ua on
—
th t t ity the e th t e wh
is no m or n (b ) an d o m p ar ng ( )6
2
ng an ,
5

the vect the e i e the e e

s ee a n m us be un . The or m is us ru ,
en

ce
t wo of o rs are s am . Co ns d r no w g n ral

as ,

(b ) n (b as C a h)
y it O t i i
a x o
.

Appl b do t to , b a n ng

b -
ax (b ) (b nb a C b C
-
a h) - - o

n a (C b b b b C)

which we h ve j t ve w itte
o -
,

as a us pro d m a y b e r n

na

But the e t h i e we h ve
on l f -
and s d a

b ax (b ) a

i t ch e c cyc ic e
-

i the t e ti we th t
by an n er ang of do t and ro ss a nd o ne o f l al o rd r.

ee
Co m par ng las two q ua o ns see a n 1 In

e the i ec y t
g n ral .

the fi t e e i e y
The par n s s in ax ( b ) is n e ss ar ,
fo r ( axb ) is qui e
x C

e i the the e i
diflere n t fro m rs xpr ss o n , as o ne m ay r adil see by
°

xpand ng two , or by r as o n n g o f 27

cti Mo re tha n
c ti hy ic e ic te ct h th e I n pra
30 . Products of Th re e V e ctors . c al

th e vect e i e Whe eve the t

appli a o ns to p s s m or c o m pl a d pro du s t an os

of r e ors s ldo m ar s . n r y do ,
he y m ay
56 V R A ALYS ECTO N IS .

e ce c e ive ic ti the ece i

c e they e e e t c c te
be
. r du d by su c ss a ppl a o ns O f pr di ng p r n

te i e i e e ch e cti
ciples In a ny as r s n extremely om pli a d
.
pr

c i e the c e e c t i vect
Car s an xpa ns o ns . AS an xa m pl o f su a r du o n,

o ns d r s ala r x pr ssio n o n ain ng fo ur o rs,

te ch
(a b )
e the fi t c e v ct
’

ti e wi ive
In r a ng rs ross a n d do t a nd xpa nd the e or

l d t w hi h ll g
‘

r p p ro uc ,
c ,

( a x b) a - bx (d )
a ( C b d -
db -
C )
a c ad — s d bc

a C -
b -
C

a -
d b d o

T hi
wi e the e ti t e
s form ula ll be us d in d duc on of S ok s
’
The o

i c i e the e vect ct
re m in

which e e
Aga n o ns d r qu a drupl or pro du (ax b ) ( d ),
x a

m ay be xp a nd d by

it (a b ) d
C x -
d (a ~
b) C-

or n o b (o d ) a -
a ( o d ) h, o
( )
59

t i the fi t e the th ee vect

ti e t the ec c e
a k ng in rs c as ( a x
b ), C , a nd d as r o rs o f

By
t cti the e e e e i e ch the we
a r pl p ro du c ,
a nd in s o nd as a, b, a nd (
e d) .

h ve
sub ra ng s tw o qua l xpr ss o ns fro m a o r

a b (d
-
) b a C d -
( axb ) d ( )
60

i t t e ti h i etwee v ct
tti thi e ti w itte
an m por an r la on o ld ng b n a ny fo ur e o rs .

Pu ng d r, s q ua on m ay be r n

r [ a bc ] [ rho s] [ rc a ] b [ ra b C , ]
SOth t a
 R A ALYS V ECTO N IS . 57

i t t which ive the c e cie t

ece y ex e t th ee it y vect
and use ful
an m por an fo rm ula g s o ffi n s

yi the e e hi e i e the
n ssar to p r ss r in e rm s o f a ny r arb rar o rs

iti w y i e e i e
n ot l ng in sam pl a n T s . x pans o n is und r se

c o nd o ns a l a s po ss b l as x pl a n d in

3 1 . R ec iproca l System th e vect of V ecto rs . The r e ors

b x c e a
r
ax b
(1
[ a bc ] [ a bc ] [ a bc ]
e e ic e ective y the e
cc e e t y i t t e ti
p rp n d ular r sp l to pla n s o f b a nd C ,
C a nd a ,

the hey h v
a nd a a nd b, o ur fr qu n l i n m po r an r la o ns and a re

ec i i te e ti e tie which the t e t wi

said to be system reci procal to a, b, and C . T a e

y e t te the w
p ul ar and n r s ng p p
ro r s s ud n ll

wi tice th t i ct vect
fi nd full d m o ns ra d in a no r or k .
*

h ve ee efi e the ct the vect

It ll b e no d a o nly tw o k nds o f pro du s of o rs

ct h ce yee e th t the
a b n d n d, i . e
.
,
s c al a r p ro du an d or
i

c ct the vect ct h ve ee efi e
p ro du . One S o uld ar full r m mb r as well a

te e vect th t i te i e vec
S alar p ro du and or pro du a b n d n d in

t e e i which it e vect e ad o f s
rm s o f tw o Sim pl o rs , but a ns m pl

ce the i e vect the e ct thi

o rs any xpr ss o n is s lf a or m ay be us d in

c e y e t i it wi e c e th t vect
pl a of S m pl o rs to fo rm s pro du s . If s is

ce t i c i ti y e e
ar full k p in m nd ll m a k l ar a in o r a naly

e e ei vect it e
sis r a n o m b na o ns of s m bo ls are m aningl ss .

j cti w th the i e vect the vect

Fo r x am pl ,
a xb b ng a o r, m ay be us d in co n

ct c ct vect
un on i ano r s m pl or e, or ano r or

ch
p ro du e d, to form new s alar pro du s and or pro d
ucts, su as

(a xb )- e and ax b
( )

eve etc (a b )
x e x a nd

or n

which e iti te e e i the the

.
,

But
h eithe all
are l g ma xpr ss o ns .
, on o r

eithe vect ct ec
and, n r a b, no r (a b )
- r
no r (a x
b ) -
e m ay be

he e e y c
used aga i n to form r s c a lar o r or pro du s b ause

t y are m r l s alars.

Gibbs -
Wilso n , Ve cto r Analysis , pp .
—
82 92 .
58 V ECTO R A ALYS S N I .

Equa tio ns of Pla ne , Line, a nd Sph ere .

the i vect i t it
32 . Th e Pla ne Perpe ndicula r to a an d Passing thro ug h th e

jecti evi e t y c t t e
Term inus of b . Le t r be rad us or to any po n in .

the jecti the te i

The pro o n O f r upo n a is d n l o ns an a nd q ua l

the e thi c iti e e the e ti

to pro on of b upo n a as lo ng as r m nus o f r is
in pla n ; s o nd on is xpr sse d by q ua on

c t t a t o ns an a o h,

a -
( r b )= 0,

which the e e the e ti the e t te

th t e e ic he ce e
is, r fo r , qua o n of pla n . It also s a s

a ( r b) is p rp nd ular to a and n p ar all l to the

FI G . 33 .

e hich evi e t t th c e e iv
the e ti e the i i the e
l n w is an d n ru a nd o ul d be us d to d
p a r e

q ua o n of the plan . If or g n is in p la n , b 0

the e ti which the wi eevi e t the w y

e ic the e ti e e i e the
is qua o n, is o r s d n , as r is n al a s

e ei e ive vect i
p rpe nd ular to a . If q ua on of a p la n is d s r d,

th h the te i i y e e e th t
pla n b ng p a r a ll l to tw o g n o rs C a nd d and p ass ng

vect vee e eic ti the e tt ce

ro ug r m nus o f b , s m pl r m mb r a d is a

or p rp n d ular to p la n , a nd pu ing e d in pla

a abo ,
its q ua on is

(d )(
-
r b) 0.
 V EC TO R A ALYS S N I . 59

v v e e th t the vec
I f th e equatio n o f a plan e passing thro ug h th e ends o f thre e

t the e e
g i en ecto rs a , b, an d C is de sired , r m m be r a

e e thi ct ivi
o rs ( r a ) ( ,
a b ), and (b C ) lie in sa m pla n and

x pr ss s fa by g ng

( )( b )x (b = 0.
)
e i
r a -
a C

or x p and ng

r - axb
( M C xa ) a -
(
a x b M Cx a )
a) = 0, W he e l r <> E
(
a x b M Cx a )
.

F IG . 34 .

i th t e ti ith we th t 4
vect e e ic the e
Co m par ng is las q ua on w see a ) is a

v
or p rp nd ul ar to pl a n .

ee the e
To fi n d th e ecto r pe rpendi cular p fro m th e
the e ti
o rig in to th e
-

i
whi h
pla n e . R f rri ng to p la n n F ig 3 3 ,
.
q ua o n of

c is
a ( r b) 0,
60 VECTOR A LYS S NA I .

e e c the e h
ti e the
let r beco m p p
e r n di ul ar to plan and ence so m e

m ul pl o f a , say a: a , n

a -
(x a b) 0,

a: a
2
the a - b; n a:

b 1
h
“

p a n a a a o
.

hi e t evi e t i cti the

jecti ti ie the it e he ce
T s r sul is a lso d n on nspe on . Fo r a -
b is

t i the v e the ject we t i i e

pro on o f b on a m ul pl d by m agn ud of a ; n ,

it e t t i ect y
to ob a n alu of pro i o n m us d v d by the
m agn ud o f a , so ha d r l

1
b
“

a a -
.

In e ti
qua on (67 ) the e e i p rp nd cula r p is the n

=
¢ t
fl
P a

i ce wy e
33 . The equatio n o f a stra ig h t line thr o ug h th e and

pa ra llel to a is , s n a a nd ( r b ) are al a s p a rall l,

mm
s e —4 » = a

hi c ti e ith the
e ti e ve evi y
T s is o m pa bl w

q ua on d ri d pr o usl ,

m r = b + x

yi
the
fo r appl
69 in
it we O t i ng a x

fo rm
to , b a n

a r x

Aga i the e ti ie
e e ic
n, qu a on o f a l n

i th h the
p rp nd ular to C a nd d a nd

ec e e en d Of b
p ass n g ro ug
FI G . 35 .

ve e ti
b aus d is parall l to a
-
e abo
.

q ua o n,

b)
 R A LYS S VEC TO NA I 61

ci c e
he e with i the ce t the e h the vec
34 . Equations of th e Circ le a nd th e Sph ere . In a r l or

the ii c t t e o rig n at

the
Sp r ,
n e r, l ngt of to r to

e
surface fro m the or g n is o ns an and q ual to
radi us . H nce
r a, ( no t t = a)

( )
7
' ”
1
the e ti the ci c e the he e cc
r a ,

t eie ce c i e e
is q ua on of r l or Of sp r a o rding as

t wo or hre dm nsio nal spa is o ns d r d .

the i e ve i t ce the
ec e
If orgin is r mo d to O at a d s an C fro m 0 , n

(7 1 ) b om s

)
2 z
(
c t
C a
’
I r

' 2 2
2 r c a C o ns

the i i th t the i c e e ce
or r e
.

c e the ti e ce
If C a, a is , if or g n is on c r um f r n

c ir l , eq ua on r du s to
’
r —2 r a = o

h c i te thi e th
o
.

T is , in polar oord na s. is no ng mo r an

r 2 a cos 0,
62 V EC TO R A LYS S NA I .

whe ewhichthe ee etwe

r 0 is e et i e
a ngl b ee n r and any p r d e rm n d radi us,

c i te c e e the e ti
fro m 0 is m as ur d .

he e w itte i e i t y
In rec ta n ula r
g o ord na s (73 ) o nsid r d as qu a on

o f a sp r is r n mm d a el

FIG . 37

whe e the jecti ch i

the th ee e the e t e e e ic
r a , , a , , a, are pro o ns O f a ny ose n ra d us alo ng

thi i e th t
r ax s If pla n of z be ak n p rp n d ular to
.
y
s rad us , a 2 and a , are z ro , so a

we the the e ti e ce th t
ci c e t e t the i i the with ce te
If dro p z c o Ordin a te
-

q ua on r du s to a of a

the i
r l a ng n at or g n to y axis a nd its n r

e ti with i i ce te the
on z: ax s .

The qua on or g n at n r m ay be put in form

fi — a =
a
( r a )(
-
r a ) :
0;

h y th t the i e D B are
i ht e i i e t ch i t ti
sa s, see F ig 3 8,. a tw o l n s AD a nd

ti i e h W h
.
y s a t r g angl s , a fa m l a r r sul . Su llus ra o ns

be mul pl ed indefi nit ly and S ow the ease ith whic

 V R A A YS S ECTO N L I .

ti w itt w fit t c i
ti Whe t te i t thei te i e iv e t
e qua o ns m ay be r en do n to alm o s a ny o nd

they ve i
o ns . n ransla d n o r Car s an q u al n s

ch it Q te i e t
g i fa mil ar form s .

t cti Q te c te with
Su boo ks as Ta ,
ua rn o ns , K lland a nd Tai ,

v t e thi i t the t e t the e the

In ro du on to ua rni o ns , m ay be o nsul d ad

wh e t e t e t the i e e ci c e he e c ic
a n ag at s po n by s ud n . In s boo ks

e ce t vect y i e
ol r a m n of l
, p
l a n
n ,
r l ,
sp r , a nd on

sec tio ns, with few x p i o ns ,

i s o n e o f or anal s s pur and

FI G . 38 .

Sim pl e y cc e ce te te tici y ve ye i e evethe te

. The o urr n of a q ua rn o n is a r rar n .

th t the c ct the ite i

The o nl difi erence to be no d p ar ularl in r ad ng s

th t
w orks is a s alar pro du has o ppo s S gn to o urs .

a nd

w itte
a

a -b is r n S ab

w itte a x b is r n V ab .

ie it i i hi i t
3 4a . R esolution of a System of F orc es Acting on a R igid

yw e ev t the y y te
Body . Cons d r any po n 0 as o r g n . T s p o n m ay b e
an her , en ou side of bo d . The s s m of fo r ces
64 V ECTO R A ALYS S N I .

etc cti the y e v t

ce whe e
F , , F, , F, , .
,
a ng o n bo d is qui alen to a Single

for R at 0 , r

and a c e wh e t e th
o upl os s r ng is

whe e r a,, a , the vect the ce are o rs to fo r s F F,

ve hi c i e the ce cti
fro m 0 .

i t ce the e y te
t
w th t t
To pro s, o ns d r o ne o f for s F a ng a t P ; we
m ay n ro du z ro s s m F F at 0 i ou al er

FIG . 39 .

with the
ing in the
any w ay the
we c e t e h y c ieflect o f F on bo d . By o m b ning

e vi e cti the e
F F at P ge t a o upl of s r n gt a xF ,

W
the e th t fi y we h ve
l a ng a fo rc F a ng at 0 . e m ay do sa m e for ac h

of forc s F F etc so a nall a

the ce cti
.
,

( ) all for F F, ng at O
e e e
a s a

(b) n u l num b r o f cou l s a ,xF, , a , nF,

a q a p
 R A ALYS S V ECTO N I . 65

i e the ce t e t t ce Z
Co m b all fo r in r sul an for R F
the c e e t t c e z which
n s o a ,

ve the the e ch e ti e
and all o upl s in a r s ul a n o upl C = a nF ,

i t wh teve
p ro s or m . Su a r so lu on m ay be m ad fo r any

p o n a r .

e e the i the c e e ive ve

Ce ntr a l Axis , Co up le a Minim um fo r P o ints on thi s Axis .

e the e t t ce
I n g n ral ax s o f o upl C d r d a bo is no t

R
i i e the e i t which
p a ra ll l to r sul a n fo r .

e ti wi ive c e wh e i e
Le t us nq u r if r are a ny p o n s fo r an a nalo

tice th t w teve i t ch e the evect is parall l to R

go us r so lu on ll g a o upl os ax s .

No
ch i t ha
the c e
0 is R is
’
a r po n os n sa m or .

w ce
Le t 0 be and le t 00 r, and fo r O
' '
o upl
'
su a po n

o uld be , Sin OP
’
a r,

—
z n a a

he the c iti th t thi c e e ec

.

T n on d on a s o upl be parall l to R b o m es

2 m r ) F x
a: R E a xF D
E F,

so th ta
a R = C —flR

ti y “
ec e —1 is a rall l to R e
the t i e c m ul pl by R
ct te v i he
To fi nd 33, , b a us R p ,

a nd r pl s al a r p ro du rm an s s .

H ec n e
e
x

C
=C R

R (C R )
~

-
“

— “
Q
R ( R 9 (ll C PR.
-

a e ti
t th e he e the
li near q ute
a on for r in rm s o f R a nd ive vect
i t whi h thi
C (g n ors by

e ti i e hi i e c e the e t
l as eo r m) . T r is n a li ne Of p o n s fo r c s

i the y t whi h the e e e

kind o f r so lu on is poss bl . T s l n is a ll d C n ra l

R
c e
Ax
ce t i it e
s of S s em, c is n r duc d to a fo rc a nd a

o upl about R of a r a n m agn ud xR RC R l

‘

) RI (C RI ‘

the e ti the e t
Co nsidering q ua o n Of c n r al ax s i
e
66 V R A ALYS S EC TO N I .

it ee th t the v e ce
thi t vect evi e t y e ic it t the
is s n a o ne o f alu s o f r is and Sin

R,
ie th t the e ti w itte
s las or is d n l p p
e r n d ular to m us be
l n ON ; so a qua on m ay also be r n

= “
r R x C + yR = ON + yR,

whe e r the
R “
vect
x C is the ce t no rm al or fro m O to n ral

F IG 3 9A

we th t the c e tthe ce t i the

. .

By (a )
the c e t e i t
see a o upl abou n ral ax s is

he ce w y th the i t th t it R,
com ponent o f o upl at a ny o h r po n alo n g an d

e
n is al a s less an for a ny o r po n ; so a is a

mini m um a nd q ua l to

C R, -
alo ng R

h weve the e c t t i t
.

ce t i
It is , o r, sa m ,
i . e
.
,
o ns a n fo r a ll po n s o n the
n ral ax s .

EX ERC I E S S AND PRO BLEM S .

1 . Prov e the following fo rm ula

ax ib (c d)§
x x
[a cd] b a o h cxd

b d
o
ax e b e a d

a x b c xd e x f
[ ] [
a bd ] [ce f] [a bc ] [ ]
de f

[a bc] [ cd]
f [a b f] [c cd ]
 V ECTO R A ALYS S N I . 67

2 . Prov e
[ a bb x c e a x
] [ abc l ’

a nd inte rpre t the re sult by de te rm ina nts .

3 . Show tha t
Ir a N) p
W» M) q
r- a ro b r

4 . Show that

ax (b c)
x
b
x
(
o a <
) c ‘ (a x b ) 0 .

y5 . Show tha t

[W P b q x cx r ] [w q In c xp ] [a t bxp c m] 0 .

(
a- d )(1M )

b [
acd ] a [bed]
c [a bd] d [abc] .

7 .

from the e quat i

Deduce the fundame ntal form ula
ons
of sphe rica l trigo no m etry

a- c b d o
a -
db -
c,

ac d
[ ]b [bed] a
[ a bd] c [ bc] d
a

i
.

Make the unit v ectors a nd ta ke a n orig n at ce nte r o f sphe re

v e cto rs

of unit radius , thus making a ll the v e cto rs te rm inate upo n the sur

face of the sphe re .

8
a a re
. Show tha t the
respe ctiv el y c om po ne nts o f b parallel a nd p p
e r e ndicula r to

'
b a 3 1

M = —w
as .

9
it be o m i
.

tt d
e in a
‘n
(a
c
The se o nd v ector a m ay be o m itted from m (a
b) o r in a (
x a
-
b) . May
68 V ECTO R A ALYS S
N I .

10
Side s
. The perpe ndiculars fro m the
o pposite me e t in a po int .
i v e rt ce s o f a t riangle to the

11 . Find the po int of inte rse ctio n of a line a nd a pla ne a nd dis

cuss the result .

12 . The pe rpe ndicular bise ctors of the side s o f a tria ngle m ee t

iy i
in a po int .

13 . F nd a n e xpre ssio n fo r the comm o n p p

er e nd cula r to two

i i
line s l ing in the sam e
no t pla ne .

1 4 De te rm ine the v e ctor pe rpe nd cular drawn from the

.
-
or gin

i i
to the plane dete rm ined by the three points a , b , c .

15Find the e quatio n o f a pla ne passing thro ugh a g v e n po

. nt e
’ "
a nd pa rallel to each o f two giv e n stra ight line s b a nd b .

"
Ans
'
( r . c ) b x
b -

16 F ind the le ngth o f the co m m on pe rpe ndicula r to ea ch of two

.

g iv e n str aight line s pa

vy
ra lle l t
a , re spe cti el , and S how that it is
o b , a nd b,
a nd pa ssing thro ugh a , a nd

w here

17 . Find the e qua tio n of the line of inte rse ctio n of two planes .

18 . Deduce the Ca rtesia n e qua tio n for the v o lum e of the te tra
hedro n w hose v ertice s a re

a . b . c . d.

a,i a, i a,,k , etc

i
.

w 19
ho se
.

i
Deduce the Ca rtes an
v e rt ce s a re

=a i
e qua tio n fo r the

a3 k ,
a re a o f the tria ngle

a. ,
a, j
b b, i b, j b,,k ,
C c,j c, k

i
.

20Find by tra nslat ng into Ca rte sia n notatio n that the v o lume
.

of a pyra m id , o f w hich the v e rte x is a giv e n po int (xyz) a nd the

j
base a tria ngle fo rm ed by oining three giv e n points aoo, obo, ace
in the re cta ngula r co brdinate a xe s, is
 V EC TO R A ALYS S N I . 69

21
i i i i
Show how to determ ne the dire ct o ns o f two v e ctors o f giv e n
.

d ire ctio n . i
m agn tude so that their re sulta nt shall be o f g v e n magnitude and
Whe n is this m possible
i
22 The m om e nt of the force AB abo ut the line CD is six t m e s
.

the v olum e of the tetrahedro n ABCD div ided by the num be r o f

un its of le ngth in CD .

Find v e cto r m om e nt at C , a nd the n the com po ne nt of this a long

i
CD .

o ne
23 . The la ws of refractio n of light from a m edium
o f inde x p a re co m prise d in the re la t o n
’
i o f inde x p nto

p u a x p
’
ux a
’
,

where n , a , a nd a
y ec a re unit v e cto rs a lo ng t he no rm a l, the incide nt
’

i i
a nd re frac ted ra s re sp tiv e ly .

' 24 . Write out t he e qua tio ns of p ro ble m s 1 to 8 nclus v e in

Ca rte sia n

i
25 .

un t v ecto r, prov e
If
no ta tion

r a.
.

i i
b x is the e q uat on of a stra ight line , b be ng a
that the l ne throug h the origi n p erp endicular
i
to it is
r y (a a o
h b)
an d that its length is

to the
26 The .

v e ctor
eq uatio n o f

i
the p la ne through the orig n perpendi cular
a ma y be wr tt en in e the r of the form s i i
0 “
O ( ) —
(r a )o
i i
a t a -
r r a o .

w 27Le t r. b + x d be the equa t on of a straight l ne

hat v alues of a: does it m e et the sp here r 2 ”
o ?
i
By the theorem
For .

o n the co e fi cie nts of a n eq ua t o n as re lated to the roo ts , de riv e the

i
tion
28 . Deriv e the eq uat i
theorem s for the product and s um of the ntercep ts res pec tiv e ly
o n of the sphere (
o r c rcle i ) from the e qua
.

(l )
‘
0 o a .

This eq uation sta tes tha t the end of r m ust rem a in at a c onsta nt

dista nce a from the e nd of c , he nce , e tc .

ri g 29

ght an
Prove that if the sum
g
.

les the two for

v
ce s a re
and difference
eq ual .
of two forces ar e at

J 30 Pro e that if the le ng ths o f the sum and diff erence respec
'
.

tiv eb of two forces are eq ual, the two fo r es are at r ght angles c i .
 CH PTER IVA
FF
.

DI ER ENTIATION OF V E CTOR S .

W a ys
vect e the vect the e t e e wi Vecto r m a y Vary
35 . Two in wh ic h a . If a s m all

vect i e i t y
or d a be a dd d to or a , r sul in g n ral ll
be a new or d ff r ng by a sm all a m o un fro m a no t onl

the vect which e e e ic

in length but also in di recti on .

he the wi e ch e
If s m all or is a dd d be p rp nd ular to a ,

t n length of a ll r m ain un a ng d .

F IG . 40 .

the vect which e e th

wi e i ch e
If s m all or is add d be parall l to a, en its

he e th ee c e h w
di recti on ll r ma n un a ng d .

c
T s r as s are s o n in Fig 4 0 . .

cti c vi e h
Diff e re ntia tio n w ith R espe t to Sca la r Variable s . Let the
actor a ()
t be a fun o n o f a s al ar ar abl t . In ot er
70
 V R A ALYS S EC TO N I . 71

w o rds, let its l ev eth iveecti ng w ete i t an d di r on be kno n a nd d r m na e

the v e whe
as so o n as a alu of t is g n .

the v e whe he the ch e

Le t OA, be al u of a ()
t n t t, , an d le t OA be

the ch eal u of a ()
new t n I t, . T n an g in a ()
t
due to an g in t o f t, t, is

Ai Az ( a)
t ( 1)
t

ivi thi e ti
3 _
3 '

e the ch e
D di ng s qu a by t,
on t, in

i i fi ite y we
o rd r to fi n d r a te o f an g and

efi e
m a k ng t, t, n n l s m a ll,

d n

d“ — LF EEL)
a
lim ( )
74
dt —t; tz t1

whe e e
_
ta -
0

c thi w itte the e

I f t, t, h, r h is so m s m all

ii
S al ar , s m ay be r n in m or
fa m l ar form ,

dt h
vi e t y te ch e the
h -i o

vect with ect

E d n

e l the ra an g of

vect i y the th ee te ch e
or a resp to t is m ad up

c e
o r all of r ra s of ang

of its o m po n nts

Fm
— 41

i l
dql g
t?
( ( ' °

-
al o ng i, alo ng j and : alo n g k , ,
dt lt

22 991 ”
da
_ _,
k ’

dt dt at at
eci e y the e e i
Pr s l the te ch sa m r aso n n g holds fo r ra of ange

with e ect t vect e e ti 3

r sp to t o f he or r pr sen ng
( 1
,

tte e n
dt
di

dt
e
2

y the hi he e iv tive we the w t

Simila rl for g r d r a s m ay n ri e

d fl
a 1
£22 13 Q9, 3
d n
a
, k ‘

dt" dl “ “
at »
di
72 V EC TO R A ALYS S N I .

vect j c i e e c t t e th
ei theit vect i ecti ei fie
The o rs i k are to be o ns d r d o ns an in l ng

e
(b ng un o rs ) a nd in d r on (b n g alo n g x d axes )
in all o f s difi erentiatio ns

e te the
.

i
If
d i
be d no d by p , n

da —
“
P a
dT
and

d n
a —
dt n
p
"
a p
"
a .i
( a s a.k ) “a i
p . +p “
az i m a sk

It wi ll be no tice th t the e t
d a o p ra o r p a ct i s l ke a

c ti ie
.

s al ar m ul pl r.

ic ce e ti i t ce efi e j t c
36 . Diff ere ntia tio n of Sca la r a nd V e cto r Pro ducts . The
d ff r n al o f ab , fo r ns an ,
is d n d us as in s al ar

al ulus as

(
a da ) (b -
db ) a -
b d (
a o
h)

i e ecti titie the

.

e the e e i
Exp and ng a nd n gl ng sm all q uan s of sec o nd

o rd r r r ma ns

d ( a -b ) a o
h da h o
a - db a oh

da b -
a -
db ;

he ce vi i th h
n ,
di d ng ro ug by dt,
d da db
(3 b) ’
dt dt dt

P p a -b a -
p b b pa-
p ly a

ii e
,

In a S m l ar m ann r

d da db
( a b) “ "
22 dt a
p ( a xb ) p a xb a xp b ( )
80

i e e ti ti the t e ce ve y ch they
.

cc with thi i t i e e ce th t
The d ff r n a o ns n ak pla r m u as do
in scalar al ulus, but s m portan d ff r n ,
a the
 R A ALY S VECTO N SI . 73

e the ct t e i ch e e e i
whe e ch e e the vect evi y
o rd r o f fa o rs m us r ma n un an g d in all xpr ss o ns

ie w w e e e
r a ang in o rd r o f o rs , as pr o usl ex

e i te i whi e it e e ti
p la n d, o uld no t be a llo ab l . Fo r x a m pl ,
in (79 ) the

o rd r is m m a r al, l in ( )
80 is ss n al .

The form ula

§ t
[ a (b ) a x c a

ri (M n a- p a- (b w ) M
Mr ) a- b
( p )
x 6 ( )
8 1

d da a
a nd
di m "
(b )]
dt
.
(b C )+ a
dt
.

p ax b
< )xc ax e ln ) ax o x
p c )
the e e t ee t i y ee
i t ctive e which the tice the
are in s am w ay as l s n to be ru r sul s.

e te t the ct e ch
I t is ns ru to no m ann r in ope ra

vect e e th the ic t t o ne o f
to r p o p ra s in urn o n a fa o rs .

If is to ma in l
t c
a or r n o ns a n ng ,
n

t c
a o ns .

he ce
or n n
o
o ns .
;
n a - da 0,

e e ic e et ic y evi e t
c i ei
or da is p rp nd ul ar to a , as is g om r all d n by
o ns d r n g
c t
the e ti he e i e
a n o ns .

as q ua o n o f a sp r o r c rc l .

i te e ti
37 .

e e t we
W h
Appli ca tio ns to G eo m e tryt i
e i i ht i t e . e s all ob a n so m

thee cet cy vect the wi ic ti

n r s ng an d us ful r sul s , a s ll as a c le ar r ns g n o

al ulus of o rs , by fo llo ng appl a o ns to

g om

v i e vect w fie ii W
r .

h e th t the te i te
Le t a ar abl or r be dra n fro m a x d or g n 0 . e

v e i e e e t v i e ive
S all assum a rm nus o f r c an be lo c a d as so o n as

By
i ht e te i the tic e c t e y
a alu of t, an nd p nd n s c ala r ar abl ,
is g n . a

we h e e thi e t w iti
sl g x ns o n of m a ma al no m n la ur a nd s m bols
S all xpr s s s r sul by r ng
‘
I
74 VECT O R A ALYS S N I .

e i it e cti i ic te the
vect ch cte the cti i te ce
r ad ng as : r quals a v ec tor fun on o f t
. To nd a

ty e
or ara r of fun on, f is pr n d in bold fa -
d
p
v ie c ti y the te i eci e e
.

c ve c ve ce e e i whethe i e
As t ar s on nuo usl ,
rm nus o f r d s r b s so m

v e ti v e cti
ur or ur in spa , d p
s nd ng upo n r r is a s ngl

alu d or m ul alu d fun

-
o n of t.

FIG . 42 .

We e the wi th t the cti

v e ti the i e e e t c
assum in follo ng a fun on f is a co n

v i e the i t ce the c v
tinuo us an d si ngle -
alu d fun c on of nd p nd n s al ar

ar abl t.

Le t t s be d s an alo ng ur e

r = f ( )
s

fro m i t the c ve i c e e t
any p o n P on ur The n r m n dr is ev i

vect the c ve e th he c
.

dr
de ntly a or alo ng ur ,
and o f l ng ds, n e

vect t e t the c ve the i t

i e ti whe che i efi ite y e
is a uni t or ang n to ur at p o n un der c o n

s d ra o n, M n M ’
h as appro a d nd n l n ar to

c ve ie ce we h w ite whe e it
,

dr
M . Fo r on n n s a ll r I, r t is a un

ve t the t e t the c ve we c it the

ds
c o r alo ng an g n to ur ,
o r as all uni t
‘
angent,
 V ECTO R A ALYS N IS . 75

dx éy j + d
£
i + k
ds ds ds
t, i t, i t, k .

So th t a =
ds
t dy
as
t,,

are the i ecti c e the te e tit the t e t i

d r on o si n s of

No rm a l
ang n .

the the e ti i e th h the t i

Ta ng e nt a nd . The q ua o n of an g n l ne

at r is n qua on o f a l n roug e rm nus O f r

and p ara e g
ll l to t w itte and by (69 ) is r n

d _
r

ds

whe e g the v i e vect thi i e

i thi vect ct e
r is ar abl or to s l n fro m 0 .

t i the i i te i e ti
Expa nd ng s or pr o du by m ans of

ob a n fam l ar Car s an q ua o ns

i j k

(55 £1 ) (i! fz) (3 £3 )

dz dy dz
de ds as

or m ak n g i the h ee c t r om po n n s alo nget i, j , and k e q ua l to

ze ro .

42
ds

The plan e no rm al to the c ve ur at r is, by

or exp anding in its Car te i

s an fo rm ,

— d
(z e)
j 0 s x
e
-

. .

d
76 R A ALYS VEC TO N IS .

ithee th t e e jt ceth t hi t the

c veth h Co ns d ad a
*
38 . Curva ture . r re n p o n s on

M M M3 ; M, M,
i e y i ecti he ce the
ur and uni t ang n s ro ug and
,

M , and M
vect e the fi t t i the ec
and ro ug d ff r o nl in d r on, n

i ht e th the e e e e the e
or add d to rs o ne to ob a n s o nd o ne is
at r angl s to bo and r for m asur s a ngl
g

FIG 43

th h whi h it t e i
. .

ro ug c is urn d in go ng fro m M, to M By
defi iti the c v t e efi e the t e
n on ur a ur is d n d to be m agni ud of
dt
as

I t is ve e t c the vect
co n i
ni ni the vect to all or
ds
t d lf
-

ds2
or

c v t e it the e it e 35 ei
ur a ur ,
C , as has sa m m agn ud as a nd, b ng

the t e t i t t w the ce te c v
t e vect c v t e ei e e ic
no r m al to ang n , p o n s o ards n r of ur a

c ec tive t e t ie thei e i
ur . The or -
ur a ur ,
b ng p rp n d ular to two

c vt e e th i ve e y ti the
d
o ns u ang n s, l s in r pla n . The ra us of

the c v t e i t the e i ecti m ag

ur a ur 9 has a l ng n rs l p p
ro o r o n al to

he ce w itte
nitude o f ur a ur but po n s in sa m dr o n,
,

and n m ay be r n

= fl
p c

See Appe ndix, p 24 2 , fo r . o the r de fini tio ns .

 V R A ALYS ECTO N IS . 77

e c tii
tive t e t c e the c ti e g the
O sc ula ting Pla ne . The plan o n a n ng tw o co ns e cu

vect i t thi e i ce the th e

a ng n s is all d o s ula ng p l a n . If be
or to any p o n in s p la n fro m 0 , s n r e

vect o rs t,
it g it
a nd e ti
( r ) lie in its qua on m ay be

itte w ce
, ,
}

wr n do n at o n by (50) as

( r 5)

( r 5)

FIG 44

hi itte the ii
. .

ete i t
T s by (4 9 ) m ay be wr n in fam l ar form of a

d rm na n
78 V R A ALYS S ECTO N I .

twi te c ve ce twi t
ti ct w y ti the c ve ie
Tortuo sity . A s d ur in spa s s in two dis

c ti e th t i t thi ti
n a s . Any sm all po r on of ur l s in its

the c ve c v t e e c i e ve we
os ula ng p l n at n and s s m all po r on of
a a po ,

the c ve h weve the c ti e t th h

ur has a ur a ur as d s r b d abo . AS go

ce t i e the i t the ti the e e

alo ng ur ,
o r, o s ula ng pl a n urns ro ug

th ce thh t chthe e c c ti e the e t theity t ve e

a r a n angl ; l mi of ra o of angl turn d
ro ug by os ul a ng p l an to ar c ra rs d to p ro
du
e ce it the c ti e
a ang is a ll d to r uo s .

H n if n be a un no r m al to o s ul a ng pla n ,

whe e the it e the

as is
i e e ti e ti ud
r m agn of arc .

e etic i e e t i e the
Geodetic Line s on a Surfac e . The d ff r n al q u a on

wi i e e the efi iti
to a g od l n o n a surfa c m ay b e ob a n d in fo l

e etic i e c ve ce the c ti
lo ng s m pl m ann r fro m d n on :

e the c ve ei eve ywhe e the ce

A g od l n is a ur on a surfa ,
os ula ng

the c ve t etche t i w the

p la n of ur b ng r r no r m al to surfa .

ce we e e ect y th the e cti

I t is ur a s r d s r ng o uld lie alo n g if

e the e e t ei eve ywhe e the

surfa r a p rf l s moo o ne , r a on of the sur

the ce whe e it c t ct with the t i the along

fac to p r ssu r of s ring b ng r r

norm al to
it t e t the e etic the
surfa r i s in on a s r ng .

it the c ve it vect
Le t t be the un an g n to g od ,
let n be

yi the e e the ce
un no r m al to ur ,
a nd le t m ux t be a un or

c ti e ete i e which
l ng r fo r in s urfa no r m al to n an d to t .

itthi efie iti ie thethec ve ce e etiche thece

The os ul a ng p la n is d rm n d by t and dt lie
in by d n on . If ur is a g od ,
n or m a l

to s p l a n txdt l s in surfa ,
a nd is n p p
er e n

e i thi ct
dicular to n .

Expr ss ng s fa ,

n (txdt
) 0

ie ceti ie ec e ie thi
-
.

S n t l s alo n g dr 3 7) a nd dt l s along d ’
r s

q ua on b om s
z
n (drxd r ) 0,

hich the i e e ti e ti the e eti

-

'
is d ff r n al q u a on to g od c.
 V ECTO R A A YS S N L I . 79

If th e surfac e is of the form

V ( r) c o ns t .
,

th en V V is a v ec to r n o r m al to it . See But V V has direction

c os in es p p
ro o rtio n al to

n is along i

Henc e (89a ) bec om es , by

aV dV CV
61: by Oz

da: dy dz
‘ ’
dx
’
dy dz

v
e ti 39 . Eq ua tio ns of Surfa ces . Cur ilinea r Coo rdi nate s . The
q ua on

r f (
u, v ) ,

whe e i ee et c v i e
e t ticce v e
r u and v are two nd p nd n s alar ar abl s , repr e

s n s a surfa

iv whi e
.

If a p ar ular alu u, be g en to u l v is unre

stric te d,

I
'
f (uh D
’

ei the ve yi wh y the
ce tic v e ive whi e
b ng Of form is so m e c ur l ng o ll on

e t icte
s urfa . If a par ular alu v, be g n to v l u is
unr s r d,

)
'
1 VI

e the c ve yi wh y the e he e
c ve i te ect the i t i t ete i e
is so m o r ur l ng o ll on surfa c . T s

the e ti
tw o ur s n rs at p o n or p o n s r d rm n d by
u a on
q
'
I, f v1 )
°
80 V R A ALYS S EC TO N I .

W the ete i e i t the ce ivi

tic v thee i te ecti the c ve hi i t
e m ay n d rm n a po n on surfa by g ng

p ar ular alu s u , a nd v , , say , to u and v . T s p o n will

be found at n rs on of tw o ur s

f ( ) and r f ( ,
vi i e c i te the e ive the e v i
r u ,, v u

ei t etw ch c viiei e c ve i ivite e thethe cee

Cur l n ar o ord na s is nam g n to s ar

abl s u and v, su a se r s of ur s d d s surfa

which h ve v e the tic c e th t

up n o a n or k o f ur l n ar q uadr l a rals, angl s

the e c ve e ch the w y i ht e the

of m ay a any alu . In p ar ular as a

s ur s out a o r al a s at r g angl s y

FIG 45

i c e Whe
. .

the y te c ve ivi e the ce i t

a re sa d to fo rm an Orth og o na l System of urv s . n

fi it i they i
tw o s s ms of ur s d d surfa up n o

in
e ch y te the e te t i form
n es m al squa re elemen ts are sa d to an

t e the tic hy ic t eth c t

I so th erm a l Syst m . Su s s ms are of gr a s mp o r

thi ject e ce e t eh ic ti
anc in m a ma al p s s . The s ud n s o ul d ons ul
“

th e ect ie e t ie
on s sub an x ll n b o o k by F r, Appl a o ns

Mé
i t ti
de la od V or ll a l a G é om é r I nfi nit é si m ale ”

His
ye ie i t cti
(Ca rr é et Naud, Par s, no a on is diflere nt

eth ite i
fro m o urs , and is full x p la n d in his n rodu o n, but
his m o ds are q u s m ilar .

40 Applica tions to the K inem a tics of Partic le Let

i e e e t v i e e te the ti e the
. a .

he nd p nd n g ar abl t no w d no m ; n v

he
a vect ve city the c ve ) t th
or lo alo ng ur r f (t . No ice
dt
at
 R A ALYS S V EC TO N I . 81

dr
e t vect he e
is no lo ng the e e e t
r a uni or , as r dt 7 5 as, l m n

the i ecti ti the t e t

dt

the t t e t the c ve the

o f ar e , but d r on is s ll alo ng ang n . If t is
uni ang n to ur ,
n

v :

w e e the t e c e the ee
cce e ti
h r v, m agni ud of v , is all d sp d .

The a l ra on

a :

43
the i c e e ee
is the c ve e h e
n r as o f sp d a long ur . Sp ed is er

e e te the ve city i e ective i ecti

dt
us d to d no lo rr sp of its d r o n.

And by (87 )

the cce e ti tic e c ve e ve

it e t i ht e e ch the
or a l ra on o f a p ar l on a ur m ay be r so l d
n o t wo co m po n n s at r g angl s to a o r, o ne

dv
dt
i c e i the i e ee
n r as ng the c ve the the
l n ar sp d al o ng ur , o r

on e o o , o r
z
whe e the vect c vt e
r 9 Is o r r adi us o f ur a ur and

i ecte t w the ce te c v t e e e y ch i
p

the e ti the h ti h c ve t i e
is d r d o ards n r of ur a ur , m r l ang ng

dir c o n of mo on .

ive c e ti ti e yi
H odog rap h . The o do gr ap is a ur ob a n d in a ny

it y i i vect e the ve citie the

g n as of mo on of a p ar cl ,
by la ng o ff fro m an

ti e i t the th c the e t e itie

a rb ra r or g n o rs q ua l t o lo s of p a r

thehee vect tic ethee hc i e h ve the e the i t

ol fo r all po n s o f p a . The lo us o f x r m s

of s o rs is o do gr ap .

W
it i t e y e c i i the h
n a p ar l d s r b s a c ur ,
r is n a p o n

related to s m ul an o usl d s r b ng o do graph . Thi s

82 V R A ALYS S ECT O N I .

c ce ti i t ce it d by Ha m l
the t y c vi i e ti
on p on w as n ro du o n, a n d is a n e fi cient

vi e t y the h h it e h ve h h
aid to s ud of ur l n ar mo on .

thi e h the e e the c e ity

E d n l o do grap lf m ay
s a a o do grap ,

the ti
and s p r ap s a no r, d p ndi ng upo n o m pl x

i t the i
of mo o n , an d so o n .

ii is arb
Th e h odog raph of a particle a t re st a p o n at

t i ht i e
trary or g n .

i t the vect e th e the ve city

Th e h odog raph o f unifo rm m o tio n in a s ra g l n is a

po n at e nd o f a or of l ng u l t lo
q a o .

F IG . 46 .

t i ht i e the t i ht i e e the fi t
Th e h odog ra ph of uniform ly a c ce lera ted m otio n in a

e c i e with ee the h h v i e l
s ra g l n is a no r s ra g n p ar all l to rs ,

c the
d s r b d unif orm sp d by o do grap ar a bl .

ci c e i e the ee c t t i e the
Th e h odog ra ph o f uni form m o tio n in a ircle is an o r

ee ve t ve city the i e w y
r l ,
s nc sp d is o ns an ,
o f rad us q ua l t o

the i vect the i i th vi e t y

Sp d . The c or lo in c rc l is al a s e
p pr e n

the i t ve thei i i w th the

dicular to rad us or in or g n al p a . E d n l

e ve i ie ve ity ee
a nd mo
’
po n s P P aro und r g or ns i

te ch e he ce the cce e ti
sa m a n gular lo c t The lo c of P in g
’
s . n ra l is
"‘
e ra of a ng of v, and n is a l ra on
D
 V R A ALYS S
EC TO N I . 83

S i ce
n the two ci c e t e c i e
r l s m us be d s r b d in the sa m e
h e ce
n

a fam l ii e t
ar r sul .

E quatio n of the Hodog raph . If

= f t)
r (
the e ti the th e c i e tic e
ti e e y the the th the
be q ua on o f p a d s r b d by a p ar l ,
con

e c i ti we the
a ni ng no t m r l fo rm of p a but law of its
d s r p o n as ll , n

the e ti the h h the

ti i
is qua on o f o do grap an d law of its descrip
on . Aga n
d ’
r
2
dt

is the h h the ho do grap of o do grap h , and so o n .

ec
t h
4 1. I nteg ratio n with R espect to Sca la r V ariables .
(R on

i ve i e e ti ti e e e y the
s ul p ar a g p
ra s 4 and

ie c i te ti c t t i te ti
The n rse of d ff r n a on o ff rs m r l difficul

weve c t t vect i ee e
t s of s alar n gra on . The o ns an s of n gr a o n,

i ee the v ty i t ce tic As
ei c t et cceti e tithe
ho r , are ons an ors . a s mpl xam p l c on

s d m ot on of a p ar
r le und r ons a n a l ra on,

ti w itte
und r gra i for ins an . . The d ff er ential q ua on o f

m o on m ay be r n

whe e r a is a co ns an t t vect or . In te ti gr a ng o n ce ,

a t+ v, ,
84 R A ALYS S V ECTO N I .

whe e r c t t
V0 it vect e ti
is a o ns an vector , as is a or qua o n an d

v, ete i e the v e whe

is d rm n d by alu of n t 0 . Inte grat

ing we t i
again ob a n

= 3
( )
z
r l a t 9

wheth et i whe ec c tti t vect ive the

r aga n s o wh ve v e e
is a s o nd o ns a n o r and os alu

ti e e i y th t t ti the
is a of r n t 0 . Equa on ( )g
93 s al u of

it the vect i t the th

r at a ny m t
. The qu a t o n s a s a s ar ng fro m
po n 5, ( i . e. at S ), r. or to any po n of p a ,
m ay

S Vo t

FIG . 4 6A .

be found by i te thei vect evi e thet y e c i tie

a dd n g to so or sum o f two m o o ns

i th h ec e the c te
a nd The r m nus of d l d
”
v ot 5 a t . r n s r b s a

i t the c ve e e e the i e e e
p ar a bo l a p as s n g ro ug s o, b aus oordi n a s of

ti the fi t we the
any po n on ur r f rr d to o bl qu ax s p aral l l

ec we the e tity e ective y

to V 0 and a are p p
ro o r o n al to rs p o r an d

the
s o nd p o r of sa m qua n t, r sp l .

e e c i e the ti tic e e ce t AS
Orbit of a Pla net . Ce ntra l Ac celera tio n . a no r

c e e ti th t w y i e te t w wy
x a m pl ,
o ns d r mo on of a p ar l und r a n r al

fi e i t the e ct the ce tt cti

a c l ra on ; a is, o ne al a s d r c d o ards o r a a

cti the t ce ei e t i ete i t

um a x d po n ,
xa la w of fo r of a ra on

fun on o f di s an b ng l f nd rm na e . The
 V ECTO R A ALYS N IS
. 85

et y ti thi e c i ti t c
e ti the ti
p l an ar mo o ns are of s d s r p on . I n hi s ase the
difi erential q u a on of mo on is
’
d r
f( ) (94 )
‘
ri l
dt ’

the c e e ti w y the e e e
the i vect the ct
As a c l ra on is al a s alo ng and r for p ar all l
to rad us o r, pro du

-
"r 0
Et
.
a

Th i s m ay be w itr te n

FI G 47

the we t thi
. .

out diflere ntiations, ob ain fro m s

’
d r dr dr
x
3
dt dt at
w i h the ec te the e t e ec e
vect ct c t i i e vect e e e
of h c s o nd rm o n l f is z ro , b aus any

i ti H
or pr o du o n a n ng p ar all l ors is z ro . nc ,

ntegra ng,
dr
- —-

dt
c t vect
x r o ns . or

wh ere c is a Vector p e e c the e

rp n di ul ar to plan of r and
86 V R A ALYS ECTO N IS .

the vect ve city the t e t

dr
is or lo alo ng ang n and r is

the i vect th t the ve e ti

dt

the e we t the i vect it ti e

rad us or, so by g 18
a abo qu a on is

t i the e t the th t e ce t cce e

twi ce ar a s p out by rad us or in un m .

W
ti the te e c i ti e c t t
e ob a n r sul ,
n, a und r any n ral a l ra

it ie e e e ic c t t vect
on ra of d s r p o n o f ar as is a o ns an , and the

the
o rb l s in a pla n p rp nd ul ar to a o ns an or c .

Ha rm onic Motion
e i te te . Equa tio n of Ell ipse . As ano r ex

a m pl to n gr a

dz
r
2
m ’
r 0,
dt

which the e ti ce t cce e ti ti

the i t ce the ce te ch ti t e ce
is qu a on of a n ral a l ra on p p
ro o r o nal

whe eve w th t the we

to d s an fro m n r . Su mo o ns ak pla

ti the c e ti
r r R o ok e ’
s Law is fo llo d .

W e kno a two so lu o ns o f s alar qua on

dr
’
m z
r 0,
2
dt
r = a c os mt and r = b sin mt,

th t the c ete ti the the e

we e ce the it y c t t the it y
and a o m pl solu on is sum o f s two . If

t t vect tii
r pla arb r ar o ns an s a and b by arb rar

c o ns an o rs a an d b, ob a n ng

a co s mt b Sin mt, (97 )

it e i y ee i e e ti ti th t thi e ti
ete ti the vect i e e ti e ti is the
is as l s n, by d ff r n a on, a s qu a on

c o m pl solu o n of or d ff r n al q ua on

d z
r
a
m z
r 0 .

at

e te i thi ce which e i y e h
we the t te the e the ti i e i e
By an x ns o n o f s pr o ss , is as l s en to old,

e ti e with c t t c e cie t
m ay n s a rul fo r solu o n of l n ar d ff r

e ntial q ua o ns to a ny o rd r o ns a n o ffi n s: F i nd
the soluti on s , a ssum i ng the vector va ri a ble to be a scala r va ria ble ,

m ultip ly these each by a n a rbi tra r y vector a nd add. The resul t

wi ll be the complete vector solution .

 V R A ALYS EC TO N IS . 87

e e it y vect et i e the
i iti fi c iti the e e ct y the
Th s arb rar o rs are to be d e rm n d fro m

e we with c e ti ti
n al o r n al o nd o ns of p ro bl m xa l in sam e

the c ti i e h ic ti
m an n r as do s alar qu a o ns . Equa on (97 ) is

ti ete e e y ee e e t
o m p osi o n of tw o m pl
S arm o n mo o n s along dire c
ons d r min d by a and b , and is as il s n to r p se n
r in

F I G 4 7A. .

e e e i e i c i e the e wh e
ie e ective y
g n ral an ll ps ns r babl in p arall logram os

s d s ar e 2 a and 2 b r sp l .

r a c os mt + b Sin mt

isthe e e the e ti
r fo r ei e
o ne e
fo rm of u
q a o n o f an ll ps ,
if m is r al .

the e e vect i e e ti ti i te ti
42 . Hodog raph a nd Orbit under Ne wtonia n F orce s . AS

c i e the c ti e ce i ecte the

a no r x am pl in or d ff r n a on an d n gr a on

i vect i ve y ti the
o ns d r ase o f mo o n un d r a for d r d alo n g

the i t ce it e hi the i y et y
r ad us or and n rse l p p
ro o r o n al to squa re of

ti W ve the i e e ti e ti
ds an in m agn ud . T s is o r d n ar pl a n ar

mo on . e are to sol d ff r n al qu a on

d’
r m r,

dt 2 z

ti yi we h ve ce
r

Mul pl ng by rx , a at o n

dz
r

he ce
dt z

and n
dr
rx (b)
d,
This eq uation states that the acceleration is dire cte d ou tw ar ds ,
ie . the forces are rep ul si ve .
—
F or a ttra c tiv e for c es ch an g e I n t o m .
.
88 V R A ALYS S EC TO N I .

whe e c t t vect hi t e ti t te th t
the te e i ti e c t t ve
r C is a o ns an or . T s l as qu a on s a s a

i e the i e tity
ra of d sc r p o n o f ar as is o ns a n ,
as ab o .

Lem m a in Diff e rentia tio n . Co ns d r no w d n

r r r, ,

dr rdr, r, dr,

he ce ti yi
n m ul pl ng by

SO th t a

ei et we i ht h ve w itt
a r sul m g a r en do w i e i te y i i
n mm d a l by S m la r

ti y thi t e t tii the e

tr angl s .

Mul
h i e e ti p l s las r sul by r o b a n ng fro m l ft
a nd s d of q ua on

l
'

I ( ri ‘
dri ) dri ( rI ‘ rI )

i ce
S n r, and dr, are p e e ic rp nd ular and r, r, -
1, so th t a

r x
, ( rxdr )

ce t No w the p a r
c e the the
th t
n i ht sis o n r g is a c t t vect
o ns a n or fo r
n ra l fo r es by (b) . so a ,
by ( )
a ,

d ’
r
x c
dr

and i te ti
n gr a ng

whetie yi c t t v ct e
mul pl
r d is
ng
a o ns a n

by C
e or p rpe nd ic ular to C , as is seen by
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS 89

M ul ti yi e ti
p l ng q ua on ( c b
) y é we t ix
ob a n

T hi ec e i ce
s b om s, S n C 1, and bec ause by (b) — is
Z
I
no rm al to C r to

dr
C l
d (d mrl )
-

dt
the e ti the h h
i ce to
c t vect c t
o dograp
q ua on .

v t he ce ie the e the it
S and d o nst an
‘x
d is o ns ant
"

n C are o rs, C a

vect c t t e th th t the e t e ity

ec o r no rm al to C , and n l s in pl a n of o rb ;
“
m C x r, is a or o ns a n in l ng so a x r m

ie ci c e w the i t ce te
,

dr
l in l dra n aro und
1x
d
‘

s a r po n C as n r

the e the it hi e th i e
dt
an d in l n of o rb T l ng s nc C and r, are

e e ic
p a . s ,

7"
rp n d ular, is
,

ti the e ti the th ti y e ti
c

the h h
To ob a n qua on to p a m ul pl the q ua on

of o do grap by rx,

“
rx rx ( C x d) m rx

Exp and i the

ng two t i e vect
r pl or p ro du ct s and r e e ei
m mb r ng

( ),
b
d “
1
mrC
“

C r -

Mul ti yi
pl ng by Co,

r- d mr

h
.

So t at

d cos a —m
 90 V EC TO R LYS S ANA I .

the e ti c ic the e ei e
the i e
po l a r q ua o n of a on ; a n gl a b ng m asure d

i with
fro m l n d .

Co m p ar ng

the e e e ti ic whe e the c the

i i whe e the e i t ect whe e the
g n r al po la r q ua o n o f a co n r fo us is

ecce t icity we th t the th the it c c

or g n, r l is s m la us r um , and r e is
n r fi nd a p a of o rb is a o ni of

ec e t icity 31 th t the j i th t the

,

c n r ; a d is alo ng ma or ax s and a

m agn it e the j i
ud of ma o r ax s is

Whe vect c
ti e th c v i e it i e e ti te
43 . Pa rtia l Diff e re ntia tio n . n any or is a fun

ti y with e ect e ch the e i i v i e

on of m or an o ne s ala r ar a bl c an be d ff r n a d

ei c i e e t t i the ch
p ar all r sp to a o ne , r ma n ng ar a bl s

ti i e e ti e ficie t w itte j t i y
dur difle re ntiatio ns
'

b ng o ns d r d c o ns a n ng . Su
p a r al d ff r n al c o f n s are r n us as in o rd n a r

c 32 g
s alar c alc ulus as etc whe e the i e .
,
r x, z, are nd

e etc v i e t t ch e i
ch e the v i e w itte
p nd n s ala r ar a bl s . The o al an g in a due to s m ul
taneous ang s in ar abl s dx, dy, dz, is r n

da
dx +
6a
—
dy l
da
5; g a
y ic y we
S m bo l all m ay w ite thi
r s as

a 6
da d33 + — dy + d2 a
dy dz

whe e the e e i e the e c i ee

i e e ti e t ie
r x pr s s o n in p ar n s s is to b e o ns d r d as

et
a d ff r n al o p r a o r to b e appl d to a , as in

the c t the tit e t

Orig in of the O pe ra to r De l ( V ). The o p ra o r ( )
99 h as .

which
‘

form of a s alar p ro duc ,

tw o c o ns u n v e c tOrs

of are

3 E a nd
dy dz
See Ap pe ndix, p 24 5 , for Pat h D es c ribed by
. an Electron in a Uni
form M a g n e tic f ie ld
 V ECTO R A ALYS S N I . 91

the
rs
i
fi te e i
If e y S ngl

xpr ss o n
s m bol V ( e
r ad e del ) be us d to d e no te the

t he e ti
q uw itt
a on m ay be r en

da ( V d ) ( 1 01 )
th t y the c i e ti
r-
a .

W
e ie thi y ic vect
e are us le d na ur all to o ns d ra on of the

p p
ro rt s of s s m bo l or V .

PRO BLEM S AND EX ERC I E S S .

1 . If r - dr 0, Sho w that r co nst .

i t t
If rxdr 0, Sho w that r , = co n st.

y
’
If r drxd r 0, Show that rxdr has
-
a fi xed d rec ion hat r
is alwa s pa rallel to a fi xed plane .

2 . Show tha t

a nd that
‘o
r ar .

3 . Giv e n a pa rt icle m ov ing in a pla ne curv e , in the pla ne of I] ,

i
r
co m po ne nts of S alo ng a nd
O b ta in the p p dicular
e r e n to the
-

d;

The y
r ad ius v e cto r

a re
.

d d0
a nd r —J . r, .

at

y
A u nit line L to
. r, is e ,, whe re k is norm al to the
4 . Obtain sim ilarl by diffe re ntiation of

dr i i! at?
dl di dl

t he
The y
ac cele ratio ns a long r, a nd

a re
p p
e r e ndicula r to r , .
92 V EC TO R A ALYS S N I .

5 .

the dista nce of a po int from the o rigin, o

y
If r , e, 0 be a s stem of polar coo rdinate s in space , e re r is
i the m e ridio na l a ngle , a nd
wh
v eloc t
latitude
iy
6 the pola r a ngle , obta in the e xpre ssio ns for the com pone nts of the
a lo ng the rad ius v e cto r, the me ridia n, a nd a pa ra lle l o f

6 . F ind the a cce le rat io ns alo ng the sa me dire ctions in the problem
a bov e .

Expre ss the m in Cartesian form .

7 . The curv e
=

i
r a cos t b sin t
j
v
re pre se nts a n ellipse o f

ector
wh ch a a nd b a re c o n ugate radII . The

— a sin t b oos t

a cos

t
2
j
i
is the rad ius c on ugate to r , a nd pa ralle l to the ta nge n at r .

j
i
8 The para lle logra m dete rm ined by the
.

ell pse is c o nsta nt in a re a .

c on ugate radi of a n

i [
’
rxr

9 . An ellipt cal he lix is re pre se nte d by

r a cos t b ein t ct .

10
cur e v .

r
Show that the ta nge nt line a nd the o sc ulating pla ne
i (s) may be re spe ctiv e ly writte n in the forms,

w h ere r
’

g a nd r
”
z
df
, , a nd

a: a nd y a re v ariable sca la rs

y
.

11 Find the to rtuosit , T, of a ny curv e whe re T is de fi ned as the

.

rate cha nge o f the no rm al 11 to the o sculating plane wit

the arc ds .
respe ct to h
’ ’
dr d r d r

Express this in Carte sian

v
notatio n .

12
of a c
.

i Find the cur

rcula r he lix .
ature of a circ ular helix . Find the tortuosity
 V ECTO R ANA LYS S I . 93

13 . The e quation

i
r a: a,

whe re
c urv e r
a is a

i
c o nstant v ecto r, re pre se nts a

¢ (t) w th its v ertex at the e xtre m it y

co ne sta nd ng on

of a .
the

14 . The e quation

t a)
y i
r

where a is
i
a co nstant v e ctor, re pre se nts a c linder sta nd ng on the
¢ (t) a nd hav ng i ts ge ne rato rs
i vi
c urv e r pa ra lle l to a .

15Prov e that the accele ratio n

.

with uniform speed is g v en by i ’

of a pa rt cle mo ng in a circle

dr
’
dt r

16 . Write o ut the e quatio ns of the hodograph for uniform ly

a c ce le rated m otion in a straight line .

17 . Find the hodograph to the m otion

dr ’

’
dt
w here the acce le ra ti on v arie s a s the dista nce from the i
orig n.

The solution of (a ) be i ng that of

;
(5 zz i m
2
r 0, that is

r A cos mt B sin mt,

a nd Aom‘ Be m‘

i
r
-

I nte rpret these e quations a nd those of the re sult ng hodographs .

18 .

ii
Show that if the hodograph be a c ircle , and the ac ce le ration
b e dire cted to a fi xed po nt, the orbit m ust be a c onic se ctio n, whic h
i s lim ite d to be ing a c rcle if the acce le ration fo llow any o the r law
t ha n the inv erse square .

19 .In the hodograph corre sponding to a ccele ration f (r) dire cted
y
y
2
t o w a rds a fi xed ce nter, the c urv a ture is inve rse l as r f (r) .

20 . Show directl without analysis that

i x 1 “dr , l
'

l
x dl
'

l,
r r,

a nd he nce that
 CH PTER V A .

TTEE INHNNEBHENTTAJ I DPTHLAJ I HRS.

G

e hi i e
ti e c e e vi i e which
The V e ctor Operator V ( r ad del ) . T s S gn is so m

H
et eve e te h weve
m all d n a bla d ) and also atle d,
”
s ( a s

we w thy ti it h t e y ce
is d l a (A ) r rs d . The rm del is , o r,

c flict with the te i y the t

ll or of ado p o n, as is s or ,
as to prono un

i t t i e e ti e t the tic hy ic
and on s no o r rm nolo g . AS V is m os

e tie i t ie et i
m por an d ff r n al o p ra or in m a ma al p s s i ts

efi e the e ti
p p
ro r s w ll b e s ud d in d a l .

fi De ni ti on . V is d n d by qua on

6 6 6
V l
6x 63; 62

We h ve e y c e c the c e
t e h c ce i h
a alr ad om a ro ss s alar diflere ntial op r

c te thi i t efi iti e
a or p on p g
a 72 . The p aragrap s o n rn ng p s ould

th ee y ic c e t the th e e
be o nsul d at s p o n A s by its d
. n o n V is m a d
up of r s m bol o m po n n s alo ng r e ax s

i j the y i it e the ei
k, s m bo l c m agn ud s o f mb ng
6 6 6

e ective y it e y ic vect
6a: dy 82

it e hi iew vect t t et
r sp l ,
m ay be loo k d upo n as a s m b ol or

he the c ehe i wh t w e y et mpor

s lf . T s V of V as a o r , Is I an and o f gr a

the t e t e t the hy ic e tie ce

lp in o m pr ns o n o f a follo s . The m plo m n

the t e e t cc e ce
o f V in

the e e e t e e y
r a m n of p s al p p
ro r s o f sp a is

e i e h ve e et ic vi e e t ti
of m o s fr qu n o urr n . I t is, r for ,
x r m l

ch hy ic e tie ce fie he
d s rabl to a a g om r or sual r pr se n a on of

c e the e ect e t the

su p s al p p
ro r s in sp a , or lds, as t y are

all d, and o f ff o f o p r a o rs upon m .

44
fi
. c
Sca lar ec
a nd t
eve y i t e i fi ite thi i
V e tor F ie ldst . R o nsul 5 at s po n .

the e e efi te v e e hy ic e ty
De ni ti on . I f to r p o n in a r g on , n or not,

e i efi e c e fi h thi
r c o rr spo nds a d ni alu o f so m p s al p p
ro r ,

the r g o n so d n d is all d a eld . S ould s p p

ro erty
94
 V R LYS S EC TO ANA I . 95

c the fie c e fie e e
ch e ti e the te e t e ive
be a s ala r o ne ld is all d a s c alar ld . AS xa m pl s

i t t y the e ity it
o f su m ay be m n on d mp ra ur at any g n

the te ti it e ect ic etic

ns a n , at all p oints o f bo d ; o r
a d ns at all po n s ;

vit ti tte e e tive y

or p o n al at all po n s , due to l r al, m agn ,
or

the the h the e ty vect it

gr a a o nal ma r r sp c l .

i vect fie e e the e the

On o r and, if p p
ro r is a or o ne is

ve city i t fl i the e e t ic etic

sa d to be a or ld . As x a m pl s of s are

vit ti i te ity e it ei
lo at all p o n s o f a u d; l c r al, m agn ,
or

e ect ic etic vit ti tt e e tive y

gr a a o n al n ns ( of fo rc ) a t a ll p o n s o f a r g on due
to l r al, m agn ,
or gr a a o n al ma e r , r sp c l .

45
it y i
. Sca larc c it w v i e i
a nd e
V e to r F un tions of Positio n . Assum

vect hi ve t e te ete i e
any arb r ar or gi n 0 and fro m dr a a ar abl r a d us

it e the te v e e t the
or r . T s c or r m ay x nd to and d rm n any

By
iti the te i eve y v e
p o n in sp a c . rm alu of r is m an

the e c e efi ite ti y i No w , if to
on of r m nus o f alu of
”
p o s r . r

u
c i t cti w itte
r r o rr spo n ds a d n s c ala r q a n t V , V is sa d to
be a s alar p o n -
fun o n o f r an d is r n

V f ( ) r ( 1 03 )
eve y v e the e c e efi ite vect
.

tity i ve t i t cti alu o rr spo n ds a

I f to r of r r d n or

w itte
q u a n F , F is sa d to be a c or p o n -
fun o n o f r and

is r n
F f (r ) ( 1 04 )
th the cti e e e t
.

=
ti c vect fie e e tive y
V f ( )
r and F f (r ) are us fun o n al r p r s n a

o ns o f s alar and

c cti
or lds r sp c l .

with hy ic
Ma th em a tica l
t w y ti
a nd Ph ysica l Dis o ntinuitie s . The fun o ns

i e v e e ce t e h i te i t i e
m et in p s s are alm o s al a s co n n uo us and

ce fi it e
alu d x

they e
S ngl -

p p r a ps at so la d po n s, l n s o r sur

v i evice ch i e ti i h eve t
fa s n e in num b r . If no t , can b e m ad so by

i i e e i e e t th etc
a r o us d s , su as by ns r ng d ap r agm s to pr n

cti e t with wh t w e
p as s n g nt o a r gi o n by tw o or m o r d ff r n p a s , .

thi e c i ti
The fun o ns d al ,
in a fo llo s , a re suppo s d to

tc i i c ti itie th t cc
be of s d s r p on .

the tic th e which eithe the v e it e

The m o s o m m on k nds o f d s on nu s a o ur in
ma ma s are os in ,
r alu s lf of
96 R A YS S V EC TO NAL I .

cti t ch e whe
ch e the cti ty t e v
a fun on sufi ers an abrup ang ,
or re the rats

the i e e e t v i e c ti y i c e e
of ang of fun on abrup l ak s o n a ne w al ue

i i he
as nd p nd n ar abl is on nuo usl n r as d or

hic y the e e e the c ve e

d m ni s d .

ch e the i ecti the c ve e e e ti the

Grap all s m an a br ak in ur ,
o r a sudd n

ti t e ch
ang in d r on of ur r pr s n ng

Q
c i itie t e ce e e the
func o n, as in Fig 4 8 .
( ) a ,
at P and at . In na ur su

dis o nt nu s do not ak pla . For x am pl ,

tem

FI G . 48 .

c h ve v e ie ce
the v e the the i e whe e the i e the an d
pe r ature a nno t a o ne alu o n o ne S d o f a surfa

ce i fi ite y e e ch the e ity the e

an o r alu on o r s d ,
r tw o s d s of

ve y i ch e the te e t e
surfa a re n n l n ar to a o r . In r al r

v e i e v e the the we
is a con ti n uous but r r ap d ang in mp r a ur

th h the ce e i e i ite y t i ce
fro m its a lu o n o ne S d to its alu on o r as

B
e i t e e t i i ti
p a ss ro ug surfa . s d s, nfi n l h n surfa s

the te e t e ie t y efi ite
do no t x s xc p i n o ur m ag na on .

v e ee ch e t y the v e ite
If mp ra ur gr a d n in a bo d has o ne d n

e e t the fi t we w th t e ity the e

alu and s m s to a ng abrup l to a no r alu q u

ve y i fi ite te h e the ie t the

di ff r n fro m rs ,
kno a in r al r is a

ce e ti hi e ce i c ti ity
r r ap d but n ra of c ang of grad n at

t ti i i te whi h h
p l a in qu s on . T s abs n of d s on nu in any

c ti cti which i te t
na ural func on is nd ca d in Fig 4 8 (b), . c s o ws the
on nuous fun on , to all n n s and u
p p
r oses
 V R A ALYS EC TO N IS . 97

ce the i c ti cti thi

th t the tte ti wi i the
re pla s ds on nuo us fun on ( ) a . It is for s

i e ti i c ti itie wh t w t
re as o n a usual a n on ll no t be pa d to c on

All
cti ei e ity c ti ch c e ti
s d ra on of d s on nu s in a fo llo s . na ural

hy ic y e fl W t te the eie
fun o ns b ng in r al on nuo us , su o nsid ra on

e i e ve yi th t cie t ific ti
is p s all sup r uo us . e m ay s a sa m d a

fi it t c ve e e e ti t he e
x pla n d abo ,
by sa ng a o n suffi n m agn a on

no m n a

wi c ti
of n e am o un all ur s r pr s n ng na ural p
,

ll be fo und to be on nuo us .

FI G . 48 .

We h weve wi h vey the i e th t the

i c ti itie i t t
do
the c t y
no t , o r, s to co n d a a

the the tic e t e ive thei t y

s tudy o f d s on nu s is un m po r an ,
as o n o n rar

e te t i t ce te h tt
ma ma al r sul s d r d fro m r s ud are of

e i v vi e t h e we i ht
the gr a s m por an an d ac us ho w to a ac k b
, pr o

the e t c ti itie hy ic cti

l ms n ol ng sudd n na ural c ang s , or as m g c all

ct the eth e e y e ye
m, appar n dis on nu s in p s al fun o ns .

the ct the ti i c ti itie t e t

I n fa m o ds g n rall m plo d are to a ssum e

the ch i t we wi h e th t the
m to be a ual ma ma cal d s on nu s a nd r a

ytic e e i t he e it
m as su . The po n s to m a k is a in

ece y c ic te the the e te

genera l anal al x pr ss o n of na ur al p no m na is

c i e ti i i itie the t e t
un n ss ar to o m pl a fo r m ula by s p a r a

t e t the the e i e the ti eth whe

o ns d ra on of d s co nt nu s, but to le t s ud n

v c ve e t ece y
r a m by r c o gn z d ma ma cal m o ds n

e er it is on ni n or n ssar to do so .
98 V R A YS S ECTO NAL I .

the e we h
c i e the te ti tte he
46 . Th e Potentia l . For sa k of defi ni teness S all

e t ie t i e tic y eti vit

o ns d r p o n al due to electri ca l ma r . The W ol

te ti the i t i ti t e t e y
argum n appl s alm os d n all to m agn c or gr a a

the ve city t ti vi fl i etc etc

tio n al po n al ; to ds r bu on of e m p ra ur in a bo d ,

te ti i t ce
o r to lo -

p o e n al in m o ng u ds, .
,
.

fi
i t i ti e ect ic tte efi e the w
De ni ti on . The po n al a t any p o n in sp a due to a

e it itive tity e ect icity it ht

d s r bu on of l r al m a r m ay be d n d as ork

i fi ity th t i t e ch e
do n o n a un po s q ua n of l r as is broug

e h the it wi e i e itive w e the

by an y p a th fro m n n to a p o n . As li k arg s r e

it ch e i it the ei h h : itive
p el ac o r, ll r q u r p o s o rk to be do n on

i t i ti ect icity he ce the t ti

un ar g t o b r ng in n g b o r o o d of any po s

ch i i ti wi itive it
d s r bu o n of el r , an d n p o e n al aro und

i ncreasi ng as the po
t e e e e e it evi e t th t the
su a d s tr bu on ll be p os , n s ar e

ce cti the t ch e e e i ce th t
ak n n ar r and n ar r to . It is d n , also , a

they the i ecti the i c e te ti uni

for s a ng o n ar g are r p ll ng for s and a

i t e the e ect ic fie the ch e

ac t in dr o n opposi te to n r a se o f p o n al .

he the t itive ch e eee

For ns an c in l r ld due to arg g on

e ti i y tw t c c te
a s m all sp re, uni p os arg at P is r p ll d b y
a fo rc ac ng ra d all ou ard, o f a m o un al ul a d by
Co ulo m b Law
’
s

F
% r

w he e e theevi i et t yce ec e ethete ce te thechehethee

r r is d s an fro m P to n r of sp r .

he e w e the t ch e e
The forc F d n l b om s gr a r as P appro a s

e it
sp r ,
an d ork has to b e do n upo n uni arg in o rd r

v the i t h vi
to m a k do so .

the e te ti the w th e
Le el or E q uipo te ntia l Surfa ce s . Le t all p o n s a ng

i t which e i e the e t w
sam p o n al be found , o r , in o r o rds , fi nd all os

e e the itive ch e it i ity

n s r q u r sa m a m o un of ork to be ex
p o

the hi t w the
p nd d upo n uni t p os arg to bring fro m nfi n

te ti cti the the e ti the c efi e y

up to m . I f C be t s a m o un of o r k and V be

the e i t i
po n al fun o n, n qu a on to lo us d n d b
s p o n s w ll be
V (l )
'
C)

whe e e e
r r is m e it y i ias ur d fro m so m ar b rar or g n .
 V
R A LYS EC TO NA IS .

i i y i t whi h e i e t
e w the e ti thi c wi
F nd S m il arl all p o n s c r q u r a s m all a m o un

m or of ork C dC ; q u a on to s lo us ll be
= C + dC
V ( )
r .

the eci c e the he e the e i t w

he c ce t ic w th the ch e he e
In sp al as of sp r ,
F ig 48A,
. s po n s ill
lie o n sp res on n r i arg d sp r .

F I G 4 8A
. .

he e e ti efi e ce which c e eve
i te ti e the ti y h
T s qua o ns d n surfa s are all d L l or

ce c t cte the titie w

E q u po n al Surfac s of func on V (r) . Le t m an suc

y chi the cce ive e i e t

s urfa s be o ns ru d a nd le t qua n s of or k em

p l o e d in rea ng su ss on s d ff r by equa l a m o un s .

REE BO K l\ -
1 00 V R A AL S S EC TO N Y I .

e i w c y the it ch e it
the h vi the e te ti efi iti it
It r qu r es n o or k to arr un ar g fro m o ne po n

e i e the e t w i the it ch e
to ano r a ng s am p o n al , for by d n on

i fi ity eithe the e i t th we

r qu r s s am a m oun of ork to br ng un ar g

ch e the th e the t
from n n to r of s p o n s by any p a ,
and

m ay oo s p a l adi ng to sec o nd po in to p ass

Sh owing Lin es of Fo rce Eq uipote ntial Surfaces Aro un d

and

a Ch arged Con ducto r .

th h the fi t i t e ce the w H e
the fi t i t the ec i t t e
roug n n ork don in go ing fro m
rs p o .

w ie
rs p o n to s o nd p o n m us be z ro .

j e eve e i e e ce t
R ela tio n be t ee n F o rc e a nd Pote ntia l . Co ns d r in par

ti etwee the ei hi e th t it
tic ular tw o ad a c n t l l surfa c s , the d ff r n in po en

al b n m b ng dV . T s m ans a req uires

 V R A ALYS S
ECTO N I . 1 01

it w c y the it ch e
ce the the e
d V un s of o rk to arr un arg fro m o ne o f the

i ce the t w c t t i
surf a s to o r in a ny m a nn r .

eve ce the e the e te t ce wi

S n am oun of or k is o ns an in go ng fro m one

e c te e i the h te t th the
l l surfa to n x t o ne , gr a s fo r s ll be

the th t the i ce
n o un r d in go by ngs or s pa fro m o ne to

c e e ic the ce
o r , so a at any gi v en p oi nt P , m ax m um fo r is
a lo n g the o m m on
p p
r n d u l ar to tw o sur fa s C om .

FI G . 50 .

i ce fi the e i
ce wi e te the e e the e
the fo r di P, m ax m um
'

p a r n g s at erent p oi n ts P , or s

t ethe e ce the ce the fie the

fo r s F, or F, ll be found gr a r n ar r surfa c s

H n
eve ce i ve e y ti thei i t ce
a re og r . fo r s in ld are no rm al to

t i c e e t i y the
l l sur fa s and are n rs l p p
ro or o nal to r d s an

But V
eve ce te i e e e te t whe e the
ap ar . n r as s m os rap dl alo ng norm al to a

ce c e t t ethe W the e e e ect

l l surfa and its ra of nc r as is gr a s r sur

fa
e ti etwee the e i t the te i e e
s lie los s og r . e ar e r for le d to xp a

the e i t thi c i e y e e e
r la on b n fo rc at a p o n and ra of n cr as

of V at sam p o n . Al l s is o nc s l r pr s n te d by
1 02 V EC TO R A LYS S NA I .

w iti the w e i ce
et
r ng for or k do n in go ng fro m o ne surfa to the
n x ,

dV F dn,
o

whe e the i t ce etwee the ce

th t
r dn is n o r m al ds an b n tw o surfa s , so

w e e the it i ti the i ecti

te ti hi i t e ti t te th t the ce
h r n is un norm al po n ng in d r on o f i ncr ea s

it the eve ce i th h th t
i ng po n al . T s m p o rt a n q ua on s a s a fo r

i t ite the i ecti te t i c e e

a t any p o n is no r m al to l l surfa p as s n g ro ug a

e it e thi t t te i c e e
p o n ; o ppo s to d r on o f fas s n r as in V , an d

h w e e the t ti eve ywhe e ive

qu al in m agn ud to s fas es ra of n r as .

w e e the ce eve ywhe e

T us a kno l dg of p o e n al r r g s a

kno l dg of fo r s r r not onl y i n magni tud e but

c i t cti it e i v ve i ecti
i n di r ec ti on as well .

c e y i e e e e t ti
A
i th vect
s alar po n -
fun o n, as do s no t n ol dr on , is

te ti cti ve y e thi e
l arl s m pl r of r p r s n a on o n a d agra m an a or

c ete w e e v e eve ywhe e i e i te y

o ne . The po n al fun o n is r us ful fo r s r aso n , as

ive c e e w e e the c eve ywhe e

a o m pl kno l dg o f its alu r r mm d a l

h the c tive y i e cti i i ic y

g s us a o m pl t kno l dg ,
of for es r r .

c t i th t we wi h w t the c tive y
T us o m par a l s m pl scalar fun on ntr ns all

e c ic te vect cti hi e ty
o n a ns all a s to kno abo u o m p ara l

ficie t j ti y i ve ti
m or o m pl a d or fun on . T s p p
ro r alo ne is
s uf n to us f its n n o n and us e .

47 . V Appli ed to a Sca lar Point F unction-

. G radie nt or

Sl o pe
e e i the eve c
of a Sca la r Po int F un ctio n -
.

fi
ite t e the te t te i c e
De ni tion . The v ec tor ,
p rp nd c ul ar to l l surfa e

i ti the i e ti thi te t
at any p o n , q ual in m agni ud to fas s ra o f n r as e

c e the the th t i t
of V, a nd p o n ng in d r c on of s fas s i ncrea se,

w itte
is all d g rad ie nt o r slope of V at a po n an d

is r n

gra d Ve or l
s o p V,

pr e e y the fi t
f rabl rs .
 R VEC TO AN ALYS S I . 1 03

the it ch e the
G rad V Inde pendent of Ch o ice of ce
ve efi iti c ecti
Axe s cti . The fo r F a ng

with evi e t y e e ti e y
on un arg is , by abo d n on in o nn on

i e ethee t ch ice e
§ 4 6, d n l qu al to gr a d V , but as F is '
n r l
nd p nd n o f any o o f ax s , so is gr a d V independ

e i h w th t the e ie ive
e nt o f m .

It r ma ns to S o a o p r a to r V appl d to V g s

FI G . 51 .

the g a efi e
d as d n d ab o ve The w o rk don e it ch
o n a un

it c ie whe e
r . a rge

d fro m M to M is , by MM
’
as is arr 1 6, r
’
dr,

F dr
-
gra d V dr -
dV .

C o ns d i ei r ng no w V as a fun t ci on of x y z,

SO th t a

g ra d V dr -
( i dx j dy k dz)
1 04 V R ALYS
ECTO AN IS .

thi e ti t e etw t ewh t ve th

the ce
As s q ua on is ru a e r p a dr is ak n b ee n

two surfa s,

d V V V ( 1 06)
h the ic ti the e t c it
gra E .

cti vec which ive te t i

T us appl a on o f o p ra o r V to a s al ar po n

i ce e it e i ecti i ific ce
fun on is a to r g s its ra of m os ra p d

tvectce thi ete t c e tee i y ethet fi t i e

n r as in m agn ud and d r on . The s gn an an d

impor an of ra o r is n o w
s op as l und rs o o d .

"

ete
The or V V is o f n al l d af r La m e rs d ff r

i te te ti we c i e
e nti al p aram r of V .

the eve ce the i the e

F o urier s La w I f ns a d o f p o al d te m
’
. n o ns r

the the te e t e cti ive the t

p e r ature ,
l l s urfa s a re n so rm al surfa c s ,

the t i i c e e the te e t e it e
and V of mp ra ur fun on g s ra e of

i ecti the he t t e ce the

m os r ap d n r as of mp ra ur in m agn ud

ti t i the i te ity ive

and d r on . As flow of a ak s pl a in dire c
on of m os r ap d decrea se, q , n ns of flo w, is g n

by v lo e,
whee tie ch e cte i ctic ctivity
r la is a c the e i thethe t i e
ara r s
q
of m d um at po nt in

t e he t i t hi c e ie e m p ra
qu s o n a nd all d its o n du , an d 0 is
T is all d F our Law for the
’
ur at any po n . s r s

flo w of a .

e i y ti i e t th e App lica tio n V to Sca la r F un c

48 . I l lustra tions of of

By m
ti the cti
tio ns of Positio n . an s o f o rd n ar p ar al d ffe r n ia
on on fun o ns

z z
r ( x -

i y
- -

r =
“

the wi i t t e
fo llo ng m po r an r sults are o b a n tie d

2 ’
( it: y

G La m é
. . Le cons su r le s co o rdo n ne és cu rv ilignes e t leurs dive rses
app lications . Pa ris , 1 859 .
 VECTO R A ALYS N IS . 1 05

—I
M M
fl
2

2
y
'H " " z
( 8)
l
V 1 0
‘ “

nr r nr r, nr r.

So th t V difi erentiates the cti fun on

"
ii ym l arl to the

c
a r S
d
s a lar difi erentiation of u "
by
E;

As h e eth
o rt r m od for t i thi
ob a ni n g s fo rm ula wi ll be g ive n

tic c e
in 5 4 9 .

The par ular as s

r, and V

i te t
c e e t y
are m po rt an r sul s.

ce y y c ct ch I t is fr qu
Ap pli cation of V to a Scala r Produ t . n l

e the w the i y
ne ssar to appl V to a s al ar pro du su as a-b .

c ct the efi iti it e i y h w
Re m m bering la s fo r o rd n ar diflerentiatio n of

t t
s alar produ s and d n on o f V is as l s o n

ha
V ( a oh ) V o a°b
( )

e c i t e the h w which vect

wh
i ee the ct
re the subs r p affi x d to V s o s or is

t ti
c o ns d r d va ri a ble, i . e .
,
o ne it a s upo n .

The no a on

V a (a h ) o E V (a b )bo
( 1 1 0)

eti e e whe e the c i t the ec te

h w which vect the c i e ethi i t viewi thei ei ee
is also so m m s us d, r sub s rp in s o nd r m
s o s or is o ns d r d con sta nt dur ng d ff r

entiatio n . V a( n, fro m s po n of d ff r n
1 06 V R LYS S EC TO ANA I .

i y the
the the i
tiates part vect e ei c i
tic the vect e
alle v i e
,
o r a alo n b ng o ns d r d ar a bl

c ct o c t t vect we t i the
in p are n s s. I n p ar ular , if or as, say , of

i t te t
the s ala r
p ro du ro t is a
. o ns an o r, ob a n

m por an r sul

v r
-
'
1

V ( a 'r ) V A C -
P ) V , ( ,
w x (0 l (0 3 2 )
i w, j ,
w k w, (o .

i ce vect c ct ith the vect

49 . Th e Sca la r Opera to r s , V or D irectional Derivativ e -
.

t e efi i i thi w ive the

S n V V is a o r , its s alar pro du w any o r or

e t the it e the i ecti th t vec

8, m ay be a k n , and by d n t on s o ul d g co m

hi i i y w itte
po n n of m agn ud of V V in d r on of a

tor . T s is o rd n ar l r n

whe e the c e t the it vect

wh t the e thi the i ecti c i e the o m po n n s o f
r s, , s, , s, are un or s , ,

ti os n s of
or a is s am n g, d r on dire c

hi e e i e the e ti
o n s, .

T s x pr ss o n m ay be lo o k d upon as op ra o n of

3 3 d
s s, 83
6z
62: ds

which the i i i ecti e iv tive

the i ecti the wi e
upo n V, is fa m l ar d r o n al d r a of V in
dr o n 8 , or, o r s ,

( s, - V )V s, - V V

th t the i ecti e iv tive i ecti

e t the it e the ie t th t i ecti
so a dr o nal d r a in a ny d r on is the co m

i e ti e iv tive the ie the te ti c

p o n n of m agn ud of gr a d n in a d r on .

ti ive the c e t the ce the i ecti h

The d r c o nal d r a n a ppl d to po n al fun

it t e
on g s o m po n n of for in dr on in w i ch
is a k n.
 V R A ALYS EC TO N IS . 1 07

e ce the
ve t the e t ie c i t
Total Derivativ e of a F un ction . If s, be r pl a d by

cti ive the t t e iv tive the cti ec e

s m all ra o r d V appl d to a s alar
'

c or dr, op r -
po n

fu n on g s o al d r a of fun on b aus

£;
i
d r V V = (dr V
- -
)V dy + dz V = aV ( 1 1 4 )
te
.

hi the e thi the ecti e iv tiv

t ie
T s is sam ng as di r onal d r a e along

( )
dr , mul ipl d by dr , or
(( )dr V V
) -
dr d 1V
r -
V

t i e ti e e ti ti
.

W
e the i e tity
e m ay no w o b a n
qua on ( 1 08 ) r the di ff
fo r n a on

of by m
"
ans o f d )
r n ( 1 14

df °
V ( ) E dr (
"
d, r " l
dr " l
dr,
‘ "

nr nr r

th the ct the
-
,

at fa or o f dr, " l r
is V "
"

so o
nr r
,

fl“
a nd Vr "
nr r,

as befor e .

tivi ie vect i t cti

50 . Th e Sca lar Operato r S, -
V Appli ed to a V ector . The

e t vect cti th
o pe ra o r s , - V m ay be also appl d to a or po n -
fun on

F, g ng as a r sul a ne w or fun o n, us

+ 82 + 33
6x 3 3, 62
OF OF
z
I + 32 _
+ 33
62: ay
OF OF OF
_ _ a _ _a _ _a

62

i ti i cti e iv
This is the d re onal d r a tive the vect cti
the vect wh e c e t
of or fun on F in

i ti e iv tive the c e t
t he d re c on s, It is also . or os o m po n n s are

t he d re c onal d r a s of o m po n n s of F .
1 08 R A ALYS S V EC TO N I .

the e itte the

i w itte i y it e e th t
The pare n s s m ay be om d in s, - V F
( ) a nd ex

ec e i ific V F , but
ce thi
p re ss o n r n s m pl s, -
do s no t m an a

yi the te ete thi ee

(s, -V )F s, b aus V F has no s gn an in s

an a l s s . s, -
V F m ay n be in rpr d as no ng ls

ve th t the c e t c t t
b ut (s , V ) F -
.

W
ve t the i ecti e iv tive ve t
e m ay pro a o m po n n alo ng any o ns a n

cti the i ecti e iv tive the

c or a of d r o n al d r a alo n g b, of a c or

c et th t
fun on F, is d r o nal d r a alo n g b of

o m po n n of F al o ng a; a is,

( ) bI V a 1 F

eve ith t e t i ti vect t

- -
p .

And n w ou rs r c on to uni t ors hat

( ) ( ) ao h V pF
-
bvy -
a- F ( 1 1 7 )
hi w i e t y ec e i e e ti ti e
.

e te the ec e
T s fo llo s d r c l b a us V d ff r n a ng F alo n ,

a m ay be pla c d af r V . Also b a us ( 6)
1 1

a- ( b V
-
F ) a o
i b V F, -
a -
j b V F,
-
a -
k b V F,
-

a , h- V F, a, h V F ,
-
a , h- V F,

bV -
p (
a, F, a, F, a, F, )

b V NE F )
- -

y the i vect ive

.

Appl in g w V to -
r, ra d us o r, g s

6 d
w
( V ) ( + k z)
‘
-
I l Z
1 3:
ax ay

6x 61/ 62
2 + k w3
dy 6z

hi e e i h c e with w w
the the i ce v e thi
T s xpr ss o n s o uld no t b e o nfo und d «l o ,
he re
the
te e i w
r is ma gni tude of r . S n V r r, alu of s

l as xpr ss o n o uld be

cc - V r

Co m bii with e ti
n ng wV -
r to qu a on we th t see a

(co v -
) r V. ( co- r ) w .
 V ECTO R A LYS S NA I . 1 09

t vect
i t cti e ve i t th ee c e t
Th e Ope ra tion V on a Ve c or Po int F unction
-
. Any or

th t
p o n -
fun on F m ay be r sol d n o r o m po n n s

alo ng i j and k so a

c ct
ct h ve e i
F ,, F , , and F, are s al ar fun io ns o f a: y z, o r o f r . Con

e the efi iti the ct vect

sidering the pro du vF
V as a v ector, c an a no m an ng

e te e th t the ct with t c h
un l ss d n on of pr o du of t wo o rs a a nd b be

h ve e i the c ct vect
x nd d so a pro du ab ( ou do t or ro ss )s all

But
the vect ct vect
* s al ar d of
a a m a n ng .
pr o u V and a or

e e y ive e ei
F a nd or pro du of V a nd a or F m ay be fo und

ch i t ce th t eci e h ve ee ive
by rul s alr ad g n . The two x pr ss o ns V F a nd V F o x

the
a re o f su m por an a sp al na m s a b n g n to
m .

et e
ive e ce whe ie the
51 . D iverg en ce . The o p ra o r V or div [ r ad

ti ive
del do t
which te i t ti
or d rg n of n appl d to
fun c on F g s a sca la r in Car s an no a on is

' —
d d
éx 8;
is is a A. e .

63: fi g 6z

e
In t i
c i e vect fie the fie hy i
o rd ri e et ti
ce
to thi tity
ob a n a p s c al n t rpr a o n of s quan

i t i ti i t ce c ve ti y te
o ns d r any or ld, ld of for due to a n ele c tri

th t eve y it itive ch e the e i i te

c al d bu fo r The o n usuall a do p d
'

s r on ns an . on n

i e ce i t eve y e tive it ch e the e

is a fro m r un p os arg r or g na 4 7:

ie c e ct e i e ce th t and
l n s of fo r n o r n ga un arg r end

i e it ch e which c ve i te
4 '
71 l n s of fo r e . The xa num b r o f l n s of fo r a

t y c e e ce thi fro m
e t the
s su un arg on nt o n has ado p d, is of

y t which e the it ch e ive i

a b so lu el no o ns q u n in s argum n ,
a nd ne w

s s em assum s un a rg to g r se to but o ne

been do ne in this o o k, a ltho ugh Professo r Gibbs has

This has b
not

ac hiev ed beautiful re sults in his re sea rc he s us ing this exte nded defi ni

See Gibbs Wilso n, Vecto r

’

tio n The pro duct ab he calls a dyad

. .
-

Analysis, Chapte r V .
11 0 V R A ALYS S EC TO N I .

lie te e i e e
c i ee e e e i e ith
n m ay b e adop d if d s rabl . If a n ele m nt o f v olum e

be
ie e the e ctiv y
o ns d r d, fo r lo p p d w
x am pl its
a s m all p ar all

the t e ect ic tte withi it v e t y

s ds dz: dy dz l l l t o x f n d l
pa r a a s o v y a z resp e e ,
.

a m o un o f

e e fi i the e ce the i e which c

l r al m a r n m ay e id n l be
m asur d by nd n g
it ve th which i t it eve y t tiv
x ss o f ln s o m e o ut

of o r o se n F u ni f si e
, go o o r r o po .

FI G . 52 .

eeveectyicitye tive
l r the e wit ei e wte e itee t wit
r o uld m an a 4 77 l n s o ut ard, an d for

the e e c ce e ch the whe it

r n ga un 4 7: l n s o uld n r in o . Co nsi der

i ecti it e i y ee th t the e ic
ing s lin s to an l a o r n go in g in o pp o s e

ch e withi the t sum

dr o ns is as l s n a a lg bra of the

e i ti the i e which e ve e t
ar g s n b ox m ay be fo und in a m oun a nd Sign

e ce the i e which the e e t

by an x a m na on of ln s l a or n er the box .

H n l n s di verge fro m l m en will be a

 R A ALYS S V EC TO N I . 111

e e the itive ch e withi it the h

e tive i e wi i i e the the e e wi
m a sur of p o s arg n . If c q g
r e is

i t it
n ga ,
l n s ll en d ns d of b ox , an d r fo r ll

ti ytic e e i thi tity e ve

co nverge n o .

the ce it c e i t th ee c e t
To o b a n an an al al x pr ss o n fo r s q uan r so l

e j i t the ce e the
F, or flux o f fo r ,
as is all d, n o its r o m po n n s

e e e t the i i the the

p a r al l l to i and k . The flux n o fa p arall l to

ite ce
yz -

pl a n n ar s or g n is F , dy dz, flux o ut o f

o ppos fa is

F, + A dz: dy dz,
6z:

th t the t which c e e ce th whic

e a m o un

the et o m s o ut

c ce e h
so a in x ss o f at

g o s in , as far as z c o m po n n
-
of F is on rn d, is

F, +
g l dx dy dz — F , ay dz dx dy dz .

i i y the the c e t which ti

the e e
S m l arl ,
for o r two o m po n n s , are o b a ned

in sa m m ann r,
6F
z dz: dy dz,
ay
6F
’

A dz: dy dz,
6z

so th t the t t
a o al am o un t the
of flux F which ive e d rg s fro m
t he bo x dz: dy dz is

fizz £ 1 dx dy dz .

dy 6z

iii the e e e t v e t i
t which w e it v e e
D v d ng by dz: dy dz, l m n of o lum ,
to ob a n the

the e c iti the e e i e i e y

a m o un of flux o uld c o m o ut o f a un o lum und r

sa m o nd o ns , r r ma ns p r c s l

6x dy 6z

t ct y the the te e the e ie

w i ive e t v e
S ri l n rm di vergence m ans num b r o f l n s

h ch d rg per uni o lum .

 11 2 V R A ALYS S ECTO N I .

the e t ie the vect cti

ti the he t the ve city fl i it wi ive
If o p ra o r V .
be appl d to or fun on re p ro

e ct y the e e the te which he t i

se n ng flux of a or lo of a u d, ll g

i t it v e the te which the

by xa l s am r aso ni n g ra at a is s su

fl i i i ti i t it v e the c e
ing fro m a po n p e r un olum or ra at

he t the ive e ce e t itive the e t

u d is o r g n a ng at a p o n pe r un olum . In as of

the i t e ti he t he t ct y c e t
a ,
if d rg n xis s and is pos ,
r m us be at

e e the i t whe e the he t e vi the te e t e

po n in qu s o n a source o f a ,
a a uall r a e d,

t i i i hi
or ls at p o n r a is l a ng mp ra ur

the c e fl i the ive e ce e i t itive

m us be d m n s ng .

the e t eithe fl i fl i ct y c e te
In as of u ds , if d rg n x s s and is p o s ,

e e the e ity the y the i t t i h

r m us be r a source o f u d, u d a uall r a d,

the ive e ce e tive the O ite c iti

or ls d ns of bo d at p o n m us be di m ni s

h th the ve e e i t ce the ive ond

ing . If d rg n is n ga , pp o s o ns

e ce he t e tive the w it c ve e
o ld in bo abo xa m pl s . F or ns an , if d r

the e t he t he t ct y e t ye i
g n of a is n ga ,
or in o r o rds , if on rg s ,

e e the te e t e the ce t i
r m us be a si nk o f a ,
a a uall d s ro d, a nn

etc the c e e ect i ity the e i te ce itive

hilated, or ls mp ra ur at p la m us be r si ng ,

ive e ce ve the e i te ce itive e ect ic tte

. In as of l r c ,
x s n of a p o s

the i t e tive ive e ce eti e c e

d rg n pr o s x s n of p o s l r al ma r

ette h weve et i
at p o n . The n ga of d rg n is so m m s a ll d

te the e tive i i ic te c ve e c
co nvergen ce . I t is b r, o r, to r a n but o ne o f the
r m s and use n g a S gn to nd a on rg n e .

v hi i t t th e
i ific ce t tic whe c i e e
52 . Th e D i erg en ce Th eo re m . * T s m por an eo r m

iyiht theve e fiei the ivee city c e cevi

has a s gn an al m os axi o m a n o ns d r d i n the
lg of fo r go ng . Co ns d r any los d surfa S , Fi g 2 4 , .

e i efli evi e t th t the e ce fl i hi

l ng in a c to r ld q , lo ,
s ay , in a mo ng in c o m

c e ve th t which e e e
p r ss bl u d . I t is d n a x ss o f u dw ch

i ti ct w y fi t fi i the t t tw
om s o ut, o r a go s in , m ay be m asur d i n two

ve the e c i th h t the i te i
d s n a s: rs ,
by nd ng o al o u ard no r m a l flux

t i the e i the e i ive

o r surfa c ,
o r se o n d, by go ng ro ug ou n r or

an d a k ng alg bra c sum o f sourc s an d S n ks o r d r

Fo r a rigid m athe m atic al p roo f see A G Webste r, Ele c t ric ity . .

a nd Magnetism , pp 6
.0 —62 ; D yn a m ic s , pp 3 4 0—3 4 2 ; also R G ans , . .

Einfii hrung in die V ekto ranalysis , pp See Appendix, p 252 , .

—
29 3 3 . .

f or o th er theorems analo gous to the Div ergence Theorem Also P . .

Ap p ell, Tra i té de Mé canique r ationnell e , t om e II I I) 2 . . .

 V R A AL S S EC TO N Y I . 113

eve yi fi ite i v ee e e tc t i e withi

ce y thi t c ve ie t y e e
g on cos for r n n s m al o lum l m n on a n d n

t he surfa . In s m bols s is m o s on n n l xpress d

ff S
n- q =
ff f v q av ,
-

he e the w it the e e e t
ce the e e e t v e
w r n is outwa rd -
dra n un norm al, dS l m n of

w thi e vect fie the ce i te

s u rfa ,
dv l m n of o lum .

the tw c et
In o rds s r a ds : In a or ld surfa n gral

ve c e ce e the v e i te
of ou ard flux no r m a l o m po n n of flux , s ee 17)

the ive e ce t e th h t the v e e c e

o r a ny lo s d surfa S is q ual to o lum n gr al o f

hi the ive e ce the e

d rg n ak n ro ug ou o lum n lo s d by S .

the tic i t view thi e t ti

T s is d rg n or m .

c i ee i i e th t thi i te
F ro m a ma ma al p o n of s d m o ns ra on

t ti ive h c e y e t eve y t e t
m ay no t be o ns d r d r go r o us ,
but the d as a s n r

te e thi the e e e
p r o a on g s s ould be l a rl un d rs o o d by r s ud n .

I n Ca r sian dr ss s or m b co m s

[ q, co s (nz: ) q, co s (ny ) q, c o s (
nz )] dS

22. t
<
dx dy dz .

6g 62

i e ive e e evi e t y i e e e t
ch ice e i ce e e i e e ti
The d a of d rg n c is d n l nd
p nd n o f any

i e e the e t e ti it i v i t
o o f ax s s n no n are r q u r d fo r its co n c p on .

ch e e e e
Co ns d
ee h w iv i t
r d as r sul o f o p ra ng by V is n ar a n to

i v i t h ce i e t y ve V h as b
ang o f ax s b c aus n s o n to be n ar an .

t ti e thi ece y
I ts n ar an c ar a t r m ay also be d r c l p ro d, as usual,

e
by a r ansfo r m a o n o f ax s , but s is a lo ng and unn ssar

tic
p r o c ss .

E xa m p les . I n p ar ular

6 d
.

l
.
" —
ax ;
az

62: dy 62
114 V R A ALYS S ECTO N I .

y thi e t i the ve e c
the e W t i i e i te y
Le t us appl s r sul ,
us ng r fo r q in di rg n e

or m . e ob a n mm d a l

ff n

the w th ee ti e the v e i e
c e ce t i e ti yi eve y e e e t
Or in o r ords , r m s o lum nclud d by any

ce the e e ic ii e
los d surfa d by m ul pl ng
is ob a n r l m n of

i the e t
surfa by p pr nd ular fro m t he o r g n to its plan a nd

he e i t ce t i the i i the ce te
add ng r sul s .

e e ic eve y e e e t ce c t
In a sp r ,
fo r ns an ,
a k ng or g n at n r, r is

e t the e e
p rp nd ular to r l m n o f s urfa a nd is of o ns a nt

l ng h, r fo r n t o
r,

fd 4 m ”
3 >< v o l sphe re r

ee t
,

a tru r sul .

To o bta in V o
r, . By ( 123 ) and

V 3 V rV r, - V r rV r, (by
‘
o
l - r, -

r V - r, 1

e ce
.

2
H n -

the e e the
the ive e ce he e c i e the e e
E qua tio n of th e F lo w of Hea t . As a no r xa m pl of

w the i e v e tt th h
D m ( 1 2 1 ) o ns d r
use o f rg n T or g n r al

which he t fl wi ie ce w
la s of r m al flo w . Co ns d r a olum o f m a er ro u g

whe e thi e the he t the

a is o ng, an d co ns d r a surfa S dra n any

w the t he t whi h e it e w
r in s sp a c . Le t q be flux of a ,
or in o r

y the i e it ti e c e
o rds, a m o un of a c c ro ss s un ar a dra n

the he t c et t eheityt which e c e th h the ce

no rm all to l n s of flo w per un m ; q is also all d
a urr n -
d ns .

ti e i he the e e e the te i
The a m o un of a s ap s ro ug s urfa

i i e th t ce which t the c i
in any m is furn s d at xp ns of ma r al

ce t i teie
ns d a surfa m us n be o ol ng o ff at a

r a n ra

By Fo ur the he t fl w the i ecti

.

e te t c e e t e t e wit i ity
in d o n of
’
r s Law, § 4 7 , a o s r

gr a s de r as in e m p ra ur ,
0, an d h an ntens
 V R A AL S S ECTO N Y I . 1 15

ti ty the te i th h which it
fl wi c e he t the c ctivity th t
p p
ro o r o nal to a p p
ro e r of ma r al ro ug

is o ng, all d its a or r m al o ndu It . So a ,

q kV 0 .

c e cie t vy it it
ei cti the te e t e
The o ffi It m ay
n ar fro m po n to po n of the

t ctic ic ti it e c t t
m d um , and m ay be also a fun on of mp ra ur .

the e ce i he t withi the

I n m o s pra al appl a o ns is as sum d to be o n s an .

ce e e e t v e c i e te
If r are no so ur s n o r S n ks o f a n sur

fa any l m n ary olum dv is o ol ng at so m ra

60
t he t which e ve thi e e e t y
The a m o un of a l a s s l m n ar

t the
6!
v olume in unit time mus
eci c he and 0
n be , if p be its density
its sp fi at,

the wh e v e the he t t which t e

th t i th h the ce
Fo r ol olum ,
S, a lo s ,
m us be q ual
to a p ass ng roug surfa ,
is

n -
q aS .

By the D ive e c he e the

rg n e T or m surfa ce i te n gr al is

q
—V °
kv 0 0

V h V 0 dv
o
.

i ce thi e ti h wh tev ce c i e e
i te e ev ywhe e
Sn s q ua on o lds a er surfa be o ns d r d,
the n gr n d u l er r a nd
a s a re q a

op V kV 0 -
.
116 V R A ALYS ECTO N IS .

If k be assum e c t t thi ec e
d o ns an s b om s

60 k
at cp

whe e a
’
V d, z
r a
’

he thi T they e e s is e ti the g n ral difle rential

'

qua on fo r flo w of

the te y t te e che th t the te e t e

a in a bo d .

eve ywhe c t t thi e e the

If s ad s a is r a d, a is, if mp r a ur s

eve ywhe e it ec e ( do no t m sa me
are r re o n s an s s an

r r ), b om s

i e e e t y the v e th t the
i t i ti te e t e w the e the
nd p nd n l of alu s o f k, p, and c ; a is,

i t i ti te ti cc i ce ti
d s r bu on of mp ra ur fo llo s sa m law as

th t wh t t e t the te ti e
d bu of al o rd ng to Lapla E qu a
’
s r on p o n a s on

c iti t e te e t e the
So a ,
a is ru a bo u p o n al, is und r

ject te e t e i t i ti te ti e
an alo go us o nd o ns ru of mp ra ur , and tw o

the tic t e t e t
s ub s, mp ra ur d s r bu on a nd po n al, b co m e

i denti ca l in m a ma al r a m n .

i ei i vi
i i the ce i the fl i
53 . E qua tio n of Co ntinuity . Co ns d r ng aga n a mo ng

e i c i e e the the e ti d in the

l qu d, if re a re no so ur s no r s n ks o f u

r g on o ns d r d, n qua on

v q -
div q 0 ( 1 24 )

e e e the c iti th t the fl i e c ce t te

tw e i t thi the y
xpr ss s o nd on a u d do s no t on n ra

e ii which e i i e ve
o ards no r x p and fro m any po n , as s is o nl

c e e th e te it c ve y the
r ma n ng way by m or l qu d c an l a a ny s m all

w it e i c e i i ity hi e ti c e
los d s urfac an c an n r ,
or on rse l . In o r

e ti ti ity eti t e
ords , m ans n o m pr ss bl . T s q ua on is all d

e ect icity cc i the the y we e ect i

the q ua on of co n nu . I t is of gr a m po r a nc in
Max
i ce e t eh ve i e i c e i e fl i
l r ,
as a o rd ng to or of ll the l r c

ive e ce e e i t it e th t the i t c i
d spla m n b a s l k an n o m p r ss bl u d . If the
d rg n do s x s m ans a at po n o ns dered
 R A ALYS S V EC TO N I . 117

the e rt
thi e ect icity ce i
m us bee ce wh t the
a so ur e of l n s of for or a is sa m

h the ive e c
ng , l r .

vect cti e eve ywhe e the w y ch

So le no ida l D istribution of a V e cto r . S o uld d rg n e

vect e te v e e e e t e ve it
of a or fun on be z ro r r ,
n al a s as mu

the w the i e vect c t ei

or flux n rs a ny o lum l m n as l a s ,
or in

ee ce hey t the c e c ve
o r ords , l n s of or flux anno end no r b g n in

i fi ty ch vect i t i ti c e
fr Sp a . T m us n fo r m lo s d ur s o r e nd at

e e the ti i c e i e fl i ch
n ni . Su a or ds r bu on is all d solenoi dal . For

w te ive ve city i t i ti which e i

x a m pl ,
mo on of a ny n o m pr ss bl u d su as

a r, g s a lo d s r bu on is so l no dal .

ie c e
c c eti e w itte e d to F
54 . Our] . Th e Operator V x a ppl or url F (r ad

e t ti e ive
de l ro ss F or url o f F ), also so m m s r n in G rm a n

i e it i v i t ch ice e
b o o ks , ro t F (r ad ro a on o f F ), is a ne w vector d r d fro m

t t i ific ce hy ic efi e the
F . Lk V is n ar a n to o o f ax s a nd has an im

ti
p o r a n s gn an in p s s . I t m ay be d n d by
e q ua on

V xF E c url F i
Cy dz

k ( 1 2 5 )

The ne w ve t c
c o r, url F, has c o m po n n s et

the th ee e Whe ie vect cti

ive e t i e e e t
alo ng

the e ec e it e
r ax s . n a ppl d to a or fun on

i e e e t the
V x
g s a r sul nd p nd n of ax s b aus V s lf is
W e m ay
v v
nd p nd n of m . sa y in g e ne ra l th at a ll co m

c i ect
b ina tio ns of V w ith e cto r or sca la r po int functio ns g i
-
e

By
t ti e the we ve d
re sults independe nt of a ny cho i e of a xe s . a r

i v t e ty the e et th e i i te
ransfo r m a on fro m o ne set o f a x s to a no r m ay pro
the n arian p p
ro r of s o p ra o rs and us l m na
118 V R A AL S EC TO N Y IS .

i ei t the the e tic

ci t h weve th t the e ti c
a ny l ng r ng do ub in m i nd of sk p . To a h
p y si o

ti ee et ch ice e i yi th t
s ,
o r, to say a o p ra o ns o f V upo n any fun

s, is l ke s a

hy ic e tie ei ee
o ns are d p nd n upo n a o o f ax ng a

e which e e the i t ce we h ve
the p s al pro p r s o f any m d um d p nd upo n the lan

h th t whe e the te ti ive i

u
g g
a in y o u xpr ss m . For ns an , a

vect h wi the i ecti which ch e t

S o wn ( 5 4 7 ) a V V, r V is p o n al say, g s r se

iy it e
to a or S o ng d r on in V ang s m os

Wh t h ve with ch e t t
r ap dl a nd its m agn ud .

wh teve i c i te e h weve ce
a a a xes to do su a r sul ? I t is rue

eve e e
a r k nd of o ord na s are us d, o r pla d, or

he e e i with the e tie the e v

n if no n are us d a t all .

W
with tic eth e e e ti the
e a re r d al ng p p
ro r s ms l es , and

thi e ect th t the y i vect e t e e y e

no t a ny p ar ular m od of r p r s n ng m . I t is

i te i e t t y c e c ce ti t ce i y
in s r sp a an al s s of o rs is x r m l us ful,

tie
as by its n ll g n s ud l ar on p o ns m us ne ss ar l

e ive i e e i
be ob a n d .

the c vect cti c i e e e

E xam ple of Curl . In o rd r to g an d a of the m a n ng

ti i i y W h ve ee ( th t ti
of V x
or url o f a or fun o n, o ns d r the g n ral

e ve i t ve city t ti the i i the m o

mo on of a r g d bo d . e a s 5 22 ) a
n on

ch e it i y ve city t ti
m ay be r so l d n o a lo o f ra nsla o n q, o f or n
g

t i e i th h thi i i ve it
os n arb rar l a nd an a ngular lo o f ro a on to

i t the ive
a bo u a l n p ass n g ro ug s or g n . The lo c y q of

any p o n r is n g n by

q = QO + wxr
r

whe e the e it y
ive i t t i e theti c with thi we t i
r q, a n d on are sa m fo r all p o n s in the bo d a t any

w yi
g n ns a n . Ta k ng url o f s e o ua tio n, o r, in o ther

o rds , appl ng o r o p ra ng V x
, ob a n

q q o
V s cour ) .

S i ce
n q, is a c t t th h t the y
o ns a n ro ug ou bo d q , 0 and

thi ct i e e ti te e ec e
t t th h t the y ti e
In du V d ff r n a s r alo n b aus 0 is a con
s pro

s an ro ug ou bo d at a ny m . In order to fi nd the
 R A AL S S VEC TO N Y I . 119

v al u e c thi e ei e i e i they vect

o f is t i e vect
xpr ss o n x p and r pl or pro du ct by
(55 ) o ns d r ng V as an ord n ar o r,

V x
(wxr
) o (V .
-
r ) r ( .
V

AS V c t
a nno a c t upo n an, wei te et the t te
n rpr las rm as ( w V-
r r
) ,

bu t V r -
3 by ( 1 2 3 ) and r a) by

= 3 m
q
w= i q = i c url q .

e ti
the th t whe i i y ti
See also q u a on 13 1 .

W
e t ie ve city cti ive twice d ste m is in m o the
e se e n a n a r g s on

ve city it e i ecti
o p ra o r V x a p pl d to its lo -
fun on g s its
W
h w it
a ngul a r lo in m a gn ud an d d r on . e m ay
t en r e (1 cur]
(1
0 q xr .

ie ve y ti fl i ch th t the
i
Co ns d r no w
c i ee ve i i y the
a r s m all p o r on of a u d su a

t t it i y evi e t th t the the ve city the e

p o rt o n m ay be o ns d r d to m o as a rg d bo d fo r

ive i i y twice ve city t ti

ins an ; is fa rl d n a c url o f lo r

c e t h th t whe ie
w o uld g s m larl its angular lo o f ro a on.

e city cti it ive twi e the ve city t

The url o r V x is a n o p ra o r suc a n appl d to a ny

i i t i ecti it e
v lo -
fun on g s c a ngular lo o f ro a

t o n a t any po n in d r o n and m agn ud .

Motion o f R otatio n wh ich ha s No Curl

ce e i e c eh ive
55 . I rrotatio na l .

M otion A l ar r d a o f url m ay p r aps be g n by a

c i e ti the wi i e ti fli
.

t i i ei the i fi ite i
o ns d ra on of fo llo ng tw o po ss bl mo o ns o f a u d

ti the fl i i i te h t t i ht i e ve
ab o u an ax s . Co ns d r ng Fig . 53 , if n n s m al

iti iti i i te the evi e t y

po r o ns o f u d, nd c a d by s or s ra g l n s, mo

eve y e e e t y ti the fl i t te the

fro m po s o n 1 to po s o n 2 , as nd c a d, n d n l

e t the e t w ive thi t ti

r l m n a r po r o n o f u d has ro a d by

ti i the c t y the i fi ite i

sa m a m o un and o p ra o r V x o uld g s ro a on

e t vi t the i t te e i
m ul pl ed by 2 On . o n ra r ,
if n n s m al ele

m n s in m o ng abo u
the the c ch ti w
ax s 0 do no t ro a but r ma n

facing o ne w ay as in B, n url of su a mo on o uld

1 20 R A LYS V EC TO NA IS .

e h weve the eye the

he e e c i e w the e we e th
be z ro ‘ . Superfi cially, o r, to two m o tio ns

ec e i ee t t we e i e the
r d s r b d o uld lo o k sam . If assum at the

ti iec i we e t te t etic
m ol ul s o f ro n are fr to ro a e m ay r al z se two

fie the ec e c t t y i ti the fi e ti
mo o ns
.
. If a p e of ro n r ro a d in a s ro ng m agn

etic i cti we h t i ti ch
ld, m o l ul s o ns an l po n ng in x d direc on

of m agn ndu o n, S ould o b a n a mo on su as B,

FIG . 53 .

hi e t te etic fie the ti w
i
w l if ro a d in a no n -
m agn ld mo on ould be

ti which c i
s milar to A .

it c it e
Any m o on has a url is s a d to be rota tional o r vor

ti e e e te cti wh c e
tica l; if has no url is c a ll d i rrota tiona l o r non vor tica l
-
.

Any m o
which the i fi ite i e e e t tt
on r p r s n d by a fun on o se url is z ro is

c ve e y
o ne in n n s m al l m n s do no t ro a e , an d

on rs l .

e t y ece y yc e y the
56 . V , V o
a nd V x Appl ied to V arious F unctions . It is ft c

e with c i ti c vect
q u n l n ssar in m an as s to appl o pe r ato rs

ti wi e i e e
fo rm d V to o m b na o ns o f s al ar and or func
ons . The follo ng rul s w ll be fo und us ful for r ference .

A rigid b ody whose e lem e nta ry pa rts m o v e w ith it as in A, F ig 53 , .

m ight be called a to mica lly rigid ; a rigid bo dy whose elem enta ry par ts
-

m o v e as in B w o uld then be m m wmic a lly rigid A calculatio n wa s -

.

m ade to see whethe r the di ff e rence in the m o m e nt o f ine rtia of thes e

t w o kinds o f m o tio n co uld be o b se rv ed in the c ase o f iro n But m o le~ .

cule s a re so s m all th at the ca lculate d diff e rence in mo ment of ine rtia

co uld no t be observed by the m o st se nsitiv e labo rato ry m ethods .

 V ECTO R A ALY N SIS . 1 21

c t cti vect i t
cti
Le t u an d v be s alar p o in fun -
o ns ; u and v or po n

h
fun o ns .

T en

V o
(u v ) V u o
V v, -

V x (u v) q v .

V ) vV u
(W q
V (u v ) Vu v -
u V v -

V (u V )x
Vu v x u v .

V (u v ) -
n w e
u (v v ) x x v -
vu Vx (q ) ( 1 2 9 )
V a (l l V ) V °
a

V .
(ux
v ) v v u . x
u v xv .
,

V (W V )
“ u (m v ) V (Y a r u l '

uV e
o
v v -V uu vV u
-
u u V ov
-
( 1 3 1 )
ce e vet teti whe
he e the e th t the e e thet e e iee the
.

The on n on r use d, is a o p ra or V appl s to

i e which it i ic te ci t
t he n ar s rm n r a re no p a r n s s or ls

th t e e
v a r ab l s o n op era tes are nd a d by subs r p s to
it So a fo r x a mpl

e
.
, ,

V av m ans (V u ) v a nd no t V (uv ),

e thi t c e it c
t ee ei c ct
a nd Vu v -
m ans (V u ) v -
. In s las as o uld m e an

vect h ve e i
no hi ng ls , as in V (u -
v ) ,
u v -
b ng a s alar produ of a

ve et c i t h ve e
sc ala r an d a o r can a no m a n ng .

e e i ity i e
I n the a bo funda m n al fo rm ula s ubs r p s a b en

he e
use d to r nd r am b gu m po ss ibl .

M eth ods
ve ifie e i the titie te thei
of Proo f of th e F o rm ula . T s form ula m ay a ll

j i e e ti ti e i
be r d by xpand ng q u a n s in rm s o f r co m

we e e e th t the y ic c e t
po n e nts alo ng i k , d ff r n a ng , a nd r arra ng ng .

If r m mb r a s m bo l o m po n n s of V

ey with the c e t the ve t

,

6 6 6
ob o m po n n s o f any o r c or

the the w e we h
ax dy 62

ct
o r o f any o

ey the e w the vect

r V all la s o f c o m m o n alg bra , s o uld

ti with vect the With thi i

ex pe V to ob sa m la s as a ny o r or in co m
’
bina on o rs o r o r V s . s in m nd the
1 22 R A ALYS S V ECTO N I .

j ity the e w itte w

ce with t e yi the e t ti t i e ve
ma or of fo rm ula on p g
a 12 1 can be r n do n at

evi e t ce the efi iti th t

on ou r l ng upo n d m o ns ra on ou l n d abo .

I t is d n at on fro m d n on of V a

V (u v ) = V u Vv

e the i t e
.

Ta k fo rm ula fo r ns anc

V (u v ) Vu v -
uV v -

e e te th the
.

i e c i ti
The V is suppo s d to o p
with e ra upo n bo u and v . All

which h ve e i etti ce ch
po ss bl o m b n a o ns o f V and a do t u and v are form d

vi e ve e e c
c an a a m an ng, l ng V act o n upo n e a

it y whi h yet e ye
ar abl . I n the abo x a m pl , as u is a s al ar, V c an ac t

e i the c ct vect with

on o nl as V a . The do t, c is as un m plo d, is

the vect yet the

us d in fo rm ng s alar p ro du of V a, a o r, v,

ec te the y it i
As V has no t diflere ntiate d v In
'

ano r or . .

c t ivi whi h ti ie
s o nd rm o nl w ay can a ct o n v i s by fo rm ng a

the c e t e t
s alar p ro duc , g ng V -
v, c m ul pl d by u is uV v, -

the e e c i e the e i
o rr c r sul .

W e thi t i e vect t c iei

As ano r x a m pl ,
o ns d r xpans o n fo r V x
( u xv
) .

i y vect
e xpand s r pl or p r o duc as usual, o ns d r ng V
to be a n o rd na r o r,

= u (V e t -
V F v (V -
u ).

whe e it e e e e th t i e e ti te th
a

the te hi he e ecific y i ic t
r be r m mb r d a V is to d ff r n a bo 11 and v

the it e
in each o f rm s . T s is r sp all nd a ed by

y th t
use o f subsc r p s . Fro m u (V uv
o
v ) c an be form d u ( V ,, -
v )
and (v -
V u )u o n l ; so a

u (v uv
’
v ) ll ( V -
V ) “

i
"
( V0 ) ll

ii y v v
v 14

e ive th t
s m larl fro m (V uv u ), o
(V u
o
u ) and (u -V
, ) v can be
d d,
v
r so a

) ( V o
n) v ( V o
u ( u V )-
v

i e i t he e e ece y
a , .

the ve ti e i ve W the h
The s ngl s ubscr p s as r us d are no t n ss ar a c c o rd

ing to co n n on xpla ne d ab o . e n av e

V " “V ‘
V v V u-
vV u -
ll -
V V,
 V R A L SS EC TO NA Y I . 1 23

whe e the the e t e te th whi e

the i ht it e te y the vect wi it hi
r V on l f is to o p ra on bo 11 and v , l

i t ti e ct y i i
on r g o p ra s o nl on or follo ng . T s

k nd o f no a on is xa l s m lar to

i e the e e i which
e i
Co ns d r xpr ss o n V x V
( x
u u ) in V is to ac t upo n I!

alo n . Exp and ng,

v" (V e n n V . ( ti V )—u (V
-
t
-
V )
V , (u v ) -
(
v -
V u) u .

(V ow ) V t» V

i the e ti we c i e
t
Add
efi iti he ce e ti
ng two qua o ns, omb n V, (u v ) - V , ( u-v )
i n o V (u v )
t ti
-
by d n o n, n qua on

The no a on

V (u v ) -
V “ (u v ) -
V , ( u v ) -

is t ict y
s r l analo go us to

d (l nV )-
d. (u -
V ) d. ( l nV -
) .

w hich c e orr spo nds to pa rtia l difi erentiatio n,

‘

and is t e ru fo r

w it
t he sam e re asons .

W e m ay r e also

ce t i e ve wi w y e c ect
t ethi e th he the e y
The p ro ss o u l n d abo ll al a s l ad to o rr

e i i the tic v i ity ee

re sul s I t is so m
. ng m or lp to an a m m or .

A g ne ral r g d m a ma al proo f o f its al d has b n

gi v e n fl ‘

See to this effect Joly . Ma nual o f Quate rnions , p.75 .

1 24 V ECTO R A LYS S NA I .

t i e vect ct i th t ct
Expa nsio n Ana log o us to Ta ylo r Th eore m Ex p and
’
57 . s .

e we h ve
ing as a r pl or p ro du a nd ass um ng a V a s on v

alo n ,
a

t , , a un it vect o r , a nd v the ec e q, n ( 1 3 3 ) b om s

rc v q V . r (
. q
-
)c rs url q, ( 1 3 4 )

t te th t the i ecti e iv tive vect c

ti the i ecti e the e iv tive the
an d s a s a dr o n al d r a of a or fun

th t i ecti the vect ct the

on q i n d r o n r, is qual to d r a of p ro

c i t th t i ecti
je ctio n o f q in a d r o n plus or p ro du of

ti yi the i e ti e iv tive we t i
url o f q n o a d r on .

Mul
i e e ce i ce e t the i e ti
p l ng d r c o n al d r a by dro, ob a n the

thi ive the the v e the

d ff r n in q due to a d spla m n dr in d r c o n r, ;

the v e the
s g s n , if q Is alu of q at e n d o f r a nd
,

is alu of q at e nd o f r dr,

do d V
r -
q q. V . dr -
q( ) de V oxq ) .

So th t a

( me . Q. V . (d q
r -
) (q ) ,
dr x

q (
r dr ) q ( )
r V o ldr -
q

hi e ti the i cti
e y the e
T s q ua on is a n alo go us to e x p a ns o n o f a fun on

by m a ns o f Ta lo r m
’
s or .

i e i te vect
cti c e t e the ce
58 . Th eo re m D ue to Stok e s . The l n -
n gr a l o f a or

i te the c th t cti ve ce hich

fun on F aro und any lo s d c o n o ur is q ua l to su r fa

the c t i e e
n gr al o f url o f a fun on o r a ny surfa of w

y thi
o n o ur is a bo und ng dg .

In s mbo ls s is

H °
Cll 1 l
’
F dS .
 V R A AL S S ECTO N Y I . 1 25

hi i t t the e e t te e
m m ay be d mo ns ra d in
wy wi e t ti ive
T s m por an or a num b r

e h t ee the i e i te
of diflere nt
'

a s The fo llo ng is a d m o ns ra
. on g n

by H lm ol z d p ndi ng upo n va r i a ti on o f a l n -
n gr al

i ci e c t tivity with f
.

The pr n l of om m u a of 6 d a nd is all
p
th t ee e e he e i e the i e i te
the vect i t cti the th
a is n d d to assum r . Co n s d r l n -
n gr al
J of o r po n -
fun on F (r ) alo n g p a AOB .

th F dro
(
p a AOB) .

i i ity c ti thi i te ee
e e e ti e y the th with th e
The po ss b l of o m pu ng s n gr al in g n ral
d p nds n r l on p a A C B, and is und r

FIG . 54 .

t i it e ect y efi ite e ie
the v i ti thi i te whe the th v ie
s a n d ng is p rf l d n . I t is no w r q u r d to fi nd
A C B is
i j et c e
ar a o n in s n gr a l n p a ar d
A E B infi nitesim ally to A C B
it it y th
nt o an ad a c n o ne lo s

h weve
b ut difle ring fro m
ei fie it
in a n a rb The tw o p a m a nn e r
'

rar . s,

o r, are to b g n a t A an d e n d at B, two x d po n s
1 26 V EC TO R A AL S S N Y I .

the c t i v i ti the i te
ti
on o n o ur . Ta k ng the ar a o n of n gral we
ob a n

B B

f
B
6J a
J A
F dr -

j A
a (F dr ) -

j A
6F dr + -

A
F 6dr
-
.

hi ec e i t ch e t
i te with i e ti t
T s b o m s, by an n er a ng of d and 6 in the l as
n gr a l a n d an nt gra on by par s,

N F 6r-
( 6 F dr -
d F 6r ) -
.

i te te te e i ce the i t A and B a re
fi e the e v i ti the e i t
The n gra d rm is z ro , fo r S n l mi s

ei th t
x d, r c an be no ar a on 6r at s po n s . Re m e m
b r ng also 50) a

6F 6 VF
r -
F and dF dr V F F,-

d A
r -
( dr V-
F ) F 6r (dr V - °
F ) F

A
us ng i ( 17 )
1

whe e c e
thi w itte
r V a ts on F alo n .

By (58 ) s m ay be r n as

( omen

Or m o r d r e i e ty c l by

he ce
6 V
r -
F V F 6 F
( 1 -
'

) 6n (V x F ),
n
xF
dr -
( 6 V
r -
F) d Vp
r -
(6 F
r -
) d ah
r -
(V ) .

But by ( 1 1 7 ) the e t i e
e ce
l f S d is 6 V F
r -
dr
( -
F) .

H n
6r - V p d F
(r -
) d VF
r -
( 6r -
F) 6 d V
rx r - x F .

e e i the fi e it ee th t the
e the i fi ite i ce e
R f r r ng to gur is s n a 6r dr i s
r
v ec to r

ar a o f n n s m al surfa fo rm d by M and dr, so

 VEC TO R AL S S
AN Y I . 1 27

th t c i the the e e e t y e
w ite th t
a all ng n uni t no rm al to l m n ar ar a dS , we
m ay r 6r xdr n dS , so a

=
a A
-
(V F ) dSx
.

the i fi ite i t ti e
c ve h vi the e fi e
Ano r n n s m al ransfo r m a on is no w m ad to a new

A GB B an d
ti the v e th we t ve the ce i c e
ur a ng sa m xe d nds A an d so o n ,

etwee the i iti ve the

un l mo a bl p a has s p o r s urfa n lud d

the v i ti e t ethe e t wi
b n lm ng c ur s I and II . Le t no w su m o f

e the i e e ce etwee the v e

a ll ar a o ns in J b e a dd d og r . The r sul ll be

the e t e e th he ce
q ual t o d ff r n b n J, and J alu s o f J for
x r m p a s; n

— the i e i te
But J , is —n fro m A to B alo ng BC A,
he e e the v e the i e i te
l n gral and

t th t
t r fo r J, J , is alu of l n -
n gr al a r oun d the
c o n o ur A D BC A . So a

c ( II - url F)dS .

hi
T s is Stok e s Th eo rem ! ’

the ve e t ti the v e the

59 . Co nditio n fo r th e V a nish ing of th e Curl of a V e ctor

te the e wh teve th t e etwee

F un ctio n . In abo d m o ns ra o n, if alu of

thi t e whe eve the i t t e A

in gral J is s am a r p a is ak n b n and

it w th t w y e
B,
th t ce B are
a nd if s is ru r r p o n s A a nd a k n,

fo llo s a J, al a s q ua ls J so a fo r a n y surfa S

c n -
he e
url F dS 0 a nd nc V F x
c url F 0 ( 3 7)
1

t t e eve ywhe e thi c e the v e e e

y the iti the e the th wi e
m us be ru r r . In s as alu of
I d p nds

o nl upo n p o s on of nds o f p a and in no s

See a lso fo r othe r de m o nst ra tio ns of Sto ke s The o re m , ’

Buche re r, Ele e te de
m n r V k
e to r n —
A a lys is , pp 4 2 4 4 -
. .

G ibbs W ilso n , Vec to r Ana lys is , pp 1 88 1 90

-
.
-

Ga ns : f
E in iih rung in die V e kto ra na lys is , pp
—
35 39 . .

See Appe ndix, p 249 , for t w o ot her proofs

. .
1 28 R A AL S S VEC TO N Y I .

the h it ve e y the c
e i the the i e i t twee i
upon s ape of . Co n rs l ,
if url F 0 in a

the e i i e e e t the th ch
r g o n, n l n -
n e gral o f F be n any tw o po n ts

B in
twee the thi c e c ve fi e
A and r g on is nd p nd n of p a ose n

be n m In s as if o ne e n d A of a ur is x d,

the v e the i te f i y cti

.

B
alu of n gral F dr is
-
S m pl a fun on O f its

i it wh teve the th B
A

fro m A to B m ay be
e te thi cti it t
uppe r lm a r p a . Let

he e ect he ce the t which

b
g d no s sca la r fun on . The n e gran d F dt m us o

the e
difi ere ntial an d form ac
'

t n be
p a rf n of ,

by ( 1 14 ) is sa m as

445 d “ V P.

so th t a fo r all v e
alu s o f dr,

dr -
n d F
r -

and he c n e F n .

the w c it the
i ce en c cti
Or in o r o rds , if F has no url , is
n r as or gr a d (b o f a s alar fun on

b
( ,, F dr + o
¢A ,

whe e Ac c tit t
r ( ,
is a o ns a n .

th ete i e c e the te
ti we h ve ee e e c ti ivi e
The s a la r fun c on (6 us d rm n d is all d p o n

cevect i t hecti i e eve ce

al o f F . As a s n b fo r , a s ala r func on d d s

e ive ch cti
sp a up n o s lls or la m na by m ans o f its l l surfa s .

n
thi e i vect we
The or -
fun on F d r d fro m su a fun on

M
c e vect the w y e
is fo r s r aso n sa d to b e a la m e lla r or ( ax ll ) . The
u rl o f a la m llar or is n al a s z ro ,

c url ( e)
v t o .
( 1 3 9)

v v t e he e By S
th t the i e i te the w
System
’
C o nser a ti e of F o rce s . ok s T or m ( 13 6)

c e th w y v i he the the ce h ve
see a if l n -
n gr al o f F dr, i -
. e .
,
or k a ro und

th t thi c the fie
lo s d p a , al a s an s s, n fo r s a no

and also a in s ase the forces in ld are

 V R A AL S S ECTO N Y I . 1 29

ev e t ti cti ch c
we efi e ch y te
d ri a bl fro m a p o e n al fun o n 95 . Su a syste m o f fo r es

Whe the ce cti yt e ch

is a Con serva ti ve S ystem , and m ay d n su a s s m:

t e th tthe e ic t t w e i
n fo r s a ng o n a s s e m of bo di s are o f su a

ie i ce e t whi h i y te c
n a ur a alg b ra o al o f the do n in per fo rm ng
o rk

i i c fi ti the y t ce i
a n y se r s of d spla m n s c br ng the s s m ba k to

c e v tive c ti the y te ce
i ts or g n al on gur a on is nil , s s e m o f fo r s is sa d to

c v tiv
b e ons r a . The o ndi on, n, for a s s m of fo r s

F to be o nse r a e is

c url F E V F x
0 .

tt
c i cti t e o al
60 . Co ndition for a Perfe ct D iff ere ntia l . I f the

ti the e ti
d ifi e re ntial o f a s alar C be a k n,
'

q ¢ po n t -
fun on ( )
r

we o b a n, by (5 qua on

dd) dr -
n 0 .

Th i thes is of form dr f (r )
-
0,

hich e e ect te i
t ti thi e ti ec e
diflere ntial
the c
In Car
'

w in g n r al is not a pe rf . s an

the th ee e
no a on s q ua on b o m s, if f , , f, f, , a re o m po

ne nts o f f alo ng r ax s ,

f, dz: + fz y f3
d + d2 0;

e the c iti i te ity it

e th t ti y thi e e ti e ti
a n d o ur p ro bl m is to fi nd o nd on for n gr a bil of .

e c ct it
Assum
e e ect i e e ti
a ,
by m ul pl ing s di ff r n al q u a on by

th t eve y v e
so m s al ar fa o r ,a , m ay be m ad a p rf d ff r n al , o r

a for r alu o f dr

a
, (dr i )
o
o
dr p f E dr V qs -
.

p is c e all d a n integrat ing factor . In thi c e the s as ,

n,

[ fI
n .

e e i i te t e the thi e ti ec
we w th t e vect e
In o rd r to lm na (6 ak c url o f s q ua on , b ause

kno a the curl o f a la m llar or ( 1 3 9 ) is z ro ,

V X
Q“f ) 01
130 V ECTOR ANALYS IS .

f) F7
1 4 (V ) f u
.
-
0 .

Applying t to elim ina te the o

seco nd te rm , beca use a a tb -
0
in general , there re ma ins

f in (f V f )
-
0

y
So that fi na ll w e fi nd tha t t he co ndi tio n that the eq u a tio n
e
h i t
defi ned by f ar 0 s ho uld be in te grabl is tha t f and its c url ,
e :

i i v
V 4 , s all be at r gh angles o r tha t the c url v anis h To put .

the i
co ndit o n o f i
t h s discuss io n in a m o re fa m li ar fo rm , we ha e pro v ed tha t
nte grabili t y of

F are
X dz Y ay Zdz
is that F v F
- x
0

X
62 61:

a w ell -
kno w n resul t .

If the
c url F 0,

hi e ti evi e t y ti fie
the c e the e ti y th
t s qua on is d n l sa s d .

ve ywhe e e e ic
If url F is no t z ro , q u a o n sa s at it m us t be

e e
e r p r rp nd ul ar to F .

Fo r xa m pl ,

yz dz: zz: dy a:y dz

has c the e e e iv e
no url and ise i itive r fo r d r a bl fro m a singl p r m ,

i . a. ,
c t o ns

the the h
.

On o r and,

’ ’
ay z dz: bz ’
x
’
dy cx
’
y dz
’

e a c url, but thi c

s url,

2 x (cy
’
bz) I 2 y ’
(az ex )1 2 2
z (bz: ay k
) ,
 V ECT OR ANALYSIS . 13 1

and v ct
the e or F,
ay z
’ ‘
i bz x j ’ ’
cm y
’ ’
k,

i ht th e ti e iv e
e i ive
are at r g angles , and is qua on is also d r abl fro m a

singl p ri m t i a

c t
.
,

o ns .

“ y
h te itte c i e y
61 . Ta ylor
’
s Th eo re m . Th e O perato r c v
( Ta lor ’
s

T eore m is of n wr n o nc s l as

l a
f wd —
5} f( xyz )
l
l a
+
57 55,
l a
+
3 5}

I f the
m ay s
e
ti the c e e i t
l l fur
th
co m po n n ts o f r

r be
be
o nd
33 ,

ns
y
d
,
z, and

n o
ose o f e be h, k, l , it

m
1
f( r+ e ) f( ) r e -V fl )
r
5;
(
e
5 ,
(
e v r )

Re m m b e e i the e r ng xpans o n i fo r e
‘
,

3 ’
“ z x
e I l I
l l 2! 3 !

w ite the t e ti y ic y the ti

h
we m ay r las q ua on s m bol all in s ll
s o rte r for m ,

f( e )
'
l

h t the y ive ic v e ee whe

ti e ect e cti
cti f
so t a s m bol di ff r n al o p ra o r a ng o n a ny

fun on ( )gr s its alu n r b om s r e.

W
y thi e ti e t te e the e
62 . Eul er
’
s Th eore m on Hom og eneous F unctio ns . e

e m plo

w e
m ay s q ua on to d m o ns ra a us ful or m
due to Euler and h kno n by his nam A functio n . < oi
13 2 VECT OR ANALY SIS .

e ee vi e i h e he
cc the e e ti e eve y t it
d gr n in a a r abl r is sa d to be o m o gen o us w n r

ch th t
o urs sam num b r o f m s in r e rm o f . I t is
o n e su a

¢ ( a r ) ( 1 4 2 )
whe e c t t y y he e the
h e e cti whe e
r a is any o ns an . Appl Ta lor
’
s T or m to

c ti ie he
o m o g n o us fun on b
g ( r ) a n d le t 6 g r, r g is a s m all

s alar m ul pl r . T n

¢ ( ) ( 1
‘
l g r

and he ce n

l 9 f V SbO) (
'
' ' '
r

m l l 7 l

ff
2
1 + n g+ g

t cti ¢ th i e vi th h
the e e i
Sub ra ng ( r ) fro m bo s d s and di di n g ro ug by
g r r ma ns

r
{g ( r g+ u
c r )
~
.

hi e ti ei t e i fi ite e v e
we e te the c e ficie t the e we alu s o f
T s q u a on b ng ru fo r an n n num b r o f

th i e the e ti ivi
9 ,
m ay qu a o f n s of sam po rs o f g on

bo s d s of qu a on, g ng

M O) .
r

n u (
n (n 1 )(n mm ( r- v rqsm .

fi t e ti w e he e
h e e cti which te ec e
The rs of q u a o ns ( 14 3 ) is kn o n as Eul
’
r s T or m
on o m o g n o us fun o ns , in rm s o f a: y 2 b om s

g %; gg
e
n ¢( x y z ) m + y 1 .

“
he e ei ivi tivee tihi he e ete i
r ma n ng q u a o ns are

r o rd rs .
x ns o ns o f the the e or m,
lv ing d
' r a s of g
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 13 3

vv Operators I nol ing V Twice

ive
.

c i t cti vect cti the w G

63 . Possible Expressio ns Co nta ining V Twice . n a

c i ti i v i twice ie e
s ala r po n -
fun on V and a or fun on F, fo llo
ing six o m b na o ns , n olv ng V ,
are po ss bl on s

V V V V V
° ’
1 - E ( div g ra d V . a sca lar )
V XV V
°
2 ( curl g rad V 2 0)

3
°
W ’
V ) F (V ’P
. a v e c to r ) .

V (V F )
°
4 O
(g rad div P . a v ec to r ) .

XF
°
5 V 0
(V ) ( d iv c url FE

6
°
V x
(V F ) x ( curl c url FE curl2 F. a v ect or . )

Two of the e e e i v h i e tic y

s xpr ss o ns anis d n all ,

V xV V E O, c url (gra d

e vect ct c t i i i vect
e
b e c aus d two l ke is
“

a ny or pro u o n a n ng o rs

z r o , and

V V XF ° E O, div ( c url F ) 5 0

bee h et i e ec t ct with ve i e vect ficie t y

c a use any r pl s alar -

pro du two l k o rs is also

vi e t e i cc i the i y e
z ro . T es two r sul s m ay be pro d, if n o t s uf n l

e e it
e d n ,
by xpand ng a o rd ng to o rd nar rul s .

T he 6th m ay be xpand d n o

) W V X (V 8 F V (V F ) F V )
the
- O

th th d
so th at 6 4 3

ti ) eti e w itte
Eq ua on ( 1 4 5 is so m m s r n as

c c c url ( url F) url gra d div F WF .

( 6)
1 4

t i t t e ti w it w itte
the e e e the v t e et i i
This las m po r an q u a on o uld be , as is r n,

t ti e e evi e t the evi e ti

ra r difi cul t to r m mb r, but ad an ag of r a n ng

w ch w y w itte cc i the e
the no a on in d ls is m ad d n by pr o us q u a on

e t i e vect ct the e
hi m ay al a s be r n o ut a o rd n g to rul s fo r

v t e the y i t ti
the xp ansio n of a r pl or -

p ro du . As ano r xam

ple of the ad an ag of s m bo l c no a on it is p eri e efi s

134 V ECTOR AN ALYSIS .

e y e e e whethe it c c
which i e tic y e whe they w itte
m mb is url d V d url V,
'

as to r r r gr a or gr a

te evi e t y e
is d n all z ro . Fo r n are r n in

the the h ve e i
rm s o f V ,
i . a .
,
V xV V an d V (V x V ), o ne is d n l z ro an d
o r can a no m a n n g at a ll . In o th er wo rds , th e

v
de l nota tio n
-
w h e n interpre ted ac co rding to th e o rdinary r ul e s

of e c tor pro duc ts, lead s us to co rre ct re sul ts inde pende ntly
o f an y ph ysica l o r o th er co n side ra tio n s .

e e
e ti
ad de l s qua r of
2
Th e O pera tor V or V V -
.
(R
Op ra ng o n

V V E :

with the w t i the the

ti
V or in o r o rds a k ng div of gr a d o f V , we
ob a n ,

6V 6V
1
2 2 2
1,
V V V V V V, ( 4 7 )
2
-
+ + 1
623 3
ag z

the we w ci e t which whe e te

e ti fie the te ti cti ee ce
ll kn o n Lapla a n o p ra o r, n q ua d to

evi e t i ecti th t
z ro is sa s d by po n al fun on in fr spa .

It is d n on nsp on a

V -
( V)
V (V V -
) V V V z
.

i ce the c y e ie
tic y the e i ity wh teve whe twice
S n url o f gra d V, or in s m bols V xV V , is z ro d n

ie c cti Whe ie vect

all r can be no am b gu a r n V is

cti it e th t it ie the t e c c
appl d to a s alar -
fun on . n V 2
is a ppl d to a or

ti c e t the vect cti h c e

fun o n, m ans a is a ppl d to hr e s alar -
fun

fic ty
on o m po n n s o f or fun o n , and en e o ff rs no

ne w di f ul .

If V F 2
0

the n
V F, ’
0
V }? 2 2
0
V
2 7
1 0

the th e c et ti y ce e ti
3 .

at is re o m po n n s o f F sa sf Lapla
’
s qua on .
 VECTOR AN ALYSIS . 135

V xV V 0 c url gr ad V,

it w th t the vect
follo s a or V V is ae vect
la m llar or , by ( 5

S i ce
n V V xF
-
0 c div . url F ,

it w th t the c
follo s a url o f any ve t e i vect
c or is a so l no dal or,

by

We
ve e ti th t
" ”
64 . D iff ere ntiatio n of th e Sca lar F unctio n r by V .

p r o d qua on a

Ta k e the ive e ce d rg n (V of thi vect s or .

m
V m {r 2
V
-

-
r r

m {3 (m
ec e
r

b aus by
=3 i l
V o
r and r- V r r, - V r
dr
m 2
{3 m + (m 2 ) m },
‘

z ’"
V r m (m ( 8)
1 4

v e
alu s o f m which wi ti y the i e e ti e
ll sa sf d ff r n al q ua

v a
r
m = 0
_
,

a re e iy e
as l se n to be m O and m 1, so th t the
a sc al ar

fu n cti é ti fie
on
:
sa s s Lapla ce e ti
’
s q ua o n, or

T hi s m ay also be s hw c e
o n, of o urs by d i ect
r difi erentiation

ti
,

of the func on 1
r
13 6 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

EX ERC IS ES AND PRO BLEMS

i
.

1 .

y
Prove tha t V F is a n ope rato r nde pe nde nt of choice o f axe s,
-

by actuall ca rrying out the transfo rm ation to a new se t of axes

If the coordinate s of the ne w set be de noted by prime s, it sho uld
.

be found tha t
6X BY dZ dX '
dY ’
dZ ’

+ + 7
dz 6y 6z

where X ,Y ,Z, a re the com pone nts of a v e cto r funct io n F , and w

here

y
X ,Y , Z a re its com p one nt s re fe rred t o the new a xe s
’ ’ ’
.

2 . Prov e dire ctl by a cha nge o f a xe s that

V xF or Curl F

is i nv aria nt to that cha nge .

3 . Prov e that
V a- r = a,

V r t ,,

V r
2 = V r r =
-
2 r,

w here a is a c onsta nt v e cto r . The se fo llo w from the i

re la t on

d dr V -

4 . Prov e tha t

v -
(
a xr ) 0

5 . Ver f iy that
6 2
6
2
V VF F

whe re F= iX + jY + k Z .

6 . Prov e that
=
(a V )V a
- -
(V V)

a nd state

in pote nt al i the
.
re sult ngi the ore m . Appl y i
th s to a sim ple
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 137

7 . Sho w that

1
b V -
a -
V -

w here
w
a a nd b a re c onstant v e ctors

i that
.

8 . Sho by dire ct e xpans o n

V xV V E 0

i V V xV E 0
-
.

9 .

i y
F nd the re sulta nt attractio n a t the o rigin of the m asses 1 2 ,
1 6, a nd 20 units respe c t v el co nce ntrated at the e nds o f the v e ctors
—
i i
a = 3 i + 4 j, b = 5 1 + 1 2 j, a nd c = 81
10
m a ss
.

y
From the e xp ressio n for the attra c t o n at a po int P due to
M , its de nsit p at a ny point be ing a po nt function of r, -
a

ff p r l dv
'

vol

de duce the o rdina ry Cartesian e xpre ssio ns for the c om pone nt

a t t ractio ns alo ng the axe s .

1 1. What theore m s do e quat io ns ( 1 1 8) e xpress ?

W rite
i
them o ut in Cartesia n no t atio n .

13 Expla.
n p ara g p
ra hs 46 a nd 4 7, co nsidering instead of

e ntia l

y
p o t

( )
( )
b
T
a

V
e

e
m
lo
p
ci
e

t
rat
d
u
i
r

st
e

ri
d
by
is

u
t
t
r

io
ib
n
ut
in
io n
a
i
fl
n
ui
a

d
bo d
.
.
 CHAPTER VI .

APPLI CATIONS TO ELEC TR I CAL THEOR Y .

ie t
e ce i eve y i t the
65 . G auss ’
s Th eore m . So lid Ang le . Co ns d r a p o in 0,

y the e th i c e W
and any s m all a r a in spa dS . Jo n r po n in

efi e the te e the e the

bo undar of a r a (18 to 0, us fo r m n g a sm all on . e

d n as solid a ngle sub nd d by ar a dS at O,

v e
alu whe e the e
of
dZ
the c e r d Z is ar a cut o ut, by on on

he e i e c i e t ce te hi
,

e the e the e
any sp r o f rad us r , d s r b d abo u 0 as n r . T s is
numeri ca lly qu a l to ar a da ,
c ut o ut by sa m co de on

FIG 55

the he e it i e i e t
. .

i i e evi e t y e i ce the t t e
sp r o f un r ad us , d sc r b d a bo u 0 . The dim en

it he e e thi the i e
s o ns o f so l d a ngl a re d n l z ro . S n o a l ar a

te e the wh e ce which
o f a un sp r is qual to 4 7x, s is also so l d a ngl sub

the i t evi e t y te the

nd d by fol o f sp a or by a n y sur a ce co m

ee ei ei et e iv ti the it e evi y
p le te ly sur ro un ds p o n 0 . d2 d n l sub n ds

s am sol d an gl at 0 as dS . Call ng n un no r m al to dS ,

ee tw the e the wi )
its s ns b ng ak n in any c o n en o n al m a nn r p r o usl

agr d up o n (
ou ard fro m s urfac in follo ng ,

dZ j ; dS cos m
( ),
13 8
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 13 9

cc i it e c te t e ith
e ective y
a o rd ng as m ak s an a u o r an o b use angl w r,

ec e ecti the
r sp l .

c e we ite
No w b ause do » and d2 are p a rall l s o ns o f sa m e

on m ay wr
d2 r
’
dw ,

so th the at e so ud angl

c e ith ve te
If i
a t ch
p o n i
wi i e c e
0 is ce
th h the ce o se n ns d any lo s d surfa ,
any sm all

w y ce e th it c t i t it the i t
on w r x at 0 ll cut o ut ro ug surfa

i e the ce w y ti e it c t
al a s on m or an u s n o ,
but if po n be o ut

ch e itive whe w tw the the e

s d surfa it ill cut in as m an m s as u s o ut . If

etwee wi c te whe eve the c e c t

n be os n pos n dra n ou ards , n an gl

t e whe eve it c t h e e e t y c e whe

b n 11 and r ll be a u r r on u s o ut ,

ve t i i e c e ce t i te e e e t
o b us r r u s in . T us an l m n ar on n

i e e the fi e the i
it s r ex is ns d a los d surfa co n r bu s an l m n of

e e ch the e v
so l d angle , + dw . As fo r x a m pl ,
in gur so l d

Whe the ve te t i e the —e ti

a n gl s dw and dw , due to 1 a nd 2, annul a o r, l a

i e e e e the i e
in g da due to 3 . n r x is ou s d ,
r sul ng

c ete y e ch the
so l d an gl is z ro ; as fo r x a m pl ,
so l d angl s da an d

the e e e t i we i te
do) , due to 4 and 5, o m pl l annul a o r . So also

t the i e the e e e t
do l m n s at 6 a nd 7 a nd 8 an d 9 in p a rs . If n

e ve the wh e ce we h t i the
g r a e or sum up all so l d an gl s due to all l m n a ry

the t i i e e the i t t i e
ar as dS o r ol surfa S, s all o b a n 4 7: fo r

e i the e e t y we h ve
su m , if po in 0 is ns d an d z ro if po n is ou s d .

Expr ss ng s r sul s in s m bo ls a

dS = 4 7r
S
i ie 0 ns d of S ( 150)

ds = o

ti e 0 ou s d of S

he e e t which e y the tic w

.

he e
T s r sul s, are p ur l ma ma al, are kno n as

Gauss
’
s T or m .
[ 40 V ECTOR ANALYSIS .

e we t
the e the e e t e
G auss ’
s Theo rem fo r th e Pla ne . In a p la n m ay ob ain

ec t e it cc i
an an alo go us or m, i . e .
, pl a n a n g l sub e nd d by a

it i ie t i e the c e c t
clo s d o n o ur in a p l a n at a po n 0 is 2 7: or 0 a o rd n g as

e c ie i t c ecte i
the po n is ns d or ou s d of los d o n o ur. I n t he

vect which t t ve ce the

fi gur (56) o ns d r a p o n A o nn d to O by a r ad us

fro m B
ti it e che i vi e t y wh t ve the h e
an d a ro und
or s ar s mo s on co n

tour un l r a s B aga n . E d n l a e r s ap

FIG 56

the c t the i vect e

. .

ev ti t the e e c ve e e
of o n o ur m ay be , rad us or r has m ad but o ne

the it ci c e t the e th t the c t

r o lu o n a bo u 0 an d r fo r o r d a n arc q ua l to 2 7:

c ete y t i e the e e i h w th t the

on un r l abo u 0 . In c as a o n o ur is

i ve t whe it e che t te
o m pl l ou s d of O sa m r as o n ng s o s a

B has no t ro
e the e ¢ te e it
r ad us c or n r a s a d a round 0 a t all .

i t ti i i
In l a n a ngl d sub nd d by an a r c dr at a p o n
a p
0 is , us n g a n o a on s m la r t o
 V EC TOR ANALYSIS . 141

an d the i te n gr a ls a r e

f dgl: 27: or = 0

cc i the i t i i e t i e the c t
y e i he e
a o r d ng a s po n 0 is ns d o r ou s d of o n o ur .

W
ce hi the i e te e e te
e m ay a ppl a nalo go us r as o n ng to Gauss
’
s T or m

i e he t which y e te e c ete y
in sp a . T nk o f so l d a n gl sub nd d by an x n

e i t whic e
s bl s e gra du all is x nd d o m pl l in a ny

c e ce h e ete y t i e
m a nn r aro und any poh is m ad to fo rm a
n 0, or

e t e ti wi ec e vi y e
los d surfa o f any s a p c o m pl l o u s d o f O, and the

evi e t
two r sul s of qua o n ( 1 50 ) ll b o m su all s lf

i t ce thi the e hy ic the ct

d n .

th t the ce i te the c e t the

The m po r an of s or m in p s s is fa

ve y i t t vect cti v yi i ve e y the

a surfa -
n gral of no r m al o m p o n n -
of

e the i t ce it y
r m po r an or -
fun on ar ng n rs l as

s q uar of d s an r fro m a p o n 0 is in s m bols

m)
ff g
co s
dS
s r

he e e e the e i te
t i the
T m duc l
’
and Gauss s or r s s n gra s .

W
he e the wi hy ic
Se co nd Proo f of G auss
’
s Th eo re m . e m ay o b a n a no r

i e ti fie ce i t which
’
p r o o f o f Gauss s T or m fro m follo ng p s al co n

c ce t te it tte e ect ic
s d ra o ns . The ld of fo r aro und a po n at is
on n ra da un of ma r, l r al s ay, is by Co ulo m b
’
s

La w

hi e th t the vect i ecte i y tw

th t it e v ie i ve e y ie
T s m ans a or F is d r d rad all ou ards ,

c e ce the fi t i the i t
but its m agn
a ud ar s n rs l as r
z
. Co ns d r tw o

the the yi c ete y t i e t w

lo s d surfa s S , and S rs surro un d n g p o n 0

he cee which thec theet y t i e e thh the

an d o r l ng o m pl l ou s d of 0 . Abou 0 dra

i
two sp r s , o ne o f is o m pl el ou s d of bo of

th t it t ch ei he i ce
two surfa s S , and S 2 , and o r o f a sm a ll n o ug r ad us

so a does no t ou t r S, or S, . S n the m a gn i
142 VECTOR AN ALY SIS .

t e e ct y t the e the he
i c e e with i c e i i the ce i te th
ud of F falls off xa l as fas as ar as o f sp res

vect ve e ch the he e the e the

n r as n r as n g rad us , s urfa n gral o f is
or o r a of sp r s is sa m . Or, in o r

FIG . 57 .

w the th t et th h e che the the

flux
vi e t y the e t t h ve e th h
o rds , a g s ro ug o ne r a s o r .

the ce th t we w ite the

E d n l s am a m o un of flux m us d r o ug
a p ass

surfa S ,, so a m ay r fo r flux

dS =
o f rad . R,
 V EC TOR ANALY SIS . 1 43

As fo r the ce i ce ie t i
he e he e wh teve we t i t t
surfa S,, s n no flux is ga n d or los in go ng

h ve c e it i the e
fro m sp r R, to sp r R2 , a r flux n n o S , m us

also a om o ut o f a ga n, a nd r fore

H e ce the the e
n or m .
‘

the efi iti the te ti the w e

66 . Th e P ote ntia l . Po isso n ’
s and Laplace ’
s E quatio ns .

it itive ch e i i it i fi ity
F ro m d n on of p o n al in 4 6 as ork do n

the i t which te i e i e we h w th t
o n a un pos a rg in br ng ng fro m n n up to

n at the po nt al is d d, m ay s
the c cti : the te ti cti c e
p o s r o a

s alar fun on L is n al fun on o rr spo nd

p o

the i ve e e
in g to n vit ti
s quar Co ulo m b
’
i
( g
n o n, Ne w
t ce
rs ,
or s ra a
m
— —l
l
‘

) l of fo r F at
’
on s aw

i ete ti tity i titive tte he w the w

.

fi
Co ns d r a q u a n o f p os ma r, m, at O .

i i ive ch e i i it i fi ity
The po n al at a ny p o n P, or in ot r o rds o rk

d o ne on a un t po s t ar g in br ng ng fro m n n to

- o
to ' "

F IG . 58 .

e the i e i tet v the thece itctich e

the th Q
P , i s qual to l n -
n gr a l o f fo r fun on F fro m P
t o 00 alo ng P ra e rse d by un
p a arg .

mo

j
P
= F dr , see § 16
z
r

h w itte ec e
w

w hi c m ay be r n, b a us V by
;

Th e or em
’ '

Se e Appendix, p 2 51, fo r a no ther r oo f o f G au ss s

.
p .
144 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

hi te e i the t t e iv tive
T s las th t
x pr ss o n is o al d r a of
m
so a t he

i te i e e t the th y
,
r

the i it th t the t ti i t e i i
n gral 1s nd pe n d n of p a and depends o nl upo n

v
lm s, a 18 , upo n s ar ng po n and nd ng po n t,

gi ing

S h the e the
o uld r be o r m asse s pres e t the t ti
n , po e n al fun ct io n

FI G . 59 .

the the the e te cti

ec
due to m all is sum o f s p ar a fun o ns due to
a h, or

V = —1 283
rP
e
whe e the t ce the i t which the t ti
i

the the e i t ei
r rp
s
is dis an fro m po n at p o e n al

i ete i t c i i t i ti the
is to be fo und to m a ss m . . If m ass s ns e a d o f b ng

ti ec e v e i te t
at d s cr po n s fo r m a o nt nuo us d s r bu o n, s um

na
r
on b om s a olum n l dm, the ele men of mass ,
gra ;
 VEC TOR ANALY SIS . 145

c e whe e the v e e ity the tte

e c i e ti W h ve the
be om s p dv ,
r p is o lum d ns of ma r

un d r ons d ra on . e a n

dm
°
8 7

i te th efi e whi h t e ve
e cc ie the e hw fi ite
The n gr al us d n d c is to be ak n o r the

c ti we fi t e iv tive
v o lum o up d by m ass s m ay be s o n to be n ,

i he it e i fi ity the fi t e fit
on nuo us , unifo r m , as ll as its rs d r a s . It

e iv ytivee the e e whichethe i e i te etwee

v an s s s lf at n n to rs o rd r , a nd its rs

d r a s to s c o nd o r d r .

it i ee et th
As st m of fo rc s fo r l n -
n gr al b n a ny

v cal led a
t w o p o n s is nd p nd n of t he p a is C o nserva

we ti y te c ce t te
ti e System .

the i t we h t i
If m ul pl Gauss
’
s In gr als by m , a m ass on n ra d
at po n 0 ,
s all o b a n

m
—
j

fj n rd S 4 7: m
- o
.
z
S r

hi i te t te th t the tw et
ce cc i the i ve e e ewt i
T s n gral s a s a ou ard no rm al c o m po n n of

flux
th h c e e i ti e the N
of fo r (a o rd ng to n rs s qua r or o n an

t tte withi tt yi t i the

l aw ) ro ug a lo s d surfa c s urro und ng O is 4 7: m s

ce c t i ti thi eve y e e e t
a m o un of ma r n; a ny ma er l ng o u s de of

c t i te we h ve the iti th t the tw

surfa on r bu ng no ng . As r l m n of m ass m

ce th h c e ce
on r bu s 4 a m a p p
r o os on a ou ard

t i e the t t t tte withi

flux of for roug any los d s urfa due to a ny distribu

e thi th t t y
io n is 4 7: t m s o al am oun of ma r n th e sur

ive evi e t y wh t ec e it et ic
fac It i s i n fo rm G auss In e gral is us uall
’
. s a s

the e the th e t i vit ti

g n, but d n l ,
from a p r ed s , is a ge om r al

ce it i t i ti tte
or m ra r an an le c r c al o r gr a a o n al o ne .

whe e
The for a t a ny po n due to a ny d s r bu on of ma r

is gra d V or V V , by 47 r

t ti ti the i t i ti i
t th t i t t ve the
is the po e n al func on due to d s r bu on The s n
.
g
co de no es a the n e gral i s to be a ke n o r whoke
1 46 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

ce hi e iv e t i te ti ve the t e
whe eve the e tte the i te
of spa . T s is q u al n to n gr a ng o r ma t r

t i te thi th t we w ite l
alone , a s r r r is no ma r
p 0 a nd n gra

co n r bu s no ng . So a m ay r ( 1 5 5 ) a s

n V -
V dS 4 p dv,
S

ei the t t tity tte withi

p dv b ng o al q ua n of ma r n S .

e the ive e ce the e

By m the ce i te
ve t e i t v ei t t e
ans o f d rg n or m ( 1 2 1 ) surfa n

th h t the v e e e
gral abo m ay be r ansfo rm d n o a o lum n e gr al ak n

ro ug ou o lum nclo s d by S .

n V -
V dS V V V do
-
4 7:

thi e ity h wh teve ce t e it w

8

th t the i te
As
eve ywhe e
s qual o lds a r s urfa S is a k n, fo llo s

a n gr a n ds a re r r e qual and

m
Q
V V V V V 4 7

hi
-
.

ee ce whe e thi ec e
T s is Po isso n ’
s E qua tio n .

I n fr sp a r a 0 s b om s

V V= 0
’

which c
.

i te et the e e ti w ve y
is Lapl a ’
e s E q ua tio n .

W
tity tte e it i e e i e it
e m ay n rpr s qu a o ns as fo llo s: E r

tity hi e i e y ve ti e
q uan of ma r m s l n s o f fo rc ,
4 7: l n s pe r un q ua n

e e the i te ity it i t ce it ch e
. T s num r c 4 7:is pur l con n o n al and a pp a rs

efi e ity i e it i te ity e
b c aus n ns at un ds an fro m un a rg is

i e it e the e t i e e itt e
d n d as un ; a nd s n c un n ns c o rr s po nds to

h ve e ch the it e the ce
o ne l n pe r un ar a , r m us be 4 7: l n s m ed in o rd r

the it he e the e v e w
to a o ne fo r a of 4 7: un s o f ar a in sur a f of

i t whe e the e ity the i e i

un sp r . So n, if a surfa c of o lum do be dra n

th h the e e ti e the tity

aro un d a po n r d ns is p, l n s p as s n g

tte withi it
ro ug s urfac are qual to 4 7: m s q uan of

ma d
v e
r p v n ,
or

div F (due to olum do ) 4 7:p do,

d per it v e un o lum

div F 4 m
7 .
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 47

h ve e ti h e te
the
Now if F
ec cti the tt
a a po t n al , t at is , if F c an be re pres n d
as grad o r V o f so m s al ar fun on W ,
n p u ing
F V W ,

V V -
W WW 4 up .

h e ti t e the te ti W tt
tt i
T is qua on is ru for po n al due to a r act ng

the c e e i ce i ce the ce it
ma er .

the i ecti i c e e the c cti we

In ase o f r p ll ng fo r s, s n fo r is o ppos e

ce W we w ite e e
to dr on of n r as in s a lar fun o n, m ay
pla V, a nd m ay r as b fo r

I n fr e ce whe e the e
e spa r r is no d e ity the e ti ec e
ns p qua on b om s

div F O,

which y th t the i e ce e i y i t i te
th t the t e ce e c ti th
sa s a l n s of fo r a re so l no dall d s r bu d,

he ce c t ei i t ce ev i
a is , flux ak s pla in unbro k n on nuo us p a s,

tte
a nd n anno e nd nor b g n at any p o n o f sp a d o d

e the te ) ive e ce evi e t

of ma r.

the e i
The r as o n fo r rm (div d rg n is d n fro m

c cti which ei
for go ng .

i e v e c ti ti fie ce e ti
Ha rm onic F un tion . A fun on in a r g on is

i
s n gl

th t e i
alu d, is
’
-
on nuo us , and sa s s Lapla s qua on

c ee
sa d to be harmoni c in a r g on .

h ic i t cti
A Sphe ri ca l Ha rm o ni
ce h t of de gr n is any homogeneous

the e ti arm on o n of sp a
( 3)
1 4 p o n -
fun . T a is, i f V s at

isfi es q ua ons
V V ’
O

r oV V n V,

he
it is a sp
ch cti c h i e ee
e ti t e ri al ar m o n c o f d gr n . The t chey
s ud and use o f

ma th
hy ic
su fun o ns is of m po r anc in all bran s of
gr a

e m atical p s s.
1 48 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

the e
ey i t t ic ti the etic hy ic of

w
67 . G ree n ’
s Th eo rem s . Tw o or m s due to Gree n

e i te y ic ti ive e ce the
v r m po r an appl a on in or al p s s fo llo
im m d a l by a n a ppl a o n of the d rg n ore m ,

Il s
a- w as :

ff f m
v '
w ‘h ”

ti
to the fun c W whe e
i t cti which with thei e iv tive
on UV V ,
r U a nd V are

i W
twoc s alar

c ti the ce i e e yi
p o n -
fun o ns r d r a s are un fo rm and

on nuo us in s pa c o ns d r d . Appl ng V to ,

V -
W V -
( UV V) UV V ’
V UV V-
.

Subs tit t u ing in the e ti

q ua o n abo ve
UV V dS Uv V dv +
ff f U V V dv
’
o
V -
.

( 8)
1 5
i
S m ilarl y y et y tti
,
by s m m r , p u ng fo r W VV U, we h ve a

ff n -
VV U dS U dv +
fff v v V V dv -
.

S ub t cti th e e ti the e e
ra ng es two qua o ns r r m ains

ff ( U V V V U) dS ( U V VV W ) dv
’
n -
V V .

( 59)
1

ce i te t e ve the ce
the e i e c i e ti the v e i te
The surfa n gr als are to be ak n o r surfa s bo und

th h t the v e e e the e ce
ing r g o n und r o ns d ra o n , a nd o lum n gr als

ti c e ee he e fi
ro ug ou o lum s n clos d by s s urfa s . E qua

ec e e tive y ( 59 ) a ll d Gr T m in its
’
o ns ( 1 5 8 ) a nd 1 are n s or rst

a nd s o nd fo rm s r sp c l .

y ee he e
ec cti the c
68 . G ree n ’
s F orm ulae . Appl Gr n s
’
T or m in its
o nd fo rm to tw o fun o ns U an d V Le t U be fun
ti the te ti
s .

on 1 U a nd let V be p o n al due to any distribu

tte ei i e e the ce
?

etwee the i fi te he e ce
io n of ma r . The r g on to be c o ns d r d is sp a

ing b n n ni sp r , S any surfa s S which

 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 149

the i t i ti the i fi ite i he e

i i the i t whi h e e
s urro und d s r bu o n, a nd n n s m al sp r of

e ti
r a d us e , surro un d ng 0, p o n fro m c r is m asur d.

The qua on

ff M UV V U V vv U) do
’ z
( V

( 60)
1

be c e i ce
om s, s n V z
U V ’ 1
-
by ( 14 8 )

n .
w l v zv dv .

FI G 60

ce t t e ve the i
. .

ce the e i i fi it he e t i te thi
The surfa in e gr al is to be ak n o r bo und ng sur

fa s S to r g on The n n e sp r co n r bu s no ng,

e e e thi
.

i
— l
as a t infi ni ty V V and VV b co m z ro to the rd
-

th c t i i the e i t the
7
" n
order , bo o n a n ng 7 i d no m n a o r . For s m all
1 50 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

he e t the fi t t the i t t
e
sp r abo u 0 rs p a r of n e gral m ay be ra ns

fo rm d,

ff } :
1
d 3 ( n V -
V) e ’ =
dw e n V '
V dw .

whe e the i e te e e e e t the

he e whe e d by an l m n o f
i c t t
r da is sol d a ngl sub nd

i i te ti ec e e e
sm all sp r at O, a nd, r e, its s m all rad us, is o ns an

e e the e the ce fi i e the

dur ng n gra on . As e b o m s s m all r an d sm all r a nd

i te v i he the i it
b c a us n V -
V, no rm al fo rc on surfa ,
is n t ,

i e i the ec t the ce i te ve
n gr al an s s in lm .

the he e we w ite
Co ns d r ng s o nd p ar of surfa n gr al o r

s m all sp r ,
m ay r

be e c aus
é n V -
dS 9 5 dS i e sol d angl due to dS As

the i the 7
he e i i i he che
.
2

v e
rad us o f sm all sp r dm n s s V appro a s V0,

th t fi y
i ts alu at 0 .

So a nall ,

V V VV dS ,
S ur f ac es
( 1 61 )
the e i te ei t e ve the i ce
the v e i te ve the e i e the
s urfa c n gr al b ng ak n o r bo und ng sur fa s

h e thee fi e e the e i c i e e the e

S a nd olum n gr al o r r g on bo und d by m,
s ad d in gur .

ti cti it
I f V V is ’
qual to z r o in r g on o ns d r d, p o t n

al fun o n at any po n 0 is

1
v v Vv dS ,
4 7:

hich h w th t it ete y ete i e eve ywhe e

thev e the te ti e iv tive
w s o s a is c o m pl l d rm n d r r if

w ve the i ce the tte

alu s o f p o n al V a nd o f its no r m al d r a n V -
V
re kn o n o r bo und ng s urfa s S . If ma r
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 1 51

ci thi e ti i t i te e
withi t e e ce ce e ity
p r o du ng s po t n al and d s r bu d in any m ann r

te t
n S be a k n out a nd r pl a d by a s urfa d ns

of ma t r a on S o f a m oun

o = V — r VV

the e ti wi e t y the e e e ec e
tit ti thi v e
po t n al a t 0 ll be x ac l sa m as b fo r ,
b aus

b y subs u ng s a lu fo r o in

we t i e ti W h thi i t i ti
v e e thi w
ob a n qua on e s all c all s d s r bu on

But in g
e the ce e i te ti e
an E q ui a le nt La yer . n ral s ill n o t ne ces

the i t i i e the i i e cti

s a rily m ak surfa an q u p o n al surfa c .

ive the 0 is
If po n ns d s urface S, a s m lar d du on

g s fo rm ula

[I (
1
n lv v — Vv dS ,
4 7: r

( 1 64 )
whe e w the the e i
which ie With thi v ti the
r n is to be dra n as extern a l no r m al to r g on

ee i e ti
in 0 l s . s co n en on tw o fo r m ulae due to

c i t ethe ee ti
Gr n ( 1 61 ) a nd ( 1 64 ) are d n c al in fo r m .

which w itte
G re e n ’
s
,
F un tio n . Add ng og r Gr
’
n s e qua on

m ay be r n

( UV V s v ) dv U VV U)dS ,
’
n -
( V V

an d which h o ld und r e the e sa m c o nd iti we t i

o ns , ob a n

V V dv
3
VV Udv’

ff v
-
1 52 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

T hi e tis e eci i
qua on is of sp al m po r t ce the the ie
an in or s

of i ht e e t i ity
lg a nd l c r c The quan tity which U ap

e the i te eti e w ee cti

.

p ars in n gr al is so m m s kno n as Gr n s
’
F un on .

ti t te
th t the tity w th h t e i
69 . So lutio n of Po is so n ’
s E quatio n . Equa on ( 1 61 ) s a s

e e the titie
a if qu an V V is kno
z
n ro ug ou a r g on

w i t the ce the ete

bo und d by any surfa c S, and if qua n s V an d V V

ete i e withi the ce w the e

are kno n a t all p o n s o f surfa ,
n V is c o m pl ly

ece e i fi ity th t we c i e i the te

d rm n d n s urfa . Allo surfa c S to

ti the wh e e he the e ti the ce

r d to n n so a a re no w o ns d r ng po n

i te t i te thi
al

the titie ti ie
in ol o f sp a c . T n in q ua on surfa

ch ie t y hi h e he e
n gr al c o n r bu s no ng, as all q ua n m ul pl
s d

e i the the i it y
by dS appro a ze r o to a suffi c n l g ord r T . r

r ma ns , n, in l m o nl

No w , by Po isso n
’
s Equa ti ti fie the e ti o n, V sa s s r la on

W V 4 7:p.

So th t
eve y i t a ,
by
in spa c
if the v e the e
e ete i e the i te ity ive
alu of p,

d by
d ns ,
be g
l
n at

r po n ,
V is d rm n n gr a

whi h the e e ti
c is i e ti ti fi i
r for a so lu on of Po sso n s
’
Equa o n.

the te ti i t i ti wh e e ity efi e
Th e Integ ra ting O pe ra to r Pot . The o p ra on of nd ng

eve ywhe e the ti y ch i

p o n al due to a d s r bu on os d ns is d n d

t t e the ti hy ic th t i ive
r r by s c ala r func on p( ) pila
‘
s su an m por

thi e ti e i e efi e
an rol in m a ma ca l p s s a Pro f G bbs has g
. n

to s o p ra o n a sp c al n a m a nd d n s

Po t p

re ad
( tei ti i i te th t the i it
po n al o f p) .

t e ve
wh e whe eve the t e the i te
The s gn 00 nd c a s a lm s m ay be ak n o r the
ol o f spa ce , a s r r re is no ma t r n gral
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 53

t i e thi W h c the e ti i ic e
the ve e ti the te ti eve whe
co n r but s no ng . e s all all o p ra on nd at d
“

e e e e t v e e ity
of
”
by abo q ua on p o n al p, n n p

i e i i e ti
do s no t r pr s n a o lum d ns .

Co ns d r ng aga n qua on ( 66)

1

W
ff
V
r

an d us ng i the t ti we th t we w ite
no a on see a m ay r

p o t V ’
V

So th t the ic ti
a appl a on of

cti the e e t th t e cti

the w s am
fun o n nullifi es ff of fun
2
to a c V on a o n,

o r, in o r ords,

4
1
”
pc t is the i ve e e tn rs o p ra o r to V ‘

the e th t the e ti
the c cti e th t al
70 . V ecto r Pote ntia l
-
. In sa m w ay a po t n

due to s ala r fun on p is for m d ,

a is ,

V = po t p

we m ay defi ne the e ti the vect

po t n al o f or fun cti on

P p1
i + m k
ps ,

we h re p, , p, and p ,, are give n s c alar fun cti o ns o f r, as

V = po t p

£ 1 dv + j

( re ad vect t ti or -

po e n al o f
p)
 VECTOR ANALY SIS .

vect ti efi e c e the
e ti th ee c t evi e t y ti y the
The or fun c on V so d n d is all d vec tor

e ti ti fie the c te ti th t we h ve
t n al o f I ts o m po ne n s d n l sf
po p . r sa

r la o ns sa s d by s al ar po n al, s o a a

V V Q
4 7: p.

t ict y with the ti i ti

c te ti we h ve the the ti vec
In Po E q ua
’
s r an alo g s o lu on of sso n s on

te ti
fo r a s alar p o n al a n fo r so lu on of a

to r po-
n al

71 . Sepa ratio n of a V e tor c Po int F un tion-

c w , whi ch ha s

hi e th t the vect
a V ector Potentia l , into So leno ida l
-
or R o tatio na l a nd Lam ell ar

te i t t whi h
or Irro tatio na l Com po nents . T s m a ns a or

fun ctio n W is to be
ive e e the the W the e
se p ar a d n o tw o p ar s , o ne o f c

has no d rg n c a nd o r no c url . e n a ssum

W = X + Y

whe e
,

r V X -
0 an d V xY 0.

i e the ti the vect cti

e e ectiv y the wi
Co ns d r s calar fun c on 95 a n d or fun on V,
r lat d to X an d V, r e sp e l , in fo llo ng m anner

X = mv
v —v
¢ .

W = v xv —v a

it i e et i e the e ve
.

thi t e the ive e e ivi

If is po ss bl to d e r m n V and 95 pro bl m is sol d .

To do s ak d rg nc of W , g ng

W V -
V 953

th t the ti
.

So a so lu on fo r 95 is, by

f
'

fj d v = do ( 1 73 )

p o t (V W)
-
.
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 1 55

i y t i the c W
S milarl ,
a k ng url o f ,

W V x V x
(V xV
) V (V V ) V V ’

ce yet ete i e we e th
-
.

ve e ce e th t he ce
No w sin V is as und rm n d, m ay assum at

its di rg n is z ro or a V V-
0, n

W Vx V V ’

th t W ti e the vect cti which

.

vect e ti
So a V x is 4 7: m s or fun o n of V is the
or po t n al , and by ( 1 7 1 )
V V ’

r 4 71:

4 7:
po t (V xW) which ete i e d rm n s V .

F i y i ce
nall ,
s n
W V V x V qS

ff d
V ‘
1
—
v -

v x do , ( 1 75 )
r 4 7:

the ec iti h cc i h hi ec i
ti eti e w
d o m po s on is t us a o m pl s ed . T s d o m po s

t whi h cc H
o n is so m m s kno n as e lm h o ltz s Th eo rem .
* ’

y the e e ti the efi iti it Units

Oth er System s of . The fa c or 4 7: c o urs in

tity t e vi t e thi efi ti it ece y

man of s qua o ns is due to d n o n o f un qu a n

e th t eve y t tte e it i e e
of ma t r. In r u of s d ni on is n ss ar to

th t e e the e i e c tti th h
assum a r uni of ma r m s 4 7: l n s of forc ,
so

c e t tte wi ti e
a ,
for x a m pl ,
num b r o f l n s u ng ro ug a ny

y the e it tte i i e te it the

lo s d surfa ce a ro und a ny a m o un of ma r ll be 4 7: m s

hi e i i e thi e ti v
as m an as r a re un s of ma r ns d . Of la is

it hi e v i wy whi h Hea is ide has

fas lm o n o f 7: s
’ ”
on to nat s rup as

e efi e the it tity h e th t it e it
. T s m ay be do n in ar o us a s , o ne of c is to

i e ce whi h e ti
r d n un q u a n in suc a m an n r a m s

but o ne l n of fo r ,
in c c as the e q ua o ns

— 1& ?e —4
5 i
dv F = 4 7:p a nd V V= ’
7t 0 :

ec e e ective y
.

b om r sp l

3 ?B 21
7
r, div F a nd V V = ‘
( 1 7 6)
p 0
-

7
1 .

Wiss Ahh . . and I , p 101. . Fo r a m nem o nic if no t ano ther proo f

g
1
of this theo rem , m ultip ly eq ua tio n ( 14 5) by 74 an d i n t egr aite a em em
:
bering eq ua tion ( 1 71 i
1 56 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

ch ch ice e i i te e
i t ce it the eve he e the
Su a o o f uni ts lm na s 4 7: in a num b r of for
m ulae but
c ve ie t ti the e the y he e the
n ro du s in o rs . I t is n rt ls s m o st

e e y c te the ce tw e the cti tt

on n n ass um p on in mod rn or ,
w r

which ti i t ce e h fi t ce
n rg is lo a d in sp a be e n a ng ma e r , an d

te ti i t ce e e e e
in ac o n at a d s an no lo ng r o lds rspl a . The
n al a t a ds an fro m m ass m , for x a m pl , b com s

i t e ti i the t ti
po r a
1 m m
ns e ad c f The o p ra on of form ng po e n al,
4 7:
or po t
r
thi y te c i t i the i t
V , wo uld m
r
'

s s s m o ns s ln fo r m ng n e gral,

a nd the the e or m of H lm e htw ol z o uld b e e thi t ti

co m in s no a on

V po t (V VV) xW
-
p ot (V ),

e
ie tic e t e cti cc i the i ve
72 . E ne rgy of a Syste m in Term s of Pot ntia l . Co n
s d r tw o par l s of ma t r a ng a o rd ng to n rse

O
0 Q —O
m, mc

squar e law , m p and

i thee ective
mg , y
r spe te
i fi ity
l ,
s p a r a d by a d s an i titi ce
t w
rm . In o rde r to br ng m ass mp fro m n n to its p o s o n
an a m o un of ork 66)

Wm

t e e e the the e e
they tt ct e the tte
mus be xp nd d on m ass m , if m ass s r l
p , or
e by
ma
i
1, if a ra . Fo r defi ni te ness assum r to be
pell ng .
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 1 57

The e eixpr ss o n abo ve m ay be w ittr en in tw o wy a s,

Wm V q mp 01
’
V p me

b ec a use an d
n
Lfl
rm
‘

i i y
S m l arl we h ve y te
e e yi fi titei te e wit the y te
o b a n a bl
ti
ife
i ethe a a ny tw o s s ms of p ar cl s ,

n rg by allo ng tw o s s m s to d sp rse

to an n n di s a nc ap ar is

P q

whe e the ti i e te eve y i i t

it e h the y te we c i e the
r sum m a on s gn s x nd to r p a r o f po n s ,

y te ct t t ce the
o ne p o n fro m ac of s s ms . If o ns d r

ti eve y e w e twice th t
tw o s s ms a s o ne , a fa or }
7 m us be in ro du d, as in
sum m a on r t rm o uld app ar ,
so a

re e etict e the thet y tet ti e e c y ti

p r s n s mu ual p o e n al n rg of a si ngle y te
i t i ti s s m

the ti ec e
of p a r l s . If s s m fo rm s a on nuo us d s r bu on

sum m a on ( 1 7 9 ) b om s

whe re V is the te tipo n al fun cti on due to the t t i t i tio al d s r bu on .

the i t i ti c i t e v e
73 . E nergy of a Distributio n in Term s of F ield Inte nsity .

ti ce e ity v e e ity ve
If d s r bu on o ns s s o f a s ur fac a nd a o lum distribu

i t t e the
o n o f surfa d ns and o lum d ns t he a bo
a
p,

n e gr al ak s fo r m

V a dS

i te t e v the c th h t
the v the tt e c i e ti e ective
The n grals are ak n o er surfa e s a nd r o ug ou

olumes o f ma e r und r o ns d ra o n r sp ly .
1 58 VECTOR ANALY SIS .

At ce i t i ti the e i c ti ity ch e
the e t the ce the f
a surfa d s r bu on r is a d s on nu or ang

ive the we w e e i
in no r m al co m po n n of fo r due to sur ace dis
tributio n , g n by ll kno
-
n x pr ss on

n V -
V .

By dra wi ce c ete y i the ce

we y ee he e the wh e
ng a surfa o m pl l surro un d ng surfa dis

cet e ttii e the e e e e e i th t the

tributio ns m ay a ppl Gr T m to
’
n s or ol of

spa ou s d of s surfa c s . R m mb r ng a fro m

las q ua on

a th t n V -
V a nd a p

the i te which
tw o n gr als are no w

V n V -
V dS V V V dv
’

be e co m by Gr e en s
’
The e or m ( 1 58 )

(V V ) do
2

the e i the th v the e e e t the

it t ti ie ct ch cte i tic
If m d um is a ny o r an a cuo , l m n in

the e e e y the i t i ti thi c e

n e gr al , F dv m us be m ul pl d by a fa o r 5
2
ara r s

of m di um The n rg o f
. d s r bu o n is in s as

5 F dv 2
.

Thi s m ay also be w itte r n as

3
8 7:
e F F dv
-

f ff s d
-
, ( 1 83 )

whe e r

e fl
’

s a ve ct or called the Induction .

 V ECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 59

c
t ti
74 . Expressio ns for Surfa e a nd V o lum e De nsitie s of a Dis

i with the e e y e v e
tri b utio n i n Term s of th e I nte nsity of Po lariza tio n . S ar ng

ti e itie e e tiv y
aga n ( 80)
1 n rg o f a surfac a nd o lum di stribu
on of d ns s o a nd r sp c el
p, ,

s
1 l
V a ds +
2

e th t thi e e y w itte
s 1

Le t us assum a s n rg m ay be r n also as

e e the i te ity i ti H is the fie

th the t ti i he ld
w he r l is call d n ns of po l a r z a o n,

al co rrespo nd ng to H

i e
s t re ng ,
and V is po e n . T n

s nc
V l V V VV l ,

the i te t e it
- -

n gr al m ay be r a ns fo r m d n o

1 1

i the fi ti e the ive e ce the e

c i hi ith the e i the e e y te
T ransfo rm ng rs nt gra l by d rg n or m an d

o m p ar ng t s w e xp r ss o n fo r n rg in rm s of
an d p ,
'

f
1
W V (n -
l ) dS VV l o

,2

we see th t the i ti
a p e e ity
o l ar z a on I pro duc e s a surfa c d ns

a nd a v e e ity
o lum d ns
o m]

V l
( 85 )
1

ve e y i i t i ti c i t e
o
.

e ity v e e ity it y h w
Co n rs l ,
ass um ng a d s r bu on to o ns s o f a sur fa c

i c w th t the e tity e te
d ns a an d a o lu m d ns p, is e as to s o by re a

the e ti
so n n g ba k ards a r is a q ua n I r la d to a an dp
by q ua o ns
a nd p V l
'

ch th t the e e y i t i ti e e e te
'

te th h t e
su a n rg of the d s r bu on m ay be r pr s n d
by the in gr al ro ug ou the v o lum ,

l
m

?
dv .
( 6)
1 8
1 60 V EC TOR ANALY SIS .

e Eq uatio n s of th e E l ctro -
M ag netic Field

e ei e t h we
.

Ma xw e ll By
th t whe the e ic th h i e i c it v ie
75 .
’
s E q ua tio n s . xp r m n Farad a y s o d

the e i e the ci c it e e ive ce

a n m agn t flux ro ug a l n ar c r u is ar d

the ci c it c e thi i e e ect tive ce

r is nduc d in r u an l c tro -
mot fo r . If

ce c e t it h we th t thi e e t
r u is a lo s d o ne s nduc d l ro -
mo fo r
He also
tive ce e the te ch e the
pr o du s a urr n in . s o d a s l c ro

e ic i ecti ti
mo fo r is q ual to n ega ti ve ra of a ng of

c it c ecte with the itive i e ti th h

m agn t flux . The posi ti ve d r o n o f ro ta on in a c ir

it cc i the j i i whi h y i e the

u is o nn d p os d r c on of flux ro ug

e w the w h w i ecti
, a o rd ng to ad o ni ng d a gr a m c s m bol z s

i ce e etic the w he ci c it h w
s o c all
-
d c o rk sc re -
r ule . If a rro s o s d r on of

the i ecti ite the i ce e t fi e

n r as of m agn flux , arro -
ad in r u s o s

w h w the i ecti the etic the

d r o n o ppo s to ndu d c urr n . The gur as

c e t the ci c it e ch etic
dra n s o s d r on of m agn flux due to
By L
w i ce c e t thi he ce the e tive
urr n in r u . nz s
’
la w su a m a gn flux

i e ti e w i ce e ec
ould ndu a urr n opposi te to s; n n ga

te e hi h
s in q ua o n 1 87 b lo
gn Sn l .

ce te ti we
t ricity nds to flo w fro m pla c s o f g

i e thi e e t tive ce e
to pla s o f lo w po n al m ay c o n

thi the t e e ect t tic s d r s l c ro -

mo fo r a s so m

fie which i ce the ce
ng in n a ur o f an l ros a

the v yi h t the e ect

ld is ndu d in sp a by

tive ce i ce the ce ar ng flux . T a is , l ro

eve whe ie c ct
FIG . 61 .
mo fo r is ndu d in sp a

c c thi e ect tive ce ce c e t

n n uno cc up d by a o ndu or .

c c ce c e t
In a o ndu to r s l ro -
mo fo r p r o du s a ur r n

t i the t t e e t tive ce ci c it we
a nd in a no n -
o ndu to r tends to p r o du a urr n . To

ev te the i e i te thi e e t t tic fie

ob a n o al l c ro -
mo fo r a ro und a ny r u ,

th t ci c it he the i ce w itte
alua l n -
n gr a l o f s l c ro s a ld F alo ng

a r u . T n ndu d e . m f m ay be
. . r n

xF
(V ) u dS , o

by S t o kes
’
T h eore m . But Faraday s ’
exp r ei e t h w hm n s o s t at
 VEC TOR ANALY SIS 1 61

thi e the the te h e the

eti i cti th h thi ci it th t
s is q ual to nega ti ve o f ra c a ng of m ag
n c ndu on 30 ro ug s rc u ,
so a

(V F ) u dS
x o

thi t e wh teve i it i e e wh ve
t e it e the ci c it we
As s is ru a r c rc u is c o ns d r d a nd ate r

w ite
c ap is a k n as lo ng as is b o und d by r u m ay
r

e ei e t
By ve th t e t
et etic he e t i t e th which
Am p ere pro d
xp r m n a a c urr n I is e quiv a

e the e t h e th t e t
l n to any m agn s ll o f a c r a n s r ng is
He also
e e e the etic fie th t it ce
b o und d by c urr n . s ow d a a c urr n m ay

tit tive y th t ti e the c e t e ti

be m asur d by m a ns o f m a gn ld a p ro du s,

c t e the i e i te the eti

a nd q uan a l a 4 7: m s urr n in a ny s c on

ce t e th i e itive y with
of a onduc o r is q ual to l n n gral o f m agn c

H
the c ct the e t e ity the
fo r a k n once aro und a ny p a l nk d po s l

c y
o ndu or . I f q be c urr n d ns ,
n, sy m b oli

all ,

f
9
H -
dr = 4 7: q u dS
o
,

whece e the r s urfa c ei i tethe fi tt i tee ve t e hethe e

n gr al is ak n o r a ny c ap to sur

we h ve
fa . Trans form ng rs n gr a l by S ok s
’
T or m,
a

V x H o
u dS 4 7: q -
n dS ,
P

thi e ti t e h teve ti e
wh teve th t e th t i
a nd as s qua on is ru w a r p o r o n o f sp a c is con

ce we w ite
s ide re d a nd a r p a is a k n a ro und a p o rt o n of

s pa ,
m ay r

V xl l 4 ( 1 88 )
'

7: q .

e e i the e e t e e t tive e
ie ect th t i te
I n o rd r to xpla n ff c of an l c ro -
mo fo r c
upo n d l ric non conductors-
Ma xwe ll a ssumed a ns ad
1 62 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

e t the e e c e i ce t
ti c e t e e t i ity which the e e the
o f a c urr n q is pr o ducrd a s o a ll d d sp l a m e n -

i i e ect tive e i t e
mo on or urr n q o f l c r c
'
,
o n r l as e o f

i i iti e th t thi e i ce e t
nduc n g l ro m o -
fo rc spr n gs b a c k and a k s up its
He assum
ce the e etic w ce
or g nal pos on . s a s c urr ntd spla m n -

c e t e ity
pro du s sa m m a gn efi e c t as o uld be pro du d by a
urr n of d ns

whe re SF e F

t t the e i c e e e t ic
eve y i t the fie W the e e c i e i
a nd e is a c o ns a n i ctivity of m d um all d l c r n du

i t ce thi i e e t c e t e ity i te
at r po n of ld . e r fo r ,
in o ns d r ng a

ivi
di elec tric , n ro du s d spla c m n urr n d ns ns ad

of q, g ng

T hie t wti
s assum p ee e ic ete the
y ve ieifieect ic the
on has b n o m pl l r d by e x peri

cti we et i the ivi

R o land in Am
m n s of r ca .
*
If d l r is also con

du ng r a n te r m in q , g ng

V llx= 4
‘

7r q +
gg o

The te rm
at

is c all e the
d to ta l
ive e
curr en t a nd b ei e ng qual to a c url is sol e
n oidal, a nd ha s no d rg nce , i . e .

V -
q +

hi e t the v e i c it th
e thi e ti th t e e t i ity i ie
T s curr n re fo re mo es in c lo s d c r u s or p a s . It

i e i efl i c i the e
is b c a use o f s q u a on a l c r c is sa d to ac t l k

t he y e i i ity t i
an n c o m p r ss bl u d .
(Se e A co rd n g to El c

ro n T or its c o m pr ss bl is at m o st o ne par in a m llion .

Since repe ated also by Cremieu and Fender in France.

 VEC TOR ANALYSI S . 1 63

The c ete y ieteect ic e theti e e e i

o m pl s s m of qua o ns fo r m d a at r s eth i old ng

in an i nsula ti ng d l r are r fo r

in c i ti with
o mb na on

F=
E e F a nd 3C = p H .

the e ect ic etic i ctivitie

efi e the e e ti hey
e an d p are l r and m agn ndu s respe c

ive h e e i t i e i th t
tiv ely , and are d n d by s q ua o ns . T a re co n

cyt i e
sta nts fo r a g n o m o g n o us s o ro p c m d um , a is ,
fo r no n -
r s all n

e ve Mag netic W a
e th t the e e e t et the
76 . Eq uation of Propa gatio n of El ctra -
s.

ce c i e e th w th t the e i t i ic
Le t us assum a r a re no p r m an n m agn s in

eti ti y ic y thi e e e w iti

sp a o ns d r d, o r, in o er o rds , a r is no n r ns

m agn za o n, s m bol all s is xp r ss d by r ng

V -
H div H 0 .

Ta k e the c url o f the fi t the e e ti

rs of s qua o ns

65 6
v s = v x x v — v 2H v v -
H .

a, a,

h i H e ei
th t
C fro m 3 to F and fro m a nd re m mb
”

ang ng to tie r ng

a V -
H 0,
2
V 36 .

Difi ere ntiating with e ect the ti e

r sp to m ,
we ti
ob a n

8 2

cy -

(V F ) x V 2
(V x
F )
st 2

and also
a 2
2
an V 36 .
”
at
In order to inv estigate the form these equ ati ons $3 s
t ak e to:
line media it is ne cess ary to em ploy the line ar v ect or -
lun emm
1 64 VECTOR ANALY SIS .

i e we h w th t F, SF, H a nd JC
thei c ti y the e ti
In a s m ilar m an n r c o uld s o a and

r urls also s a sf q ua on

1 94
2
at
hi the e ti w ve ti the
et ti i ti e ti the ti
T s is difi e re ntial q ua on for a mo o n , o ne o f

hy i h w th t the ve city ti
funda m n al , p a r al d ff e re n al q ua o ns o f ma ma c al

e the e e ect etic

p s cs . It c an be s o n a lo of p p g
r o a a on

is q ua l to a, a nd r fo re fo r an l ro m a gn p ulse

e hi t i e tic ith the

-

qu al to T s urns o ut to be d n al w
V eg
ve ity i ht v it h the
the c ei the ti e ect ic
lo c of
lg in a c uo , as s o uld be if other

w ve we
is
i ht W e ieve ct th
o m m on m d um fo r p p
ro a ga on of l r al

i ht w ve e ect ic w ve i e tic
a s as ll as of l g . e no w b l in fa , at

l g a s and l r al a s a re d n al

e
.

the e e t i fie ive
Po ynting Th eo rem R adiant V e ctor The
’
77 . s . . e n rgy

of l c r c ld is g n b y ( 1 8 3 ) as
1
S F dv,
’o

the etic fie i i y
7:

a nd o f m agn ld, s m larl ,

by
1
R H dv .

cc i the e e y e t e ity
7:

the e ect i fie
A o rd ng to J o ule n rg due to a c urr n of d ns q in

l r c ld F is

q F dv
-
.

the v i ti the the e th e with

ti e i v y the
Le t us fi nd ar a on of sum o f s r e the
m ,
a ss um n g e a n d [1 no t to ar ; n

a
e i r z
2 e
é
f -
F =2F - i ?
= 2 F -
(V xH
at at at at

at at at at

He a v iside int ro duce s fi ctitio us m agne tic

a c urre nt de ns ity in
o rde r to p ro duc e a sy m m e t ry in the eq ua tio ns . The last pa re n thes is
WOlud then read
(p 4 z qm ) .
 VECTOR ANALY SIS . 1 65

So t the te h e e e y the
hat ra c ang of n rg or acti vi ty is

( F o H H V F ) dv
- x
.

By m
w itte
r
e n
ans o f ( 1 3 0) a nd the ive e e the e thi
d rg n c or m s m ay be

v (F H)d. X .
) n (F xH d
)S .

the w the te e e y it v e
cc te i e e y th h
Or , in o r o rds , ra loss of n rg pe r un o lum

the i e it ti e it ce t
m ay be a d fo r , by s uppo s ng a flux
o un of n rg ro ug

b o und ng surfa c i n un m per un surfa o f a m o un

whe e the e e y
ve t ct e e ic th
r R, n rg flux , o r r a dia n t v ector ,
-
is by its form ,
a c or p ro du , p rp n d ular bo to F a nd to H.

e ve
e ei e t y e th t the etic te ti
78 . M ag n tic Field Due to a Curre nt . I t w as pro d

it c e t wh e i c it te the
xp r m n all by Am per a m agn s c ala r p o n al

it e ti the ct the
0 at a p o n due to a urr n I os c r u sub nds a t

e t the i e h e it c et
po n a soli d a ngl is pro po r o n al to
(0 pr o du of c ur

th t we w i an d
r n so l d a ngl I f w e so c o os
. our un of urr n

a m ay r te ,
0 I to

we tth efi e eticiti te e itythe e ectthe fie eticive

us d n a un c all d
of
l ro -
m a gn
ld is g
un iti i y
o f c ur

m larl
ren . The m agn n ns n, s

to F —V V by

H VQ IV w .

c et i e ti the efi iti
e iv tive
Its o m p on n in any d r c on h , is by d n on o f direc
tional d r a 49)

H o
h, = —1
1 66 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

the v i ti the i e i t
i ce e t the i t tice th t it wi
To fi nd ar a o n, 8a), in so l d angl at a p o n due

the e th t wi t e ce i the ci c it ve
to a sm all d spla m n lb
( of p o n ,
no a ll be

i t ce the it i ecti the i

s am a ll ak pl a ,
sup po s ng r u to m o

i i fi e hi ti wi c e eve y e e e t
a d s an 6h in o ppo s e d r on or 8h , p o n t

ci c it e c i e wh e c e t
re m a n ng x d . T s mo on ll aus r l m n dr of

the r u to d s r be a s m all ar a dr x 6h os o m pon n

dr ih
‘
xc

FIG . 61A .

vect ivi e the e e e t e

the i t it t t ch e i e
o r alo ng r d d d by is l m o f solid an gl
2
as a r n

the i the h e i c it i the i t

d (dw ) at p o n ,
due to . The o al a ng in so l d angl

thi e e i the c t th
8a) , due to m ot on o f w ol c r u ,
w ll be n e gral

of s x pr ss o n a ro und o n o ur, us,

ah -

g x dr Bh drxV -

W h e i te
os n gral a ro und the ci c it te ivi i
r u ,
af r d d ng by 8h, is

3 1»
5h
 VEC TOR ANALY SIS . 1 67

th
f
so at 1
I h, -
V - -
x dr .

‘
1
9

i ce thi t e i e ti we w ite th t the

ee e t etic i te ity it the
S n s is ru fo r any d r c on h m ay r a

dH,
e e e t the ci it
l m n of m a gn n ns at a po n ,
due to
l m n dr of rc u ,
is

dH = I

hi e e i ete i e cti whi h

he i te te the i it v i he th t
T s xpr ss o n is d rm n d to any fun on o f r pr es c ,

w
hi e te t it it y ti h w th t the ce
n n gr a d a ro und c rc u ,
an s s . So a to

e e t e e ic the e e e t the
t s x n is a rbThe e q ua o n s o s
rar . a fo r

i vect i ei w the i t
due to an e l m n is p rp n d ula r to l m n an d to

i it the e t ei itive the i ecti

rad us or .The rad us r b n g dra n fro m p o n to

the e the t t e ive the i ht

the c rcu ,
an d c urr n b ng p o s in d r on o f

i e ti hi i i e e i the
dr, ord r o f fac o rs is a k n so as to g r g
H
ti i te ity
dr c on to . T s is the fa m l ar xpr ss o n fo r m ag
ne c n ns at 0 due to dr .

ee e t _1_ to l m n an d to r.

e c M
eti i te ity ve the e with whi h it
79 . ch a n i a l F o rce on an E le m e nt of Circ uit . The
dH,
itive e ce the i t w ce the
magn c n ns a bo ,
is fo r c c a un

fie the c t the i ci e e
po s p o l pl a d at p o n o uld be a t d upo n in
By
ti e cti the e e e t i it w te
ld due to urre n I in dr .
p r n pl o f q ua l

thi t the i e i ecti

ac on a nd r a on l m n o f c rcu o uld be ac d

ce the e e e t it e the i i the e

upo n by s am o un but in o p pos t d r on . The

e
for on l m n dr due to un p o l at or g n is r

fo r
r
dF I drx I dr xo .

th t the ce e e e t c e t ti
the c e t t e th h ee e t
So a fo r o n an l m n of urr n is pro por o nal to

the t e th fie ee e t c
urr n s r ng I , to the le ngt o f the l m n dr, and
to s r ng of the ld at the l m n The fa tor oi
1 68 V EC TOR ANALY SIS .

ti ity the i e the e etwee

the e i ht e thei e I
p p
r o o r o nal is s n of angl b n dr and ( ) and

e e the ce the e e e t y c e t fie
fo rc is at r g a ngl s to r pl a n .

H
the e e e t y e t wh e fie
fo r I dr in ld
’
l m
’
nc on n ar urr n a

the e e e t
due to a no r l m n ar c urr n I dr
” ’
at 0 os ld at

l m n dr is by ’
( 1 97 ) a n d ( 1 98 )
dr xr
,

whe e the e the ve t t eve e t e i t

c t the ch e i e ti d to
r o rd r o f c or p ro duc is r rs ak n o

a c o un an g of d r c on in r, or

er : QM
”
)
. W 8
.

T 1

We e ve thi e e i i e i te y i t c
the i ve t the e e e t
m ay r so l s xpr ss o n mm d a l n o o m po

e i the t i e ve t t ivi
ne nts alo ng r ad us c o r r and alo ng l m n (i t by
an x p ans o n o f r p l c or p r o duc , g ng

" — dr "
)
)
’
) (d
” ’ ’
dr dr r, c o s (dr dr -
co s r r (200

The X c o m po n n et is
”

g
l
)
'
dr dr co s (
rx co s

co s ( dr x ) c os (dr
'
r ) etc
he e we w e t
.

e e
T s are ll kn o
-
n r sul s .

c e
80 . Th eore m on th e Lin I nt g ra l of th e Norm a l C om po
By m
t e he e the wi e t V e tor Aro und
ti of
ne nt o f a a Clo se d Circ uit . a ns

it ve
S ok s T m fo llo ful ra nsfo rm a o n a n alo
’
or ng us

go us to m ay be pro d

n V (q -
n )] dS

cti vect
the it the
9

e et e thi e the i e i te the

q is a ny or fun o n o f r , a nd n is un nor m al to

et vt c e c it
le m n o f surfa c dS . In s c as l n n gr al o f

t e i te the e t e ti c e t
nor ma l c o m po n n of the e c or q alo ng a los d c ir u is
a k n, ns ad of m or us ual , an g n al o m po n n .
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 1 69

e t vect it h w e eie
the ce i te ce t i the vect tity
The r sul is a o r o ne , a nd is s o n to b e xpr ss bl

e te t e ve which e
as s urfa n g l of a r a n or u n
r a o r q a

r la d to ak n o r a ny cap is b o und d by the

FIG 62

i it thi i i t c
. .

Let H b e
ct w th the it y vt
c rcu . s l ne n e gr al , a nd fo rm its s al ar

pro du i arb r ar co n s ta n t e c or C ,

C H c-
q dr =
f c -
qx
dr =
f dr

hi t e e i ei the t e ti i e
9 9 9

i te t e t h e it
T s las xpr ss o n b ng in fo r m of a ang n al l n

l m ay be r an sfo r m d by S o ke s T m )
’
n gr a eo r ( 1 3 6 n o

[ n -
q ( a C dS ,

whe e the
r V difi e rentiates q alo ne . No w

soth t a
C (C V ) q ,

[ o n ( q)
V -
q] dS .
1 70 VEC TOR ANALY SI S .

But ( 1 1 7 )
( 0 )(q n )= n (
c-V )q
e e e the ve i t
- -
c

the
The difi erentiatio n r f rs to q alo n ,
as in ab o n e gral

we tit te the ec
p p
r o erti e s o f the regio n a re i ndependent f
o f the s ur a ce

e the i t he ce
considered, a nd m ay s ubs u (
c )(q -
n ) for s o nd
q
t rm in n e gral, n ,

o n c-
ff tnv c
-
q V .<q n )1 ds , -

fi y i ce ve t
ap

a nd nall ,
s n 0 is a n a rbi trar y c or ,

H j: q dr
x
fl
: [ nV -
q V (q ( 202 )

which i t e e e the ecti i t

ti the c t h the e i i y
s g n to ak , d p nds upo n dir on of n e gra

it ve it ch e e
o n aro und o n ou r . T is or m is or g n all due to
Mc Aulay
i i t e the the e eci c
Ta an d to ,
w ho ga in a mu mo r g n e ra l

n cl ud ng ms , al

e
’
fo rm , S ok s a nd o r or as sp as es .

thi the e t the i t

81 . E xpr essio n tor th e Fi ld at a ny Po int in Spa c e D ue to
W
ivi the etic e i t ce
a Current . e m ay use s or m to ransfor m n e

H
c e t t i ity c e ci c it
gr al , g ng m a gn fo rc at a ny p o n in sp a due

the etic te ti the c e t the ci c it

to a urr n o f e le c r c in a lo s d r u .

the i e te e the i c it the i t

If m agn p o n al is Q, I urr n in r u ,

we h ve efi iti
a nd a) so l d angl sub nd d by c r u at n
p o ,

a ,
by d n o n,

— IV

the ce i te ei t e ve ce with
ci c it i e e i th h the i t
surfa n gr al b ng ak n o r a ny surfa the
r u fo r b o und ng dg ,
but not p a ss n g r oug p o n .

n r,
-

n V - l dS
’
r

yi ve the e e e e i th
p

Em plo ng the abo or m (2 02 ) and r m m b r ng at

=V” O, by
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 1 71

H= I V n V -
dS

w hi
W
ch e
t
th w it e e
resul

m ay
t with is in
us r
a gre

e
m n See also

dH = I drxV

in Car ti e s an

g oo ( . z dz. (7

wh the c i te i t the ci it
th e the i t th t the eti fie
ere a , , y ,, a, , are oord n a s of a p o n in rcu ,

e e e t ete i e ti 4
z
c, y, 2 os of po n P, so a s m all m agn c ld
dH due to
ch th t whe i e te c e ci c it the e t
an l m n dr is d rm n d to a func on ) pr es

v i he ce t i e te t thi e ti the fie
su a n nt gra d aro und a lo s d r u r sul

tifici the e t
So to a
an s s . r a n x n s r so lu on of ld
is
c thi we the i e e ti wi
al, and m ay o r m ay no t be but in
ar c o rr c o ne ,

ive the c ect v e ve

a ny ase s as ll as a ny o r poss bl r so lu on ll
fo r H
we h ve ve y c ty w e e the
g orr alu abo when i ntegra ted aro und

c e ci c it
a clo sed ci rcui t ; a but r s an kno l dg of

fi elds due to un los d r u s .

e e
M utua l
i e i c it yi c e t
82 . En rgy o f Tw o Circuits . In ducta nc . Neu

ech ic ce the the

’
ma nn Co ns d
’
s Integ ra l . r t wo c r u s c arr ng urr n s I

fi the the i e ti t e c
an d I The m an al fo r o n o ne o f m due to

e ch c c it i ce
eld o f the o r is nte gr al o f qua on ( 1 99 ) a k n on e

aro und a ir u . S n

1
v

we m ay w it r e
r

F = Pr

N V (dr dr
’
-
”
) dr
”
di v
-
v 1
1 72 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

c t e it y e
th t t ve t w
Le t o ne irc ui be no w displac d in any arb rar m ann r,

e h et
i it is m o dis Jr The ork
’
so a any po n on d a ance .

do n in t i s displace m n is

" "
dr
( dr ) (ar d )
'
-
r -

h e . 63 .

ht te
Int the ec
d dr
te
g a
r ing s o nd rm by parts and r ee im m ber ng
t a d dr,

’
dr dr
’ ’
dr V o o
d (df

the in te t
g a ed
r po rt o n i v he anis s fo r a c losed irc ui c t he ,
nce

F dr
-
'
I I
’ ”
(df dr -
”
) d d( dr
’
-
dr )
”

"
dr dr ’
o

11
1 11

e i the i c it it y we
r

the As the
e ei fi the h e
assum d m ot o n of c r u is arb r ar may
n fi n d the forc in any di r ct o n by n di ng c ang in

"
dr dr ’
o

f
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 1 73

hi i te e e e e t the t e e y
the ci it W e the c e t e
due to N
ch
T s n gr al um ann r p r s n s mu ual n rg

of

ty the i te iv the the h I a nd I

’
t wo rc u s . n urr n s are a

c t Whe t e tw ce i e ci c it it ive the

uni ,
n g ral g es m utua l inducta nc e
-
of ci r

the ci c it eti e c e the aro und a s ngl

ui s . n ak n i r u g s

ec y— ic te ti v i ti we t i
se l f ind uc ta nc e of
-
r u . It is som m s al l d

e ect y i ce
El t ro -
D nam Po n al , as by it s ar a on ob a n

the l ro d n am c for s .

e V cto r Potential Due to a Current

the
.

M utua l E nergy o f Two System s o f Co nductors

etic e c e t e te e i If
83 . .

d by H,
vect e h t we w ite e the the e
magn fo rc due to a urr n be d no a so l no dal
or, i . e .
,
V o
H 0, m ay r ,
by m ans o f or m
of H lm ol z

H
But ( 1 88 )
V xH 4 7: q,

w he e the c e t e ity th t tit ti we t i

r q is urr n d ns ,
so a subs u ng, ob a n

H= w
2 n = mq
w he re

Qis c e the te ti the c e t i t i ti

all

e i the eti ce
d p o n al due to urr n d s r bu on q, or

H
e e e it e e
the vecto r -

p o ten ti a l b lo ng ng to m agn c fo r . The

the te ti c i t i ti
word potenti a l is us d b c a us is fo rm d in a m a nn r

tt tice th t the e vect tie

analo go us to p o n al d u e t o a s a la r d s r b u o n o f
o r H is o b a n d

e the
ma e r p No also a . fo rc
Q
e vect t i e the c whe e
from the v ecto r in a m a nn r a na logou s to the w ay
forc or F is ob a n d fro m s alar V, r

g dv a nd F = V V
I
.

hence the n am e vect te ti or -

p o n al .
1 74 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

We t the etic e e
fie
m ay no w ransfo rm m agn n rgy in term s of

the ld H ,

Ho Qdv .

ee we h v whe e
vect
Integ ratio n Th eorem . In g n ral ( 1 3 0) a e, r

H and Qare any tw o o rs ,

V -
H
( Q)x
QV xH
-
HV Q - x
,

the i i e i the te which the cyc ic

e ee ch e te ti ve ce
m nus s gn b lo ng ng to rm in l al

i the ive e ce the e ei the i a nd

o rd r has b n a ng d. In gr a ng o r all sp a

ce
us ng d rg n or m S b ng bo un d ng
s urfa ,

V -
H
( Q) dv
x
(Q V - x H H V Q) dv
- x

n -
H
( Q) dS x .

tit ti thi e ti e e e i th
the e i te v i he i fi ity eH e the
Subs u ng (206) in s q ua on and r m mb r ng at

etic ce v i he th t the
surfa c n gr al an s s at n n , b c aus re the

e i
m agn fo r an s s, and also a V x 4 7: q re

r ma ns

Qq dv -
.

Now r e ci
pl a ng Q y
b its v e we h ve fi
alu ,
a nally

1
2

is e t e i te c ve the wh e
s x upl n gr al o rs ol of space twice .
 VEC TOR AN ALYSIS . 1 75

the y ti ce h vi c e t e it
c e ci c t wi e i the ci c t
Le t o nl por o ns o f sp a a ng any urr n d ns y

h ve ite c ecti
be two lo s d r ui s . The r form ng r ui s m ay
a a sm all but fi n ro ss s -
on .

" ”
I dr’ ’ ’ ’
q do 5
q dv E I dr ,

whe e c e the c e the ci c it

e ective y i te the e ce e ie
I and all in
”
r
’
I are d urr nts two r u s,

i te e ch i te t e ce e ch the
r sp l . The n gral s n r du to a do ubl l n

ci c it th t
n gr al a n gral to be ak n o n aro und a of

r u s , so a

hi e e ict e y i e tic with e te

the ct th t the
T s xp r ss o n is r all d n al N um ann s
’
In gral

ti the i te c ve e ch the ci c it twice

The fa or 5 is due t o fa a by c o nv e n

he ce w ive twice the v e of

on in ( 07)
2 n gral s o r a r u s

and n o uld g alu of

e
Mutual i te
ei t e ve ci c it e
84 . a nd Self En -
rg ies o f Two Circuits . Ea ch n

t
gr al b ng ak n o r both r u s, ( 208) m ay be bro k n up

in o fo ur p arts,
’ "
dr dr o
LI,
r 2

The ec thi t evi e t y e th t we

w ite thei
s o nd and rd p ar s a r e d n l qual,
so a

may r for r sum

Wher e he e e ch i te t e e i
it ce
r , a n gral is a k n aro un d its corr spo nd n g

circu on .
1 76 VECTOR ANALY SIS .

If we c the i te
all n gral s

"

f
’
dr dr o

1 l r

we w ite the etic e e y the fie th

c et
m ay r for m agn n rg of ld due to bo
urr n s

Wm L 1
1 1 1
”
M I ZI II Z l Lc ’
~

i te c e the e i ct e M
t i ct ce the ci c it e ective y
The n gr al s L, or L2 and are all d s lf -
ndu an c s

a nd mu ual n du-
an of r u s r sp l .

EX ERC IS ES AN D PRO BLEM S .

1 If the line inte gral of the for ce s in any fi eld around a closed
.

y
c ontour is ze ro for a ny such co nto ur, the fo rce s in the fi eld form a

c o ns erv ativ e s ste m

i ii i
.

2Show that the surfa ce nte gra l of a scala r po nt funct on V

.
-

take n o v e r a ny clo se d surface is e qual to the v olum e nte gral of its

grad (V V ) t ake n th ro ugho ut the v o lum e o f t ha t surfa ce ; t h at is,

V V dv .

3 . i
Show that the line ntegral of a scalar p oin t funct on , V,
aro und a cl ose d con to ur is e qual t o the surface n egral of the i tv i
-

v ector produc t of t he no rmal by its gra dient taken o er any cap

t o the contour ; tha t is, prov e

n xV V dS .

p ote
4
nti
.

a l
Using the div e rge nce theo re m let
o f a bo dy m ay be
,

re pre se nte d
q
by the
r, , a nd

surfa ce
p ov e
r

i that the
nte gral

rI -
V p dv .
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 77

5 . If Po i ’
ss on s eq ua t on i holds ,

V V =4
2
div F and Ip ==0

i
t p

tha t the p otent al of a body in the las t exam ple becom es

1
rI nV
- 2
V (18 o
n div F dS ,
8I

so that if the force

c o m pute the po te ntia l
at e v e r

.
y po int o f S be know n it is possible t o

6 . By drawing box e nclo sing a portion dS

y
o f a surface charged with a surfa ce de nsit
a sm all c ylindric al

o f e le ctricity 0 , a nd

m a king the c lindrical sides ev e ryw he re parallel to the line s o f

y
force , show that there is a cha nge in the nor mal co m pone nt o f the
flux of m om ent 4
7 .

i
The curl o f the curl o f a sole no i dal v e cto r such that the three
funct ons whi ch giv e the stre ngths
I, j an d k satisf Lapla ce s Equatio n ,
’
y o f it s co m po ne nts pa ralle l to

v a nishes .

8 If the line s of a v e ctor, F , a re all parallel to a pla ne a nd the

.

v e c to r has the sam e v a lue at a ll po ints in a ny line pe rpe ndicula r

t o the plane , the v e cto r is pe rpe ndicula r to its c url,

F V xF
-
0 .

Co m pa re the re sults of the la st pro blem with tho se o f

9 . 60
Can yo u de v ise any o the r func tio ns, the line s o f w hi ch are ev er
where perpendicula r t o it s curl ?
y .

10 If the line s o f a v e ctor a re circle s para lle l to the lj pla ne w ith

.
-

cente rs o n the k a xis , a nd if the inte nsity of t he v e cto r is a functio n

f(r) of the dista nce from the k a xis, a v e cto r e v eryw here parallel to

h
t e k a x is , o f inte nsit F (r), w he re i (r) y 41F
dr
is a v e ctor po te n -

tial func tio n o f the o riginal v e cto r I s the o rigina l v ec to r sole noidal
-
.
 CHAPTER VII .

APPLI CATIONS TO DYNAMI CS , ME CHANI CS , AND

Equations of Motio n of a R ig id Body .

which e the wh e ject ytic

85 . Equations for Tra nslation . D Ale m be rt s
’ ’
Prin c iple,

i w itte
upo n I a grange fo und d ol s ub o f an al al

mechan cs, m ay be r n

. dr 0,

e ti e with the ci e t i itt iy evi t

wh re Jr is any p o ss bl arb r ar or r ual ithe cey tee t
d spl a m n

whe e the the ti e

co mpa bl o ns ra n s m pos d upo n s s m,

e e ce the e ti ti t ti
and r 2 sum s for all p ar cl s .

the vi t i ce e t the it
In ord r to d du q ua o ns o f mo o n of ransl a on

assume

y te thi the efi iti t ty

r ual d spla m n to be sa me for all p o n s

ti the w i ce we t e the
of the s s m, as s is d n o n of p ure ran sl a or

e i th t
mo on . It n fo llo s, s n m ay no w ak dr from
und r 2 s n
g , a

(i r -
Z
and s n e ic dr is arb it y th t
rar , a

d ’
r

which are the i y e ti

o rd na r qua o ns

= 0

See pa pers by Ziwe t and Field in Am erican Mathematical Month

d b R m j l 1 923 2 90— f
lv, 19 14 pp 1
, 05 1 13 an
.
y e-
es sa e o urna , pp 2 96 or .

interesting vec torial trea tments of t em atics and m o tion of rigid bodies
iég
.
 VEC TOR AN ALYSIS . 1 79

Motion the vect the Mass

te ce t i the y te the the
of Ce nter of . Let r be or to

thi i t which
ce n r of m ass or n ro d of s s m; n, by defi
nitio n o f s po n for ( 0)
2

1 2 m =
2
we hv a e by difi e rentiatio n

E m = 2
so t h at fi nall y e ti q ua on

-
(2 1 1 ) m a y b e w itte
r n

E m =
2 F,

w the ti t ti the ce t i
ie ve eci e y the ce the
o r, in o rds , mo on of r ansla on o f n ro d of a

te we e e the t t
sv s te m o f

c ce t te th t
bo d s mo s p r s l as if all fo r s of

i t hi e ce the e the t t y ti
m
sy s r appli d to o al m ass on n ra d at a

the th t the ti
p o n . T s r du s p ro b l m of ransl a o r mo on

te e ti e e thi e ty ee the c e the

of s ystem to a of mo on o f a si ngle p oi nt . An

ti he which e e whi e e c i i th
in r s ng x a m pl of s p p
ro r is s n in as of

ce the e t t the cti the e cti

mo o n of a s ll xplo d s l d s r b ng its p a

which ce whe the he e e e the t

in spa . As r sul an of a o ns and r a o ns

the ce te the e t thei e tic

are pro du d n s ll xplo d s is z ro , p a h

the ce te the he w h ve e c i e
of n r of m ass o f fr agm n s is d n al p arab ol a

it e e the w the th the ce te b d had

n r of m ass of s ll o uld a d s r

i ch e the e i ce te
no t x plo d d . In o r o rds , p a of n r

th w tic e c i e th
of m ass re m a ns un an g d by x plos o n . The n r of

whi th h the
m a ss of a ro n s k d s r b s a s m oo p a ra b o la , as it
rls ro ug

the y evi e t y air .

iv
Th e kinetic e nergy o f tran sla tio n of bo d is d n l
g en by

whe the ve city the ce te the y te

whe tt ec e i t
re q is lo of n r of m ass of s s m,
M
ve the e ve ity
re 2 m is its o al m as s a nd b aus all po n s o f the
syste m ha sa m loc .
1 80 VECTOR AN ALYSIS .

e ce the e ti
ti t ti e e e t y t ti he o ns o f
86 . Equations for R o tatio n . To d du qua

mo on for ro a o n, le t do be an l m n ar ro a o n, t n

dr, dmx r,”

w hethee r dr, is
t ti anit y ti e i e
arb i fi ite i
r ar ti
y te t e p o ss bl n n s m al m o on due

it i tit ti thi e ti we
to ro a o n o f a ny p a r cl m, of t he s s m a bo u so m

in d Ale m be rt
’
Subs
’
a x s, a . u ng s s qua on ,

ob a n
’
d r

2 m

with v t ti
’
dt
and ob ious ransform a o ns

’
d r
2
dt

h
We e th
s t the ti
t te t the e i th t h the e
all e t
no w assum a p a r cl s o f the sys em

the tic e ivi e e e ei

ro a ab o u sa m ax s , s o a do s all be sa m for

th t
all p a r l s an d m ay be d d d o ut, and r m mb r ng

a ( )
3 4

dl dl

We t o b am
z
d
dt
’
r
’
d
dt
m rx

the e ti ti y te t
i ti y te c eci
for q ua on of mo o n o f rota ti o n o f a s s m abo u an

c e thi hi e i e i t the
ax s . The m o o n o f a ri gid s s m is of o urse a sp al

e
as of s . T s q u at o n xp a nds n o famili ar Car
tesian o n s,

abo u t the th ee e t r r c a n gul ar a x s , e by the i y o rd n ar

D efi i n ng ME 2 e
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 81

t the i ax s o f ro a t
ti
as the m om ent o f the a ppli ed f orces ab ou

o n , on, and

Q
dl

the t t the e axis , the v abo

e ti w itte
as m o m ent of m om en um abo u sa m e

q u a on (2 1 4 ) m ay be r n

H= M ,

or eve n

or ,

t thew
in o rds , the te
i t ti i c e
ra

y te e the
of n r ase o f ang ul ar m o m e nt um r
’

t the i e e ce t tth t e i
ab o u ax s of ro a on of a s s m is q u al to

m om e n of m pr ss d for s a bo u a sam ax s .

ive eticcitye e y t ti the y te t ti with

K in etic E nergy of R o tatio n . Mom e n of I nertia .
’
The
kn n rg o f ro a on o f s s m ro a ng ang ular

lo to is (4 4 )

T= 2m q 2
1 2m
the y te ve ii y the
e th t
If m mo d b d all o f the
’
s s s as a r g o 1o s are

sam ,
so a
T “ 2
2m (2 1 9 )
But
the i t ti ( the e eis i e p the
th t the e e ii t
rp n d c ul ar s uar

A P in Fig
q d fro m p o n r to
ax s o f ro a o n to . so a x pr ss o n

2 m (mg r ) 2

m e the t eve y iete cee t y the i t ti ti ie th t

ans a r l m n ar m ass is to be m ul pl d by

thei tthee y te hi t thetity i c eit evithe e t y

the s qu ar of its d s an fro m a x s o f ro a o n an d a

r sum is to b e ak n . T s q u an is all d Mo
"

v iee wi h i thee ti i ec i t i W thethee tiefi e the

ment of I nerti a of s s m ab ou ax s 01 1 ; d n l
ar s t d r t on o f m . e m ay n d n

mom nt o f n r a, I , abo u a n ax s a ,
by q u a on

I. a 2m Mk 2
(220)
he efi e the ve e ti e the
t i
also

i y
w re It d n d by ab o q u a o n, is c all d

th e the t e the i t ti
Rad ius of G yratio n a bo u the a x s to . The rad us o f g ra

tion is , erefo r ,
di s anc fro m a x s o f ro a o n at

Or, better, Ro tational M ass .

f Same as M om ent o f M om e ntum .

1 82 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

w ich tt the y te we ce M
e t i e ti w e i ch e
h ,
if t he o al m ass of s s m re pl a d, its

i etic e e y i i y v
mo m n of n r a o uld r ma n un ang d .

e the w itte
The tota l k n n rg of a r g d s ste m m o ing in any

m ann r m ay n be r n

? T= ( ) 1 M i nc
”
22 1

M the the y te c t
.

t te ve v i with the cti

,
m ass of bo d ,
is a n abso lu o ns ant , * but as

the i t wh ch the y te
s a d abo ,
ar es dire on

t te he ce the t e t e t
of ax s abo u i s s m

t ti e e ti y c c te
ro a s, a nd n r a m n of

th th t e t ti
ro a o n is ss n all m ore o m pli a d

W h te t ti
an a of p ur ransla on .

t ti e et y
e s all r a of the mo on of

i t i ic i te e t ec e it
ro a on m o r in d ail , no t o nl fo r its

i t ce t y the i e ec b also b
n r ns n r s ,
ut aus

cti e ee e t
n ro du s na urall L n ar V tor

e tie
Fun o n and so m of its l m n ary

p p
ro r s .

t
ie ii
8 7 Linea r V ec
. or -
F unction . In stan

t ti e Co ns d
taneo us Axis . r a r g d b o dy
M
t fi e i t hi ec of m ass ro a ng in any m an n r

t t y ti the abo u a x d po n . T s pr lu de s

whi h e t ti a ny ransla or mo on of bo dy

ii tth t h thit fie e i iecet

c is no w o ne o f pur ro a on at

a ny ns an ab o u so m ax s n ss aril y
Fm 64 d po
°

p as s n g ro ug s x n . This

I n the Elect ro n Theo ry of Matte r the ine rtia o f a p a rt ic le, at lea s t

in p a rt , is ac counted fo r by the e lec trical cha rge which we kno w t h e
pa rtic le c a rries The res is ta nce o f an elec t ric al cha rge to accele ra tio n
.

is not co nstant but is a func tio n o f the v eloc ity , and theo retically bec o m es
infi nite whe n its v e loc ity app ro ac he s tha t of light The appa rent ine rt ia .

o f such a particle is the re fo re no t c o nsta nt But fo r any v e loc itie s with .

which we a re likely to deal in m echanical syste m s these v a riat io ns in

i
ne rtia a re inapp re c iable . The o rdina ry eq uations o f m e chanics a re the n
It ap p ro xim atio ns o nly ,
'
but fo r o rdina ry v elo cities , up to km .

sec . say, a re ext re m e ly close to the t ruth .

 VECTOR AN ALYSIS . 1 83

wh ch v y c ti y i ecti c e
t t e i t ti the ve city
axis , i m ay ar on nuo usl in d r on , is all d the

t thi i i t t e e te vec
I ns an an o us Ax s o f ro a on . Le t an g ular lo

e h the i ecti it the

abo u s ax s a t any ns an be re
s n d by a tor
r p

e e th t the ti ei
of l n gt m f (t) in dr o n of and in co nv en

ti t ti c c ew
tio n al s ns ,
i . e .
, a of mo on of p g
ro r ss o n an d dire c

v ity it
o n o f ro a o n of a o r ks r .

As the elo c o f any po n r is

we m ay w te theri for mom et

n of mo m et n um H

E m rx

Z m r x
m x r ) =
2 m (w r ’
r nor );

h h ticvect
t us H is a or -
fun cticti i e
ono l
e i t t
n ar in m, n say .

e tie which evi e t i ecti

4
T is p ar ular fun on m has a n um b r o f m po r an

ve t the wi e ti h
d If and 0
'

upo n on
'

are n nsp 1
p p
ro r s .

are any two c o rs , fo llo ng q u a o ns old

( )
a

a co nst. b ar ac 7t ,
b
( )
( )
0

7 4 > c
'

m or '
.
( )
d

c
e e tec
In p arti whe i e vect
it
ular

i cti n a l n ar or -
fun on h as the p p
ro

er ty r p r se n

ct d by (223 ) (d) is sa d t o be Se lf Conjug a te -

.

Fo rm the s al ar pro du o f H and co .

mH - am t m 2 777 ac

2 m (mx r ) Em («7e
2
00 1. 2 T by (224 )
1 84 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

i ce h i e the t h
he ce e e e t whe
Now , s n t e is l n ar in a ,
s c alar pro du c «w o is a

e te c t t ic e
qua dra ti c sca la r -

f uncti o n o f co, an d n r p r s n s n

qua d to a o ns an , a q u adr surfa c .

Mo tio n v
e e
88 . under No F orces . In ar ia ble Pla ne . Assuming
no appli d forc s,

so th t a c t vect H o ns or,

w e ie ce the e t e
.

i i y te e i c t t it
o r, in o rds , und r no appl d for s mom n of mom n

i ecti e i e e ic the e c e m
tum of a r g d s s m r m a n s o n s a n in a g n ude and

v i e e wh e e ti
dr on . It r m a ns p rp nd ular to p l an ,
all d
In ar abl Plan , os q u a o n i s

c t r- H o ns

i ce the e e y i etic the y te c ve it

.

w th t the e t i e ti
Also ,
t i ecti
s n n rg ( k n ) of s s m is on se r d,

i ve e y ti the e the i vec

fo llo s a mo m n of n r a ab o u any d r on a

the ic c t e
is n rs l r
p p
o o r o n al to sq ua r of rad us t o r in

q u adr i am no o ns .
, b cause

H
th t h ao
-
«w en 2 T
so a
c t o ns .

a
2
m 2

hiT e ti s y th
e e y the y t e the tet wi
quah ive
e on also sa s a

the
t a

s m all r
g n a m o un

is ; i
t of

n rg bo d ro at s fas r . e. ,

i ce evi e t y fi i e y
i fi ite t i t t Sn
Poi nsot Ellip soid . d n l no n t bod has an

c ce o o c t t the i vect
n n or a ze ro m om en of ne r ia ab ou any axis , the
or of

whic fi it i i v e th t
q u ad ri s urfa w d) o ns . m us be o ne r ad us

is, it
t e hi e i c e the and m ax m um alu
h ha s a n e m ni m um ; a

M l

c t ce
m us be an llip so id . T s ll i
p so d s a
i ll d o m enta

or

d et i c t y h w
Poi nsot Ellip s oid
a l and i te i
in ide n all
. Le t us o nside r his su rfa
s o its
m ore in
exp ans o n i n C ar s an form .
 vacron ANALYSIS . 1 85

If H, , H H, the c et H abou t th e
the are o m po n n s o f the r e axes

l, j
, and R, n (22 2 )
HE tjm E H, i H, j H, k
’
-
r
m ail r r ace r )

"
l
“

wz zm my w3 2 m xz } i
—w 2 m a: "
2 m yz} )
, y
-

l w, 2 m (e (0 3 j ( 22 6
—w, 2 m xz w , 2 m yz w3 2 m (x
’
k .

Mom ents
c e cie t
a nd Products of Inertia . Coo rdina te s of a Se li

hich cc the ve e i e i te e w
coni ug a te Linear V ec to r F unctio n -
. The s al ar co ffi n s

w o ur in abo xp a ns o n and are r p r n d b lo ,

assum ing for de fi nitene ss A B C,

AE
BE
C E

c the e t e ti t the e Mo m
ct e ti with e ect the e
all ed
are n s of In r a abo u ax s x, y, an d z,

e ective y i ie ee
and Pr o du s of In r a r sp to p l a n s of z
y , zx,

The quan t t s A, B,
itive eithe i hey
and my, r sp l . a nd C a re ss n

tic c e i te ti
but D, E, an d F m ay be o f
tinlly po s ,
r s gn . T

t ce i ce
may be found in any p ar ular as by n gra o n, for
ins an ,
s n
dm p drc dy dz,

z ’
(y l - -
z )p dx dy dz

yz p dx dy dz,

where p is the d e ity

ns at any p o n i t the y
of bo d .
1 86 VEC TOR ANALY SIS .

fun
wi the c
cti h c ete y ete i e
K no e cie
ng t thi e
se six o ffi n s A B C D E F
( , , , , , ), the

theye i e vecteti e c ctie the c i te the e

on t e is o m pl l d rm n d, an d fo r s r aso n

are so m m all d oo rd n a of lf
s s s -
co n u j

e the e i i
gat l n ar or -
fun on .

Consid r no w ll pso d (22 4 )

d c t m m -
2 T o ns .

wz F m,waE
'
a) ,

w ,w, F a) ,
2
B w2w3 D

w, w 2 D +
2
C,
hich w itte
(0 3

w m ay also be r n

«M i na w,
’
A wz
z
B (0 3
2
0 2 w zws D 2

e i y ee th t e th t it
ece yth tthe c e cie t h cc i
It m ay be as l s n a in ord r a is

ve h weve they c i the e wi

n ss ar a o ffi n s D, E , F s o uld o ur in p a rs as

i e e ie t i e e t thi c e
abo . If o r .
do no t o c ur i n pa rs , r ll

cti ve t tii ethi tj c tee it ti

be n n co ffi c n s in ( 229 ) all d ff r n . In s as the

e
fun on is no t s a d to be s l f c o n -
uga ; b ut is s ll a

we w ite t i the
li near fun cd on In las r m is n o t u l
' '

c or s as a
q
-
-
.

j te d
the j te 4
If is sa d to be
”
to c -
rr . r ra e con

uga o of oand c o n uga of

’
.

ti 4e i i e e te whe ie te eitive
Princ ipa l M om e nts oi I nertia . Pr inc ipa l Axes . The func
m, is by it s i s ho m og e n in o ,
the
on ( 1) -
as see n xp a ns o n , o us

t t e e the e ei e ei th eei i ce ete eW ti

and _ ll p so d it r epr s n s n qua d to a p o s con

s an ,
2 T, is r f rr d to an o r g n at its n r . e may

the c i we w
no w r f r ll pso d to its r p ri nci pa l a x s . its q ua on

n be o m ng , as is ll kno n,

B c t A w,
”
ro ,
”
Cw o ns .

The e h ve e th
ax s tia

ii
l
7
ng

5
s p p
r o o r o n al to
1

V?
1
"
1

«7
The ci ec c e t e t e t the the ve ee t ti i c e
o ffi i n s A , B, a nd C, i n ab o
v
u
q a on alled

the y t the e th ee i c e
the p r n ip al m om n
e n rtia
s of in r ia , ar e m om n s of

i e the v e they e e they e e in g neral

of b od ab ou s r p r n ip al ax s an d

d ff r from a lu s ha d b fo r ,
but are d fi n d in
 H ,, Aw"

Hz — C
L ooki g upo
n 4 n » as ano pe r at 1

(23 1 ) t h at when i t is a pplie d t o any i

=
m w, i ( a, j 10 3 1

th u s ( b
o = An ni s i
it multiplies the co m po ne nts o f to b y th
C respe ctiv ely Applyin g ( I: ag ain t o
,
.

fro m
h
t e) Z u ni s i 6 6 0 3
1 1

B
2
tbt mE t c)
b b 7 is
’
i
-

and so on . Defi ni n g as t h at o pe t o ra

to b n
( nu ls
a its e ff ec t t
b m u s t t he n e v id ,
“

nen ts of any v ecto r b y A B and C

po , , ,

b
l
bm { 22 1 Ema
-

‘ ‘ :
0 0 1

1 1 1
-
Z w1 l -
Bw 2j +
z B t
(0 1 1 ( Uz i (0 3 k ,

I s l _
1 88 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

Appl yi ng to thi we t i
s ob a n

"
— 9
fl 1
§ j k
5
L
+ +
3
-

z
Z

h h w th t h e e ic
and so o n .

We
the i i the t t e th t t
Lemm a . s all no w s o a t e is p rp n d ula r from

i ve e y ti the i t ce the i i
or g n to ange n plan o, and
at n a its m agni ude

thi t e t e the w th t G )
is n rs l p p
ro o r o n al to d s an fro m or g n to
“

e etheic vect the i i the t e t e

s a ng n p la n ,
or , in o r o rds , a m is the

ic
p rp nd ular or fro m or g n to ang n pl an , at

m of q uadr

oo m 1
i e the ic
n .

c t
Co ns d r q ua dr

thi cti c i e i vi
o ns .

Difi ere ntiate s fun o n, o ns d r n g a as a ar able

4 o o j don m m ds) 2 dam m 0,

i e ti
-

us ng c and d of qua o ns

FIG 65

e ce 1 e ic v ct
. .

H But do is a s mall
the ce the e t e ity the e e ie
n m is p rpe nd ular to do . e or in

t e t e th t d e e ic thi e
surfa at x r m of m a nd r fo r l s in the

the i c i te cthe t e e ti (
an g n pl a n ,
so m is p pr
a n d ular to s pl a n .If
is runn ng oord n a of l n it u on is 64)
'
0 p a s q a

c al m o ns , .

Do not co nfound the re c ip ro ca l o pe ra to r, and [ 1K H

"

the recip ro ca l o f l » . l
 V EC TOR ANALYSIS . 1 89

the e e ic vect i i thi

e
and by (68a ) p rp nd ular or fro m the or g n to s

pl an is
c t c t o ns .

o ns .

me
the c t t ity i t
“
If ons an t is un p O ) to

hy c y thi e e e i th t the
,

et the t e t e
P si all s m ans, r f rr n g to a an g ular

H
inve e y ti the e h the e e ic
4
mom n um m is no rm al to a ng n pl an at m a nd

the i i it
rs l p p
ro o r o n al to l ngt of p p
r n d ular fro m

i ci
or g n on .

ce t ic efi e th e i e ti Quad ric
Axes of a Ce ntra l . The pr n p al ax e s of a

which the it e the i vect i

n ral q ua dr m ay be d n d as os dr c o ns fo r

ii ht
m a gn ud of r a d us or is a m ax m u m or

a m n m um . T a is,

is to be ject the c iti th t

m ax m in sub to o nd on

t
a . or . a

oo m rs co n s

M ti yi the fi t it y ti ie
.

the c iti t i e w iti the e iv tive

ul pl ng rs by a n arb r ar m ul pl r and ad d
ing, o nd is ob a n d by ng d of

t
on r r a

to ze thi ro ;
d
s is
cc -
( m 110 ) co n s .

dm -
(dm i n) m o (¢d o A
dm) 0

hi ec e i
.

T s b om s , us n g ( 3)
2 2 ( ) c ,
an d d
( ),
d duo -
( uo lo) 0

i ce thi t t e i e e e ty
i it e i ii it
and s n s m us be ru ,
nd p nd n l as to ho w a

w th t
Var es
, i . e .
,
is to be a t ru m ax m um or m n m um ,
follo s a
o n) l a»

is the c iti e i e
hi e y i te e ti e t t te
o nd on r q u r d .

t i vect ei e d Wthe e e
T s is al r a d an n r s n g r sul ,
fo r it s a s ( 2 3 4 )
tha
e e i the e i ht
t he ra d us -
or b ng p a ra ll l to uo, is r fo r

ve te with thi c iti efi iti i ci

fortho se d i re c ti o n s , p
rp n d c ul a r to s ur fa c . e m g
ha st a r d s o nd o n as a d n o n of p r n p a l
190 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

h ti
T is last equa on is by (226) and (22 7) equ al nt to
— =
iv e
(A ll)w1 F a), E w3 0,
— E m1 + (B—1l) w2 D 3
w = 0,
E a); D mz + (C
c iti th t the e e ti h ti
v e the th e th t ete
The ond on a s q ua o ns s all be com pa ble

i t the c e cie t h v i h
fo r alu s of (0 1 , (0 3 , (on, o r an z ro , is a the d r

m nan of o ffi n s s all an s , i . e .
,

A F E
F B D
E D C )t

hi c ic hw wy
th ee e t ch the e th ee v e i e
T s is a ub in l , a nd m ay be s o n to al a s have

it e i wi w thei ti ii
r r a l ro o s . Ea of s r alu s fo r /l ns rted

e ch the v e ( )
he ll allo fo r r s o lu o b t a n ng
n o q u a t o n s a o n,

fro m a of m a lu s fo r w w, a nd w, and nce a

i ecti e ch j a w, i + w z + w3 k
d
he e he w y e t th ee i ci e
r on fo r a ll .

ce t ic ce
T r a re t n al a s at l as r p r n p al a x s to a

c
n r al q u a dr sur fa .

A b
the t the ete t c ic
Th e Prin ipa l Axe s I nterse ct Norm al ly . Le t A
,, A,, ,
e

c he i e
roo s of d rm in an al ub (b), an d Q 1 , (02 , a , the
orr sp o nd ng a x s .

T en 4 m,
an d 4 m,
ti yi the fi t
Mul the ec and

t cti the e e t i a nd
pl ng rs by a, s o nd b y w,
subs r a n g, r r s ul s , us n g ( 22 3 ) ( ),
d

( 41 42 )
whi h e th t e the the
ii i i y e e ic e ch t A
c m ans a if A, is no t q u a l to ,,
n two

p r n c p a l a x s a , a n d a , a re p p
e r n d ula r to a o her;
s m la rl if ) )3 a nd 13 41
we h w th the th ee i i e t
2

e e i e ch the mu ually
c o uld S o at r p r n c p a l a x s a re

t the c ic e the iti

rp n d c ula r to a
p o r .

e i e e e i ete i te it
I f tw o roo s of ub a re q u a l , p o s on of the

h w th t ii e e ic the i ecti iv
c o rr spo n d n g a x s b co m s nd rm na , a nd m ay be
s o n a a ll ra d p rp nd ula r to d r on g en by
 V EC TOR ANALYSI S . 1 91

hi t i ci ee h
ce the ev ti t ee i t
the t rd ro o a re p r n p a l a x e s o f the sa m l ngt . The

i h ee t e ce he e
su r fa is n o ne of r o lu on ab o u the d t rm na e

i i ci i hw
ax s . If all t r ro o s are q ua l ,
t he s u r fa is a sp r ,

th t the th ee t c ic e the e
a nd a ny ax s is a pr n p a l ax s . I t m ay al so be s o n

the eci c the e th the e i e the t i

a r ro o s o f the ub a re q u a l to s q u a r s of

e ti the ei
r pro als of l ng s of s m -
ax s, Car e s an

b
c t
qua on n ng

13 a):
with we th t the t the e e
o ns .

c i
Co m pa ring
i the i i( 2 3 0)
et ro o s o f d t
see a r

i e ti
m in a n t a l ub c a re p p
ro o r t o n a l to p r n c p a l m om n s

of n r a,

n 71 c
v
i e e e the t ti y
89 . G eom etri ca l R e pre senta tio n of th e M otio n . In ar ia b le

e ti ti e e
Pla n e . If no m pr ss d fo rc s a c t upo n ro a ng bo d
t he q ua on o f mo on (2 1 8 ) b co m s

dH

t he so lu ti
which on of is
dl

4 t vect H m ( 3 5)
2
e ce I vect c t t t e i ecti
c o ns . o r,

H or ( nn is a
h
h h t the ti th t the t e t e the and
n or o ns a n in m agni ud d r on

i whi h it w y e i te i
t r o ug ou mo on, so a an g n pl an of

ce thi e c e the v i e
e lli p s o d to c is al a s e
p pr n d c ul a r m us r ma n

e
fi x e d in
i t whe e thi e t he the
sp a an d is fo r s r aso n all d In ar abl

the e t e ity the i t t e i e

Pla n . The po n r s pl an is o uc d by ellip

h t the e i i w y i with t i i thi

s o id is on x r m of n s an an o us ax s o r po l ,
so

e the w h i t te the e i i
t a ll pso d is al a s ro ll n g ou sl d ng o n s

e ti h vi ete i e the iti the i v i e

pl a n . In o r o rds , av n g c o ns ruc d ll pso d o f

e t e e the ti the y the e

in r a , a nd a ng d rm n d p o s on of n ar abl

it we e i i y tt he thi i i whi h i
tan g n pl a n in s p a c ,
mo on of bo d is sa m as

ith t i i the i v i e e
if r r g dl a ac d to s e ll pso d c is ro ll ng

h e et i c iti iti the t th t

W ou sl d ng o n n a r abl pl an .

the ve city t ti ti the i

T is g o m r c al o nd o n, in add on to fa c a

vec the i t c t t the e i i e

an gular lo o f ro a on is pro po r o n al to ra d us

t y t i the ti
to r to po n of o n ac of ll pso d and plan ,
co mple el de erm nes mo on .
1 92 VECTOR ANALY SIS .

i ce the
I t is easy to see , wy
h fi i t i th t it t i e c e
s n radi us vector al s es
a p ass
t ro ugh a xed po n
e vectc theei fi c ,
the in
g , or a m us descr b a on

in spac ,
the or H b ng its axis xed in sp a e . For
this H is
i e e i v ct
reaso n, , alle d Inv ariable Line .

It
ci c e e i i e e i i ve H
also descr bes a co n in the lli pso d . The e or

des
tive y it hi e c i ti ti
r be s a on in the ll pso d b c ause the ll pso d m o s
re la l to . T s d s r p on o f the mo o n is due to
Po in so t .

Polh ode Cone

FIG . 66 .

cie the i t c t ct the e i i v

90 . Polh ode and Herpo lh ode Curve s . If the de

e ete i e the t ce i
s r b d by po n of on a of llipso d and n a

c e etwee the they e ch the

riable plan be d rm n d on m , for ins an by plac ng

ve tie the i v i ec e
arbo n p p
a r b n m as ro ll on a o r, tw o

e h e i the ce
cur s are o b a n d: o ne o n n ar able pla n , all d t he
H rpol
e i i c e the th the e he e c v
od (
s nuo us and o ne o n surfa o f t he

the i ecti c ve the c e e c i e the i

ll pso d, all dPolho de (pa of po l ) . T s ur es

vect ce the e i i c e ective y

are d r ng ur s of on s d s r b d by r ad us

e h e e e
o r on in sp a a nd in ll pso d, all d re sp l
H rpo l
e y th t th e c e
od Co n and Polho de Co n .

H and
c i ci e i ecti whe e e ic
Perm anent Axes . I t is as to see a in re as s

t e t e thi c e whe th c i ci
to o n d in d r o n, i . e .
,
n no is p rp nd ul ar to the
an g n pl a n ; in s as n bo H and w o n de in
The ab ov e nam e is a m isc onception , bec ause as a m a tte r o f fact the
Herpolho de can be p rov ed to ha v e no po int of inflection, and hence is
at sin uous.
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 93

cti the th ee i ci e the

e t e i i th c ve e ce i t the
dire o n along so m e o ne o f r pr n p al ax s o f
m om
i i t t with t e e t y t the
n a] ll pso d ese ur s r du to po n s and

he the e t th e i ecti eve y i t

e ll pso d ro a es ou ro lli ng , rm an n l abo u se
p

y t which y t i wi
a xes . T re are n at l as re d r o ns a t r po n

i e ve the c i e ti h w th t
in a bod abou if the bo d he se t ro at n g it ll

the e e e e t e t e thi
co nt nu to do so fore r . Fur r o ns d ra on s o s a

t ei the e i e the e t i
tw o of s p rm a n nt ax s are s ab l and o ne uns a bl , s

t
las b ng m an ax s . The m o st st abl is l as ax s .

ecti c eci the e i i Herpo lh ode Curves

E quatio ns of Polh ode and . The in er

i t t e i with c wi ete i
s on of the o nes d s r be d in ll pso d by the

c v ic
ns an an ous ax s its surfa e ll d rm ne the po l

bo de In the quadr
c t
ur es .

4m
t w y ti y the c iti th t the i t ce
all -
o ns .

the e t e t t th t
a m us al a s sa sf o nd on a d s an , p to,

tang n pl an is c o ns an ,
or a

l
p

W)e
”
l ull -
4
’s 9 4 6 )
W ( ll -
4
9
9 (
8 quadr ic ) .

wh we fi e de etc
t ti
e re n .
,
see

hat the two e qua o ns

c t
so

( ll - 4m o ns . k

( ll - ( V al
£ 3

mus tt i
ob a n
be
fro m
s i t e y ti fie
m ul an o usl sa s d . Co m b i i th we
n ng e m,

a nd k ( ll -
( P al

by sub ra t cti on

or fi nall y
1 94 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

h e e e ti the ec e he
c e with ve te the i e ti ti
a o m o g n ous q ua on of s o nd d gre e , and n ce a

c i t i i t y w itt w
on r x at gi n or . I ts q ua on in Car es an

oord n a es m ay be mm ed a el r en do n by (23 1 ) and

(23 2 ) as

)
l
w,
’
B Bk
If

ei i
The in te ecti thi
rs c e fi v
o ns o f e th s on fo r di
'

erent alu s o f p wi t he
ll pso d 4 m 19 ,
ive the c ve whi h the e e t i te c e
ell -

the th e ee yi the e t
g po lho de ur s, c are , r fo r ,
w s d urv s

ei i
of fo ur d gr ,
l ng on m om n a] or Po in so t

i ce the he h e t ce the i c t ct
ll pso d .

e i i t ti ce te with i v i e
Sn rp ol od is ra d o ut by po nts o f on a

e t e the e c ve t etwee c ce t ic
o f an ll pso d ro a ng on its n r an n ar abl ta n

ci c e the e thei e te ei the i te ecti

g n pl a n ,
s ur s m us lie b n tw o on n r

the i v i e i e with h t e t chi the

r l s on pl a n ,
r c n rs b n g at n rs on o f

H
t ty
n ar abl ln t a pl an ,
and ou ng m
al e rna el .

v v
Mo ing Ax es a nd R e lati e Mo tion
te c ve ie t y
.

e whi h the e ve ve ce which

91 . Th eorem of Cori o lis . I t is of n on n n in d na m

the ti the y e c i e ti ee
ics to use ax s c ms l s mo in sp a and to

e ete i e ti e the iti the

mo o ns o f bo d und r o ns d ra o n are re f rr d .

e eth e e the e which e i

In o rd r to d rm n a t any m p o s on of m ov

e t th h t the ti c i thi evice the

ing ax s , o ne m o d is to r f r m to ax s r ma n at

fi e e e t ehi the vi e weve it

r s ro ug ou mo on . Ac o rd n g to s d
Ho
e v t e e e the vi e
x d ax s are l f b nd by mo ng o n s . r,

ti e fi e e i t t e y c i ci i with he
is fo und to be m o r ad a n a g o us to r f r mo ng ax s at

e e ity t e e i the ti y
all m s to x d ax s ns a n an o usl o n d ng t m .

vi e which i y t t fi i t ce
No g n ral is lo s by r f rr n g mo on o f a bo d to

ti t ti the vi e with e e
mo ng a x s S m pl urn abo u a xed po n in spa ,

e ce fi e e e t iv
a s any mo on o f ra nsl a o n of mo n g ax s r f r

n to x d on s m ay be c o m p nsa e d for by g ing to

 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 95

e y i t the y c i e e ti e
t th t th vi e hi c iti the e
ev r po n of bo d o ns d r d a mo on q ual and o pp o

t the e e y the ch ice vi e

si e to a of ese m o ng ax s . T s o nd o n, n, do s

no t li mi g n ralit of o of mo ng ax s

e vec w fie ii
.

it the vect it
Co nsid r any to r OP r dra n fro m a x d or g n 0

i y W h c e the i the
a nd fo r defi nite ness let be o r to a po n P in a
mo v ng bo d e s all no w
. o nsid r m o t on o f

FI G 67

t w y ee
. .

c i ci e t ev vi t the i with
R f it to two difi erent ini
'

po in P in two a s . r spaces

ve city the the e i i e t fi e

tially o n d n ,
o ne r ol ng abo u ax s OI an

ti ee ti e e ve
a ngular lo al , o r r ma n ng at r s (
or x d) .

i the fi e ce
Le t P R be the m o o n
he w the te
s n in a m all by a n o bs r r

re m a ning in x d sp a o r, in ot r o rds , abso lu

ti ce e te thi ve t the
,

c i t e ti e e e e fi e ce i e
mo on in spa . D no s c or PR as dry,” sub

i t e i i e t with e e e ce the
s r p d no ng its r f r nc to x d sp a . Co ns d r no w

ce it wi the e e ve e tive y fi e ce
the po n P as r ma n ng at r s r f r n to m ov

th the ve city the vi e e wi e c i

in g spa ; ll r fo r mo r la l to x d spa

th
wi lo of mo n g sp a c alo n a nd ll d s r be
the pa
Q P dt dl ,
e eci ti
a x r a xr

as codt is the angl d s r be d by NP in m e dl .

1 96 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

But
i the tic e
vect ti c y h
t e t the th the
as p ar l P by its o wn m o o n a tuall re ac es
—
or Q

ticthe w e e v with the vi ce

R m us re pr se n
t he po nt R, the p a of

the c i t e e
p ar le as s e n by an o bse rv r m o ing mo n g sp a ;

vi e
T ( R
the fi e
in o r o rds, drm , subs r p d no ting its re f r

ence to mo ng spac . F ro m gur

ivi i t h t i the ve y i te
ti
D d ng hro ug by dl we ob a n r m po rtan q ua

on

ON T.

le tti
ce ve city e e e
ng t ei e
OP te tity ch
et
r r p r se n any d r c d quan su as

fo r
e i hw e e the vi
,
lo ,
mom nt o f a c o upl ,
or an gul ar m o m n um ,

ce vect w y e e e t the vect the e i i

e tc .
, q ua t o n (23 9 ) s o s ho w to r f r m to a mo ng

spa .

the ti
The
e e e eithe ce i iti y they
o r r al b g
a s r pr s n s o r at nn n g

of

th c i ci e t e e t i ce e t
o n and r

the
mo f rr d to r Sp a ,
as n all are

ci y the i t
bo o n d n . If r r pr se n a d spla m n and q
v elo t of po n P,

ou r .

cce e ti y wh e ti w e
vi ce the i vi
The a l ra o n o f a bo d os mo on is kno n r la

w e tive y fi e ce tie c
tiv ely to m o ng sp a , a nd m ot on of mo ng s pa c e

ic ti hi e ti
kno n r la l to x d spa ,
m ay be ob a n d by a se o nd

appl

e ce on of

th
a t s q u a on.

R pla r by q us ,

'

l
"
(9 q

g t t ) a x wx (a xr )

r a x
(al x r )
.
( 0)
24
 vac ron ANALYSIS . 1 97

e ti i y e the i i
e t e i i y ive e
This qua o n w ll re adil xp a nd to fam l ar o nes

re f rre d to Car e si an ax s , as o rd n a r l g n, fo r x a m ple :

2
3 ( :
a) +0 8 )

(24 1 )
t th e te w itte ve
e i th t
The las re rm s m ay be r n o ut as abo by
re m m be r ng a

m (o nr ) m(m r )-
r a
’
.

it
If the po n P is a ttached to the vi mo ng spa ce ,

0, and als o 2 a

so th t the e tii i ethe e vii

a the r ma n ng xpr ss o ns are the
ce it ecce e ti a l ra o ns pro

e c the e
du ced by mo on of mo ng spa s lf .

H n e so c all
-
d

Accelera tion of movi ng space r (b x (W t ) .

( 42)
2

I f the angul ar ve city

vi ce c t t
lo of mo n g spa is o ns a n ,

4 9

dt
the e e 0 and r fo r
d
_
a

dl
x t 0 .

i i te the cce e ti ce
the y i ivi t ti t the i
The re m a n ng m (a r ) is rm a l ra on pro du d o n
x

i ce e e ic
bo d by its nd dual ro a o n abou
e e ic th ax s OI .

i ect y t w the i
S n ou r is p rp nd ula r to a , a (al r ) is p rp nd ular bo x x

hi the cti y e t ii ette e e ti ee e the

t o ou r and to a and d r e d n o rm all o ards ax s a .

B c aus in
v ct
T s is ord n a r C n r p al Acc l ra o n .

a t , NP n s

ith t ch i v e ih
e o r p ro du a d o f r m ay be us d (se e § 3 6
x
) ' _

e
w ou ang ng its alu ,
a n d a s a) a nd NP a re at r g t
a n gl s,

til -
NP 0,

this e t i et cce e ti
c n r p al a l ra on m ay the w itte
n be r n

m (a x r ) —a ’ 1VP .
1 98 V ECTOR ANALYSIS .

The t
e rmc e the 2 «i x is all d Compound Centr ip eta l

Accelera tion of Cori olis

W the c i e the vi e et .

the ce ie the y fictiti e

e m ay n o ns d r mo ng ax s to be at r s if to

c e ci cce e ti e ite the

ac tua l fo r s appl d to bo d o us o n s be _a dde d

cce e ti vi ce the c ce t i et
apabl of p r o du ng a l ra o ns q u al a n d o ppo s to

cce e ti hi the the e

a l ra on o f mo ng sp a an d to o m po und n r p al

a l ra o n. T s is or m of C ori ol is .

Motio n
ti i e e ti
Tra nsform a tio n
e e the
92 . of th e Eq uati o n of . Ce ntri

ti ii y ce vi with it the
fug a l Co uple . Le t us u l z qua on (2 3 9 ) to r f r

w e the y e ti ti
mo on of a r g d b o d to a s p a m o n g ,
o r, in o r

i i y t i ee e fi e c
ords , to ax s in bo d The qua . on of mo on of a

r g d bo d abo u a )po nt r f rr d to x d spa e is (2 18

dH
M .

dl

If the e r are no i e e ce
m pr ss d fo r s, M 0 and

dH
dl

t te th t et H et e i c t
it e ecti the fi e ce h weve
s a s a ,
the m o m n of mo m n um , r ma ns o ns a nt

ec i the ti the y ee
in m agn ud and di r on in x d spa ,
o r

yi the e ti i i we tit t
p ul a r m o o n o f bo d m ay s m to be .

Em plo ng no w qu a on o f Co r o l s, subs u e fo r

e iv e t vi
its qu al n fo r m o ng sp a ce t i i
,
e
o b a n ng as the qu a

ti ti ii y t fi e i t ee e
ce vi wi h the y
on of mo on o f a r g d b o d abo u a x d po n r f rr d to
a spa mo ng t bo d

(N H M .

If the e r are no appl ie ced fo r s, M 0, and ( 43 ) b

2 ec o m es

H a is
x c all e e thee ice t i
d C n r

ular to
fugal Co upl
th e a an d
and, as

H The
is
abo
ev v e etid n by
i ts fo rm , is p rp nd bo . e q u a
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 1 99

the th t the t ch e the e

e the ce t i c e
t io n n s ta tes a ra e o f a ng of angular mo m n

H i n the body is qual to Ha

ch wy i the ev
t um n r fugal o upl ,
x . If
ange i n H is al a s no rm al to tse lf H is n
c e e e th yh e
t he ,
n er

i t t h eci e c
i nc re ased or de r as d in l ng but o nl c ang s in dire c
io nal to Hxa Hd
the y th h it i fi e fi e e
t o n at a r a e p p
ro o r . T us s r b s a o ne

eve c e e the w v i he
in bo d ,
al o ug re m a ns x d in x d spac .

H and
h ve
If as r be om p a r all l n an s s , an d in
the body to o we a

the w the y t c ti e t te eve

t v i e i e fi e ce it the
o r, in o r o rds , bo d m us on nu to ro a for r

H in
v i e e the y W h ve ee th t the e
the In
a bo u a r abl Ln x d sp a ; is n an

e t th e ch ecti c e e e e
in ar abl li n in bo d also . e a s n a r

i ci e whi h the ve c i i fie
a re at l as re su di r o ns , all d p rm an nt ax s , o r

y et ic y te ce te tt
p r n p al ax s ,
fo r c ab o o n d t o n is ful ll d A .

t i y et y wi ive thi i ti
s mm r al bo d sup po r d at its n r of m ass and ro a

e y th t t ti y e e
i ng abo u its ax s o f s mm r ll g s k nd of mo on .

t ti e t y t i i i ti i e
G yroscope The prop rt
. a a ro a ng bo d p o ss ss s

c t the y e Whe y et ic
o f ro a ng pe rm an n l abo u a p r n c p al a x s w as u l z d

i y i i i it ee i i ti the
b y Fo u aul in g ros c o p . n a s mm r al top is

e i ecti i v i e i e e th t the
r ap dl sp nn n g in g m b als , k p s its ax s p o n ng in

ie the e h ti the i the

s am d r on ( n ar abl l n i
) sp ac
n ,
so a if to p is

e i i fi e fi e ce wi e c i e c e with e e
d aro und by s m o o n,
’
c arr art ax s o f to p

ce the e th vi ce e v ti
r ma n ng x d in x d sp a ll d s r b a on r f r

By
h i t et y the t ti the e th
en to ar (o r m o n g sp a ). o bs r a o ns o n

v the tit e the ity which the

s uc an ns ru m n no t o nl can ro a on of ar

et
b e pro ed but
e ete i e
l a ud o f lo c al at expe ri

m n is pe rfo r m d m ay be d rm n d .

the h ee c
the i i e i i y i t
93 . Euler ’
s Eq uatio ns . I f w, , a ,, w, be t r o m po

n e n ts o f onalo n g

the i ci e t i e ti p r n c p a l ax s o f a r g d b o d at a po n ,

B C be
h e e we w ite
a nd if I , , p r n p al m o m n s o f n r a abo ut

t o se sa m ax s, m ay r (2 3 1 )
H = Aw, i Bw zj
- -

Cwak
'

h
t e) .
200 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

he ct i e ti e te i i t thi
the i ci e they v i h
T re are no pro du s of n r a n r ng n o s equatio n,

tit ti thi v e the e t

as fo r p r n p al ax s an s

H in (24 3 )
th e ti
Subs u ng s alu fo r r resul the
re e qua ons

( 0 Blwz‘us

(Z (7 )l

( B

ee y i e ti e the ti
i i y t fi e i t e e e e vi with
Th s are the d na m c al q ua o ns o f Eul r for mo on o f

the y c e
a r g d b o d ab o u a x d po n ,
r f rr d to ax s mo ng

bo d Of o urs
.

+ ax H M

is the c e o rr spo nd ng i vect e ti or qua on .

c c ve ie ce we ew t Motion
94 . Ana lytica l So lutio n of E uler ’
s E quatio ns for

the wi
under No Im pre ssed F o r e s . Fo r on n n r ri e

fo llo ng

cl = (a, i (a ,j (0 3 k .

H Z u ni Bw2j Umsk = (be) .

a =g l i + 91 k .

z B C

d d
d? “
I
( M N) t
( ll - ( o .

Eul e e ti
’
r s qua on fo r thi c s ase is

H x al or am .
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 201

i ce the i ht h i e e e c 4
e the c ct the e ti w th 4
Sn r g
-
and s d is p rp ndi ular to m and to a,

with ective y ti yi with ti

let us ta k s al ar pro du s o f qua on i m and
a re sp l . Mul pl ng an we ob a n

00 1
-

35 3 all - 4mm 0 .

which we t i te t c t with e ect the ti th

m us
By di fi ere ntiating (ll
n gra e .

4 -
m o ns . r sp to me us ,

4m -
¢ a 0,

w hich ec e b om s by ()
e and d
( )
d d d

we seeh t the i te the e ti

t a n gral o f qua on is

I ( ti ( ND
-
2 T, (2 4 7 )
w hece i e w it ecy c i et t h thee he vi ti e the
re T is an arb the rar o ns a n . T os a ng r ad

i i the i etic e the y

p re d ng p g
a s ill r o gn z in (24 7 ) q ua on of

M ti yi the i e ti with b h ve i
Po inso t Ell pso d, and in T kn en rgy o f bo d .

ul pl ng or gi nal q u a on ( ac we a mme
di ately

I g
l
? I b x ( la -
(
( l a - ( o es 0,

and by (e) and (d)

1 ab ?
d “ 07

w h it
o se n e gral is
“ 2
(2 48 )
he e it y c t W ec e he e
7

H is
t cy y the y he ce
w r
2
an a rb rar on sta n . e r ogni z r the
H in magni tude
e e t t i e thie ic i te it ti §y
cons a n of o nl in b od ,
n any

chang in H m us be p rp n d ul ar to . See 92 .

the 4 i e h the
In o rd r to ob a n a rd n gral ,
m ul pl (2 4 6) by
the and ) annull n g ac o r.

¢
‘
1
a 4 b x ) ( ll - ( o es .
 wt

C A I B
+ (0 1e
C

1 ( 2 50) an d (2 5 1 ) co m bi d with
ne

2 2
(0 1 ( 02

l s ub tituti g in
s n we fin d

V 011 (0
2
)( 2
X (0 )( e
2
b

u ions o f A B C T and H an eq ua
nct , , , ,

of t h ese co ns t an ts w h o s e general so lu ti on

l ot i o n s
*
.

St art ing ag ain with d Alem

’
Pri n cip l e .

d 2
r

dt ’
F or 0, (2 53 )
'

a riatio ns c on i
s st e nt wi t h the o
c nstra ints
yste m ,
o r , w h at is the sa m e thing ,
sat isfy

ofesso rGre enhill, in fo urteenth v olum e of the

182 a nd 2 65 , 1 876 .
 VECTOR ANALYSIS .
203

e t e ti c iti we t it in the
wi e
c r ai n q u a o ns of ond on, m ay r ansform

fo ll o ng m ann r
’
d r

R
t?

e ch t thi Ale m bert ti

the ec e
’
er m o f ) i w ay ; d
’
h (
'
e at
-
a 2 53 n s s equa on

n b om s

1
6
2 2 m

6T Z F dr,
-

w he e the y ti e ic e ethey fi t t the ve ecitiect e ivthe

re T is the k n t n rg due to lo s of

ive i te t th ct the ti e As
m ass s of s s em . rs e rm is an xa d r a

t ,
let us n gra e wi res pe to m fro m t t, to
t tr:

2 Fe dl .

the iti the y te ive the ti e

e the e th e e e h te
If po s o ns o f s s m are g n at m s t, and t, ,
rm s

i h e vi tim s
for a nd the l ft and
’
th n dr s ar e z ro os ,
-

v an s ,
l a ng

ar + 2 m dt = o .

This e ti
ct h weve the y te
q ua t e wh t
oneve the y te ce th
e v tive the w
is ru t a r s s m of for s is a

e efi iti i it the
a s; if, o r, s s m is a c o ns r a o ne , ork

i t i t the e ce i e e e t the th ch e
(by d
do n n on ) in go n g fro m a n y p o n to any o r

h e cti y the i iti fi i t

po n a ga ns s fo r s is nd p nd n o f p a os n,

theti thi c che the the e t i t

and is t ere for a fun o n so le l of n al a nd n al n s
po

th t wi v e eve ywhe e
of path . In s as ,
n, r m us be a s calar p o n

W
c c t the w e i it
func on, say )
,
su a kno ng its alu r r

he th i y wi the v e W
we c an al ula e in go ng fro m any po n to or k do n

t t th w
any o t r by any p a S m pl by kno ng alu s o f .
,

fo r th ose poin s ( Consul § 59 In o er. ords the w or k .

204 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

ZfF dr in go iti the i iti

e ce v e the cti— iti
fro m pos o n 1 to po s 2 is difi er
'
o
ng on

n in al u of fun on W a t po s o ns 1 and 2, or

i W W — W r s er ( ,) a

the c e e v tive ce the

,

e ce ec e
In as o f c o ns r a fo r s, n, 2 F ar m a y be
e

r pl a — W d by 6 and (2 54 )b om s

"
a
f ( T

hi
ti

cti c e the
T s is Ham ilton ’
s Pr in ciple .

W is
i cti te w itte th t i
Lag ra ng ia n F uncti o n . The fun on T all d
Ha m l
t i te ec e
Lagrang an Fun o n , an d is of n r n L, so a

om s
’
on s n gral b
’
a L dt 0 .

e t i ce e cc the ti Mo re
96 . E xten sio n of th e Co nceptio n of V ector to than

hy i whi h e th th ee i e e e t v i e
Th ree D im ensio ns . C r a n pro ss s o ur in m a ma c al

c ce e ch c e thi the vect t ti ti

p s cs in c m or an r nd p nd n ar abl s are

i e the i ti the e titie a

on rn d . In su as s as s o r no on is s ll

the e i e e e t titie we c ceive

appl c abl to m an pula on of s q u a n s . If

vect
q, , q, , q, be s n d p nd n q u an s, on of

a or q,
i (I :
i
gl l l
ga s l
' '

whe e i e e e t it vect
z

By
e te i the i e vect we c i e
r i, , i , , i, are nd p nd n un o rs . an

vect e i ti e th th ee i e i y
x ns o n o f d a of a o r, are to o ns d r q as a

the e e e wi h w th t we i
or x s ng in m o r an r dm ns o ns , as m an as

ve y ey the i ti i y vect
An x a m pl ll
’
s S o a are no t go ng
r a re q .

i e the e e i e vect o n o f o rd n a r
r far b o nd m an pula o rs .

i
D e finitions . Co ns d r g n ral z d or in n -
di men '

s o ns ,

q :
i
gl l i z + qn i n °

y
I n analo g to V
Let the positio n r of any po int 8 o f t
,

gous ) system be expressible in ten

p ar a m e t e rs
, q, q, ,
so th a t ,

Th is m e ans th at to ev ery p o in t

in a sp ace of n— d
im ensi ons the re c o rn
fo r a ll of the p ar am eters o f the dyn a l
a d e fi nite and de te r m in ab le c o n fi gul

in the sy ste m If it is po ssible to

.

the ti m e the q s are sub je ct to th

’
, ,

o f c o nditi o n inc lud e d in Ha m ilt o n a

’
,

o f ev ery partic le fo r all in st a nt s w ill

s i m ple m oti o n o f one poi n t in n d -

p ro b le m o f the m oti o n o f a s s ton

y
less d i m ensi o n s (or for th at m att e r ,

Difi erentiating (261 )

206 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

The kin etic e e y cti

n rg fun on T be c e
om s

1
__

2 2 m “ 1
7
V a¢ ) 7
.
z

v y te the ei i e h e e
e h ee ic cti the
rm o f l n ar and o m o g n o us in q ’
e er sum b ng .

t w itt
The squar is a o m o g n o us quadr a t fun on of
”
q s;

of e n r en

i Qu q l
' z ’ z
T :
1s qz
‘ '

l
‘

(264 )
e i the v i ti with ect i wech tv
it i te i
P rfo rm and ndi a ed
’
ng ar a on resp to q 9
by Ham l W
ce l and us ng L T
’
on s n gr a E
, a e

sin

()L dq V nL -
dq V n L ,
’
o
’

"
f in
d
( q V n
-
L dl = 0 .

But b ec e
aus

a“ 3 43 . 4 .

dl til

the ec te ec e
s o nd rm b om s

()q dt,

which
it
n o
m ay b e i te te
n g r a d by p ar t with e ec
s, r sp t to the ime, t
dq V n L
’
-

which fi te v i he
the
suff rs no
fi e the
he ce e v i ti the e e vi t ethe
of rst i t rm an s s , as q is x d at l mi s an d
n ar a on r ,
l a ng al o g r

l dt = o .

But as dq is arb it y it w th t
rar ,
follo s a

d
Vu L V ,,L
’
0
dl
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 207

hi vect ie i ce wh c et
t e e e
T s is a or in n -
dm ns o n al sp a , ose o m po n n s

m us all be z ro , for x a m pl :

3 91

_ M _

892

Th e ethe
s are

yt ci
Ia g ran ge ’
s Ge ne ral ized E quations of M otion
w .

W
it i e e e the e i ee et
If n for a ny s s em the fun t o ns T an d are kno n,

ete the e ti e it
an d is po ss bl to x pr s s m in t rm s o f n -
nd p nd n

i e et i e the v e the e t
p a r a m rs q, , q, , s n e qu a
-
o ns (2 66) m ak

ti e th the th the i t
p o ss bl to d e rm n alu s o f s p a r a m e e rs for all

m ; us p a of p o n

is deteefi i i ethe e ti e i
D
rm n— d, ince n dm n s o n a l sp a .

V
n ng o p ra o r

all d y ic i c e
nam s is n lud d und e the
r R em ark a b le F orm ula

V I” :
0 .

Hydrodynam i c
h t e ive the
s.

We
e t e ti hy y ic icti e
98 . F unda m en al E qua tio ns . s all now d r

i e thei t i t t c e e ce
fundam n al qu a o ns o f drod nam s fo r a fr o nl ss

flu d
the evi i i e iet tt c
an d so m of r m os m po r an o ns qu n s by
means
ce e eci y ti e e thi
of p r o us p r n c p l s . The d r c ne ss o f a a k

ic ti the vect eth

and abse n o f artifi ciality is sp all no c a bl in s

e e e t the ity fl i we h e
ap l
p a on o f or m od .

t it cti the e e e th t
Let p r pr s n den s of the u d; s all assum

tha is a fun o n of p r ss ur p alo n ,

so a

f 0 = (p ) (268 )
theve ity the
.

i the ce it i
Equation of Conti nuity . Le t q (u v w ) be lo c of

fl
u d and F ( X Y Z ) be fo r p e r u n m as s ac t ng o n the
 wh atev er s u f c
r a e t aken we may
ea ch ot h er ,

V pqo= 0 .

d
pv
pw 0.

az

d the equ a ti on o f conti nui ty . It t t

s a es

r c re ate d no r destroyed at any po int in

e re toe m plo y a spe ci al no tation to be

the flui d in its m o ti o n as di stinct fro m
as it p a sses b y a fi x e d re gi o n in space .

ch a n ge o f de nsity o f a defi ni te portion o f

owe d in its m oti on sym boli zed by the ,
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 2 09

ei
sp c al no ta ti g: e on is q ual to the te ch e
ra of ang of its den

si ty
%§ e e it e
ob s rv d as g o s by a fi e i t ce
x d po n in sp a p lus the
rat e chof ange q V p,
-
due to its ve city th
lo q, so at

Dl at

In fa ct wh teve i t cti
a r p o n -
fun on is pla ce the e t e i
d in p a r n h s s

D —
3
'

5t

T hi c e
s orr spo nds in the e i Cart s an no a t ti on to

QB Q
B+ 42 u Q
Bv 42 w
+ +
Dl at dx ay dz

_ 43 + + +
6t 8x dt ay dt 6z dt

We m ay w ite the e ti c ti ity i ht y i e

i
r q ua on o f on nu in a sl g l d ff r

ent fo rm by ( 128 ) and us ng

gf
(p q )
f We (I VP
- '

so th t a
23
pV q -
0.

e
eithe fli
ithe with ti e with iti he ce
In r fo rm , if the
m
e v y u

o
d is i ncompr essi ble, p do
o n , a nd n
s no t ar

r or p s

V q -
0 div q , ( 2 72 )
which h w th t the e i vect te
ie c e c v i fi ity j t e i
s o s a q is n a so l no dal o r an d its s r am

t ti e e t i e t ct the the ie
ln s fo rm lo s d ur e s o r e nd a t n n ,
us as a s o l no dal

y y i i e i efl ect i ity
dis ribu on o f l c r c al fo rc ac s . I n fa tw o or s

H drod
i e i tice
of na m c s o f n c o m p r ss bl uids and of El r c

ce w y t i i the
are d n al .

fl v e i
Co ns d
e i t te
r no w a s m all s ur fa al a s con a n ng sa me

v with the i i it
uid of olum v . Th s s ur fa c m ay be d s or d as it
is supp os e d sh u
‘
mo es l qu d, but to os ns
21 0 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

e the e ti the fl i w th wh ch
it t t ch e evi e t y the
m ad up o f sam s m all po r ons o f u d i i

t t
s ar ed . For su a surfac , d n l m ass is
co ns an , or

Dl

so that fi = V b
q y -

We he te et the cti ec e
e ity it ti e the t i c e e v e
m ay t n in rpr V q -
as fra o nal d r as e o f

itv e the ti e te i t ti ive e

d ns pe r un of m ,
or as ra e o f n r as of olum

ti w c t t
pe r un o lum ,
o r as m ra of d la a on, a d rg n ce .

i e the
Equa on (2 7 2 ) fo ll o s also fro m
( 2 73 ) if p is o ns an .

ce cti efi ite the fl i e c e

Eul er ’
s Eq uati on s of M oti on of a Fl uid . C ons d r

ce
for s a ng up o n a d n m ass of u d n los d in

t it v e the e e
the surfa S .

ce cti the e e cti cti

Let F pe r uni m ass or p F pe r un o lum be xt rnal

y ve the e c i ce the i w y
for fun o n , and let p be p r ssur fun on a ng

ewt the te i c e e
no rm all o r n los ng surfa and along n ardl

By N
et ( the fl i e the e
law of of
’
drawn norm al . on s ra n r as

ce cti i ect y the the fl i the

m om n um 2 p q dv) o f u d is q u al to a pp li d

ce ( e ti e e ctin the
for s F a ng d r l on m as s of u d and to

i ce
fo r s 2 p dS ) r sul ng fro m the pr ssur s a g on

surro un d n g s urfa ,
or

D
p u dS ,
Dt
D
(p q dv) (p F V p) dv *

DI
.

D Dq D (p dv)
p dv l q' '

fi Dl
the
a nd t t v i he the e
las i
th h t the ti th t the i t ec e c t t er

mo
m an s s as m ass
n
m a ns
e gra l b
r

om
o ns an

ro ug ou on , so a s

(2 74 )
Se e no te to 5 ,p
52 2 52 ,
fo r tra
. ns fo r m a t io n of las t te rm by div er
g e n c e theo re m .
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 211

thi e v e wh teve i
e we h ve i
As s is tru for a ny o l um a r, the nte gran ds

a re q ual and a , us ng

D? d
10 p = pF VP
77
i
e e ti ti which c ecti
-

with ( ) the i the etic

Th s is Eul o n of
’
r s q ua mo on ,
in o nn on

hy y ic
269 and form s bas s of or al

we
dro d nam s .

ivi e ( ) e y the i e tity )

99 . Tran sf orm ati on of th e Eq ua ti on of M o ti on . If
d d 2 75 by p and m plo d n ( 9
1 2

m
the c i t i c ti eci e y wh t the ct
q -
c

subs r p s ndi a ng p r s l on a V a s , or

4 V q
thi e ti i t
q q
-

we m ay trans form s q ua on n o

69 VP 1
q (V q ) x F Vq 2
(276)
§
e
y ie ce h ve te ti
at p

i t ce ce vity the c e v tive

xte rnall
If the appl d fo r s a a p o n al , V , for

ye ce the
ns an for s due to gra or any o r o ns r a

s st m of fo r s, n

e e i t e e y the
F V V

e i efi e tity ch th t
I f the pr ssur p at any p o n d p n ds o nl upo n

d ns ty p , we m ay d n a u
q an P su a

92
T
”
V P, or P .

h e ti ec e
o

so t at o ur qua on b om s

Q
fl _
q curl q
—v V + P+ 1 q
2

at 2
—V U
w he re
,

iq)
z

ee
R f c e ti
rring ba k to u on ( 26)
1 whe e h w th t it w as n

c
q a r s o a

url q 2 a),

e e the v ticity ve ity t ti

i the i t c i e e ec e
wh r on is or o r an gul ar lo c o f ro a on of the
fl
u d at po n o ns d r d, (2 77 ) b om s

_
2 q x“
at
21 2 V EC TOR ANALYSIS .

Steady Motion te y ti
which i e e e t the c
1 00 . . De fi nition . S ad mo on is one in

the c e th t the ti v tic

F, q, p , and p are nd p nd n of ti me . If su h is
as and on 0, a is , if mo on is no n -
or al ,

iq ) = 0
z

i te ti c t
.

’
or n gra ng V+ P+ l q ons

c t t
.

If p is o ns an ,

and if the e
r are n o appl ie ce d fo r s,

F= 0
c t V o ns .
,

3
1 t 51
7
2
c o ns .
( 78 )
2

the w whe e the e e e t the ve cit

t whe e the ve ity e t the e e
In o r o rds , r pr ssur is gr a lo y

e e t icte i e e e
m us be sm all, and r lo c is gr a p r ssur is

e t the c t icti whe e the ve ci y the

s m all For x a m pl
.
,
in a c o ns r d p p the p r ssur is

e i efli e e i y the e te t
l as at o ns r on r lo t o f inco m

w te ete c t cte thi i ci e

pr ss bl u d n c ss ar l is gr a s . Air pum ps a nd

a r m rs are o ns ru d on s p r n pl .

c
1 01
y
. V ortex M o tion . e
Th eo rem of Helm h o ltz . Tak the
url , o r appl V x to

—v V+ P +

c i url
( (
—
it
! 2 V x (coxq ) 0, as c url gr ad s 0

( c url q) 2 (coV q -
q V -
o) qV -
a oo- V q) 0 .

e e e i th t
R m mb r ng a

c th t url q 2 on; a V -
co V V x (q )
-
0,
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 21 3

as all is a s o l no e i vect dal or , i . e .

,
on cQ url q, and th t
a ( 2 7 0)
do Do
"

l q V
”
co ,

at Dt

we h ve a
D”
Dt
mv q -
wV q
-
0 .

T hi t s r a ns fo rm s it n o

b ec e i e tic y i
aus d n all ,
us ng (2 73 )

th t eve v i he i ewi e v h
i i y the cce ive e iv tive h w
so a if to r an s s (2 79 ) an d ( 2 8 0) l k s anis ,

v i h e ce eve e it wi w y e i e
a nd s m l arl all su ss d r a s m ay be s o n to
H
y the e c e e iv ive v i h
an s . n if o is
n r z ro ll al a s r ma n z ro by

ce t i i t t hi the e e h t y th t
m , be a ll o f its d
’
Ta lo r s or aus r at s an s at a

m due to H l m
v ticity e i t i e i e icti e fl i
r a n ns an . T s or o l z sa s a if

ti e it i i e ce e
no or x s s in any n c o m pr s s bl ,
fr o nl ss u d at

y te ce the ti wi e i eve
an y m is m po ss bl to pro du a ny by m a ns o f a co n

v tic
se rv a tiv e s s m o f for s , an d m o on ll r m a n for r

no n -
or al .

I f t he e the r be co ns ide red to be

fric tionless m e dium , the n a a

vo rte x o n c e set up in it w o uld be in de str uct ible ; and co n v e rse ly, if n o

v o rtic e s e x is te d, it wo uld be im po s s ible t o c re ate any I t is c o nc e iv a ble , .

ho w e v e r, that so m e Catac lysm m ight hav e re nde re d the et he r te m po

ra rily v iscous to so m e exte nt . By this w e m ea n tha t it is c o n c eiv a ble ,

fo r e xam ple , that unde r ext rao rdin a ry co n ditio n s say o f tem pe ra tu re the
e th e r m ight a cq ui re unusual p p
ro e rties ,
in w hich c ase , if it becam e
frict io nless m o t io n ha d be e n p ro duce d in it w hile in
aga in aft e r v o rt ic al

this sta te , suc h v o rtic a l m o tio n w o ul d pe rs ist fo re v e r This spe c ulat io n .

is o f inte rest in conne ct io n w ith t he v o r te x a to m th e o ry o f m a tte r -

.
21 4 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

ci c ti t
fl i efi e the the ve city th t
1 02 . Circ ula tion . The r ul a on alo ng any p a h in a

th p e te the ci c ti the t
u d is d n d as lineu inte gral of lo alo n g a

h AB, by
efi iti If d r ul a o n alo ng p
p a . ( 4 3 no a

d n on

the th c we e e cc t
it ce i te ve e
If p a is a lose d o ne , m ay xpr ss the ir ul a io n

e t e he e
aro und as a s urfa n gral o r any c ap bound d by it,
by m ans of S ok s T m , for
’
or

f
9
q .
dr =
ff cap
[l o
q dS = 2 11 ° C) dS ,

whe re
2 by
on q
h y e thi e ti y the
e ce ti i i i ecti the t e
Ro ug l sp a ki ng s qu a o n sa s, if re is a pre

po n d ra n of mo on o f a l qu d in o ne d r o n or o h r

FIG . 68 .

c e th th t the i i i i e
th t t ti
around a ny los d p a ,
a l qu d ns d of the clo sed

i e t e e the i e the vect

p a m us be ro a ng .

c i e ti it e c
Cons d r a ub m ad up o f l n s of o r on, and

o ns d r a p or on of bo und d by two aps S, and S,

 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 21 5

y the ve ce the e thi c e c

e e e e i th t e i hv
A ppl di rgen or m to s los d sur fa e S, , S ,
a n d sid s . R m mb r ng a on is sol no dal , we a e

V w dv o
0 .

the i e c t i te thi the ce i te

t ee t As
ch iw the e
s d s on r bu no ng to surfa n gr al

c t t th h t the t
h r m us be as mu flux o f an n ar d at S, as r is o ut

w ard at S ,, or the flux is o ns an ro ug ou ube . If

FI G . 69 .

hi t e ch e ve y it c e v te fi e t
the ecti h fi e t e te the
t s ub be os n r s m all is all d a or x la m n ,

ve e t e e e the ct th t
a nd f o n o f suc
i s a l am n be d no d by s

a bo r sul xpr ss s fa a

c t 8 n o
w o ns .
,

whe e the the c ecti hi ct

c e the t e th the fi e t h w th t
r n is no rm al to ross s -
on . T s p ro du is

fi te the w the e e e i t v tici y

all d s r ng of la m n . It S o s a if n
o is

c t v i h he ce fi e t c t ywhe e the
ni ,
or , in o r o rds , if r do s x s a ny or t , 8

fl i ch fi e t t the eithe c e c ve
ann o an s ,
n a la m n anno end a n r in

the ce the i i i fi ity v ti e

u d . Su la m n s m us n r fo rm lo s d ur s or

the c e c v the fl i e e the ce

e nd in surfa of l qu d or at n n . All or c s,

hi w the th t th t
n, fo r m los d ur es in u d o r ls en d in surfa .

i vect
T s also follo s fro m fa ct a V -
o) 0, a is , on is a

sole no dal or .
21 6 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

e eve yw e
c ti c c e e he ce the ci
1 06 . V e locity Potentia l -
. If o is z ro
n r h re , the c ir

ti it the i t i e e t
ula o n aro und any lo se d urv is z ro , n r c ul a

B is
the th thi c e e ect t
on fro m any po n A to any o r p o n nd pe n d n

it the
of p a . In s as q dr-
is a p rf difi ere ntial ; hat
is , is of fo rm
q ¢ dr q dr V
th t
- -
,

so a 4 q V ) (283 )
ve city th e iv e the cti I the
.

e e ce t i th the ce e iv e
The lo q is us d r abl fro m fun on ( ) in

the i y t i cc y I c e the e city

sa m (
w ay p fo r Sx n
g ,) a t for is d r abl fro m

t ti c i t cti the ce cc
o rd nar po e nt a l A o r di n gl . () is all d V lo

the fl i the e t the the y t ti

Po e n al , and is a s alar po n fun -
on of spa o upied

the e e i ect y ic e the cti

by u d . All r sul s o f or of po e n al are

r fo r d r l appl abl to fun on

the ti e te v i ti the ci c ti
Production of a V orte x Im po ssib le in a F rictio nle ss Fluid.

th i ve city te ti e i t i
Le t us fi nd m -
ra of ar a on of r ul a on

th e c t i e e e t the fl i which
al o ng a ny p a ,
as sum n g a lo -

po n al to x s . Th s

we thei ti h weve i t t the th er

p a is m ad up o f a n l m n s of u d are

ec e
to be fo llo d in r mo o n, o r d s or e d p a

om Diflere ntiating
'

m ay b .

d dr + r
q
t
r '

D7 D7 A A Dt A

Si ce the ve city t ti e t
n lo -

p o e n al xis s,

l
cur q = 2 ol = 0,

and the e ti ti
qu a ec e on of mo on (2 7 5 )b o m s, if V P)

93
Dl
vW ’

so th t a 1
3 2? o
dr d V
r -
W dW,

D—
q dr q d d
q q d
Dt
'

and he ce n
 V ECTOR ANALYSIS . 21 7

I f the pa th is a clos e d one ,

as W and 93 arei t cti iti c

s al ar po n -
fun o ns o f po s o n and h ve
a

tic v e the i it th t fi y
2
i den al alu s at l m s , so a nall

ti
the t te th t the ci c ti
e c ve e ch i tic e the fl i c t
Equa on (286) ns a s a r ula o n aro und any

ch e the e tic e c ie t the i i

c lo s d ur ,
fo rm d o f a a n of p a r l s of u d, a n no

h ve e the ci c ti e the e i i
an g as s par l s are a rr d abo u by l qu d As .

it e eve the w it i i e
we a ass um d r ula on to be z ro at b g nn ng

c e t v ticity icti e fl i e
r m ains so fo r r , or, in o r o rds,
is m po ss bl to

yt ce i i e c ceive
r a e or in fr o nl ss u d by m ans o f a conserva

y te ce c i
ti ve s s e m of fo r s . Also , as it is m poss bl to o n
fl
c v tive e it w th t it
ho w any s s f m of for s o uld ac t on a ri cti onless u d

i e c te v icity e icti e
in a non -
o nser a m ann r, follo s a i s i m po s

e
s bl to re a ort in any m ann r in a fr o nl ss

the e ec i e tie v ti e
m di um .

icti e fl i i c ve e e h t th t
I t was fro m
v
s p ul ar p p
ro r s of or c s in a

fr o nl ss u d, d s o r d by H lm ol z, a Lo rd K e l in
was led to his V orte x Ato m Th e o ry of Ma tter .

PRO BLEM S AND EX ERC IS ES

1 w ty
Sho tha the ce nte r o f grav it o f a s ste m of part icles, and
. y yy
hence of any bod , continue s to m o v e uniform l in a straight line

i i
whe n no im pre ssed fo rce s act upo n the s ste m
F nd the e quat on of the path
y .

w y i y
.

Sho that the total m om e ntum o f a s

2 . ste m o f part icle s ,
a nd
hence of any bod , rema ns constant a s long as there are no applied
21 8 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

3 Prov e that a system o f fo rce s acting along and re pre sen ed

. t
by the sides of a pla ne po lygo n taken in order is e quiv ale nt to a
couple whose m om e nt is repre se nte d by tw ce the a re a of the pol

go n E xtend thi t f ce tin l n lo sed pla ne cur v e

i y
. s o o r s ac g a o g a c .

4 . By m eans of the theo rem (202)

luv -
q V (u dS

y
I)
9
Show in m agnitude a ct e v er w here along the
that if force s e qua l

i
ta ngents to a plane co ntour , that the m om ent o f the se fo rces a bo ut

y y y
a ny po nt is m easured by twice the a rea of the co nto ur .

5 . If
angular v elo cit
a rigid

y y
bod has a v elo cit o f translation q : and
o f ro tatio n to, the v elo cit

a po int r in the bo d m ay be repre sented by

q at any insta nt
an

of

see § 22 .

y
Show that if q: and c) are constants the path of a ny po int i n the
bod is a circular helix described with uniform v elo cit , and fi n d y
it s
6
tw o
e quatio n

pa ra
wh
e axes
.

produce a m o t on r
p p
e end ular to the p i
Sho t at two eq ual ro tations in oppos te d rect ons a bout
ll l la ne of
iic i i
the two
7 .
axes .

The m otion of a point in a plan be ng giv e n, re fer it to e i

(a) fi xed rectangular v e cto rs in the pla ne ;
(b) re cta ngula r v e cto rs in the plane , rev olv ing uniform l ab out a
fi xe d po int .
y
Translate into Cartesia n in both ca se s .

8 . Prov e that the ce ntral ax is of tw o forces F , and F 2 inte rse cts

the sho rte st distan ce betwe e n the ir line s of a ctio n and div ide s it in

the ra tl o
F , (F , F1 cos 0) ; F , (F , F2 co s

0 be ing the betwee n the ir dire ct

a ngle
m o m e nt o f the principal co uple is
i o ns . Also prov e that the

CF s in
l 0

9 . Sho w that

V xF dv .

What co nc lusio n y
in H drodyna m ic s does this theorem lead to ?
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 21 9

10 . Express the following e quation in v ct t t

e o r no a ion

aw 6”
cos (ar ) co s (ny)
dy az

co s (nz) (18 .

f (q ) n dS
-
.

Expre ss the follow i ng e quat io ns in vc

e tor t
no ation

du GU li
C)
17
1 fp
it
« 63: p 62:

do EU
20“ we)
1 9p
6: a,, p
aw BU 1 23
up)
at dz p dz

q ha v
e com po ne nts u, v and w, and on hav e com ponent s

+ 2
al x q = V U

12
o c cur
. Express in
in the theo r
vy e ctor not atio n

of Elasticit y :
w
the follo ing e quations

w h ere
s c al a r
u, v ,w
v ariable ,
are
and w
the com po ne nts

here p, l ,
o f a v e ctor

and ,a are
q,
co nstants
w
.
here a is a
2 20 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

13 . Expre ss the follo wing e q uatio ns in v e cto r no tat io n

au v do
az 3 3 2:

where u, v , and w are com po ne nt s o f the v e c to r q, w here X ,

Y,

and Z a re com po ne nts of the v e c to r F , where p a nd a are scal ar

v a ria bles , and where v is a sca lar co ns ta nt .

 APPENDIX .

NOTATI ON AND F OR MULZE .

Th e V a ri o us No ta tio ns .

he eve
W titie i t e it we h ve
i e ve ie t t ti ie
n r ne w q u a n s a re n ro duc d is ll to a

t ti evi e the te ee e
as s m pl a nd as con n n a no a o n as
p o ss bl . The
W illa rd
t h th ht the tt the i e t
no a on d s d by la Pro fe sso r G ibbs s m d

t y et ic the i
t o us , af e r muc o ug on ma e r, to be s m pl s

the i ve t te i e the ette

a nd m os s mm r al o f a ny o f exi sti ng k nds .

Ham ilton ,
the ve t ct e ec ive
n n or of q ua rn o n s , us d l rs

the vect th t we the th

S and V for
o rs a
s c al ar a n d

follo d m;
c or

us
p ro du s r sp t ly of

S a b and V ab

e e e te e ective y the c vect ct

the vect
r pr s n d r sp l s alar a n d or p ro du s of

ette t i te e e e te the i
o rs a a nd b .

t e the v t wi it hi t ti y
The l r T, s an d ng fo r nso r , r p r s n d m agn

v t e t e i e ti it i c e
ud of e c or follo ng . T s no a on has m an

v v the i h e e t i i e t ti
ad an a g s , but af er d lb ra on w as d s a rd d .

ii it e e e it y et i
O li er Hea iside , Engl s l c r c a n , us d a no a on

Ha m l
i c i the the t whi e et i i the
but r nd r d
’
s m lar to on s, uns mm r c al by

vect t hi ee e te
ds a rd n g S fo r s c al a r p r o duc l r a n ng

c w th h he we
V fo r a or pr o duc . T s s m d to us to be p a s

e y the
ba k ard, al o ug w as follo d in its u se by F oppl
Bucherer in G rm an
i ci e evi e t ti
and and by o rs .

te it y i vect the
The d s pl s o f G rass m a n n , w ho h a d d s d a no a on

e e t ti e the e ti t ti e he
of his o wn , adap d to the an al s s o f o rs , a nd at

t y e ewhe e i jecti
n m r sul ng n o a on has a n um b r o f a d
pr s

re n s in Ge rm an and ls r . Our m a n ob on to it
22 1
2 22 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

th t it e i e e t e th e i t h
the c th eve ti the the e e
is a us s d ff r n kinds of p a r n es s to d s inguis

the e the e it c e e
two p rodu ts , us p r n ng use of s p a r n

t e ch e w t th the the y e
s s for o r u
p p
r o s s . I t is also q u e um b rsom a nd

e i e the e ei i i ity e ct th t
ak s mu long r to ri e an any o f o r s st m s,

e the e thece the yh t ewhthe t i tii e i hi

b s d s r b ng a l ab l of r ro r due to the fa a al l

p ar n s s ne s sa ril

ct lo o k som a al k .

the vect i t t and, d d

G ibb s, on o r p u s s ngu s ng pr o u

the
m ar k between tw o o rs ns e ad o f in fron o r ar o und

hi e e ti y y et ic t ti
m .

i y the the e t y e
T s is ss n all a s mm r al no a on , an d to o ur

i i te xthe v iety ct the

m n d an d to m a n o rs b s . The tw o s m b o ls us d

the e vi i with the

to nd c a ar of p ro du a re dot an d

i y e ( )
i y ct
c ro ss . In o rd r to a o d any c o nfus o n

ece ity y i we h ve ve t e eci

o r d n ar do t a nd c ross us d fo r o rd n a r pro du s, a nd a

eci h t the ve the

n ss in a ny a nal s s, a n ur d to use a s p al

w iti i e the c whe e do t is

do t a nd a sp al c ross . T a is , ab o

ce the e iti the h a s m all and d

r ng l n a nd ro s s is one n us

is pl a d in sa m pos o n as do t . T us

a b and a b

the c vect ct the vect

e ective y
are s al ar a nd or pro du s of ors a and b

hey e y w ite e i y i ti i he
r sp l .

with the ct hey it e

T a re as to r ,
as l d s ngu s d and con

with e the e eithe the e e the i

n e c te d i dea of a p ro du . T do no t n e rf re

y c ei e i do
p a r n s s, n y
r r nd r use o f an o rd

he t the w hey y et ic y ce
n ar do t or a ross ( X ) und s r abl no r a m b guo us in
ot r p ar s o f or k T . are s m m r all p la d .

Com pa ris o n of No ta tio n s

the y te
.

t ti wi e e the e i c e the t e t W
A F e w E xa m p le s of F o rm ulae in four s s ms of

h ive i t t ti the e efit

no a on ll r nd r fo r go ng l ar to s ud n . e

Ha m l
e v i the wh e e ee ette wh
all g b of bo ld faced
’
s on s no a on n o ur -

e e e e t vect
t
yp a nd a o d o l s al use o f Gr k l rs i ch
a
re m ploy d by him to r pr se n o rs.
 V ECTOR ANALYSIS . 223

fo rm ulae the e in o rd r

i i t t ti t ti
are

G bbs No a o n
’
1 . .

t ti
Ham l o n s No a o n
’
2 . .

t ti
Heav iside s No a o n
’
3 . .

Gans No a o n
’
4 .
( Gr as s m a nn ian . .
)
1 . a OT 8 0 .

2 . Ta .

3 . a .

4 .

h a o
ba o
ab co s ( ab ).

Sa b Sba Ta Tb co s ( ab ) .

ab ba ab cos (a b) .

b
( )
a la !!b! cos (ab ) .

a xb ba x e a b sin (ab ) .

2 . Va h V ba 6 Ta Tb sin ( a b ) .

3 . Va h —V ba e ab s in (a b ) .

4 .
[ ]
ob [ ]
ba 6 I bI sin (a b)
a lI .

1 . a (h
o
c) a b -
a c o
. ab s b C xa
-
.

2 . Sa (b c) Sa b Sa c . Sa V bc Sm .

3 . a (h c) ab ac . a V bc c a .

4 ( .b
a c) (ab) ( 06 1 ( i l)
l be ( l d)
b e e

1 . a (b c
x
) x
ba c -
c a -
b .

2 . Va Vbc c Sa b b Sa c .

3 . V a V bc b ac c ab .

4 . b(ac )

1 "
b ‘
l o c xa r a xb
o

a + b °
[ a bc ] [ a bc ] [ a bc ]
Se c Se a S rV a b
c
Sa V bc Sa Vbc Sa V bc
e c e a rV a b
a
uv be a V bc Rig
(d D
bc
a
(d !) b ca
( l nc
r ab

( 4 1)
6 ( [ba] )
he e e e ficie t h w the
0 0 0

cha ra cter isti cs

the v i ti
T s x a m pl s are suf n to S o

f ar ous no t a o ns .
 ve ct o r, o r ic ularly
p art
its m ag ni tude alone is

f
o Vectors with
te t he
. ve ctor a to its
rte sia n a xe s . We shall
; he s ub c
s rip s t 1, 2, and

c by far the m o t im
s

e e
r s nt t heir di e tion
r c s
 VECTOR ANALYSIS . 225

The vect theor a n is m ad e up o f

vec alo n g i,e th of l

vect j e th
a to r ng a ,,

of l
vect e h
a o r alo ng ,
ng a, ,

a o r alo n g k, of l ngt

a = a, l + az i + a3 k .

he e c i etwe the ette

v e
T r can be no o nfus o n b en l rs a , an d a l ,

thi ve ti the c e
fo r ob io us r as o n s .

ve t i t the i i
A V o luntary E xceptio n to s c on n on is in as of

wi e te i te
t he ra di us c or r to any p o n fro m or g n . I ts c o m po

e ch e e y the t i ch
n e n ts ll be d no d by x, y, and z ns a d o f r, , r, , an d r3 in

ct the w whe t te i t th t t ti
o rd r to a ppro a m or c lo s l to usual Ca r e s an ar

hi e we w ite
a e r of o rk n r a nsla d n o a no a on . F or
t s r aso n r

j x i y z k,

a nd i i e whe e i e
for s m lar r as o ns n d s ra bl ,

j
F X i Yj Z k,
q u i v w k,

Th e
e e te the i ve
Unit Ta ng ent the c ve
i ce
alo n g a n d Unit No rma l to a ur

c et it vectd
i ecti i e an d 11
o r surfa c a re no d by un t c to rs t . S n

t he o m po n n s o f a un o r are its d r o n c os n s in

t, i t, i t, k
a nd n, i nz i n3 k ,

the i ecti i e the

et e e tive y
t, , t, , an d ta a nd n , , n, , and 713 a re d r o n c os n s o f

c vect e e e te
t an g n and n o r m al r s p c l .

ci etwee the th
Th e Sca la r or Do t Produ t of two o rs is r pr s n d
b y pl a ng a do t b n m us :

a oh b o
a a b cos (ab )
h e the t ti e the c i e
,

itive i e ti
W er cos (ab ) is no a on us d fo r os n of the
a n gle included by the po s d r c o ns o f a and b .
2 26 VEC TOR ANALY SIS .

vect et
i e i c w e the h of o rs is re pres n ed
Th e V ecto r or Cross Produc t tw o
by plac ng a sp c al ross be t e n m t us :

a x
b b r
a c a b s in (a b )
it vect vect e ic the
.

vect the t e ch e e t
The un or 6 is a or p rpe n d ul ar to two

t it i the i ti c
o rs in pro duc a nd is ta k n in su a s ns hat

w v e t te
as y o u urn a n o b, 6
po n ts in d rec on a o r k screw
-

o uld ad an c if so ro a d .

(a xb ), e

( a xb o ) a b sin (ab )
e e te w ti
.

ti it i h y
A Sca la r Po int F unc tio n is -
r p r se n d by ri ng the
func o n al s m bo l in al c . T us

e th t c i cti the i
m
ht eve y v e V is
ete i a s alar
a ns a po n t -
fun on of ra d us v ec

hi e iv e t te i e ti
to r r . T a is , for r alu o f r, V has a d rm nate

magni tude
e e e t w iti
. T s is q u al n to on e Ca r s an q u a on.

cti y ce ty e h
A V e cto r Po int F unctio n is -
r pr s n e d by r ng the
fun o n al s m bo l in bold fa -
d p . T us

F f (r )

e th t ve t i t ti the i
ht eve y v e et i
m a ns a F is a c or po n -
fun c on o f rad us vec

hi e iv e t
to r r . T a is , fo r r alu o f r, F has a d e r m nate

e ti
ma gni tud e a nd di recti o n . T s is q u al n to three Car

c c ti e e e te
tesian q u a o ns .

the eci y
A Li nea r V e to r F un tio n, in par c ul ar, is r p r s n d by
sp al s m bo ls

l cc, l ! o r x
c c e e e te the
.

m
e ec ive y
V e lo ity a nd Ang ula r V e lo ity a re r pr s n d by sy

bo ls r sp t l

q a nd (o

c e e e t the it i
.

Th e Sca la r Po tentia l F un tio n is r pr s n e d by al cs

V or O .
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 227

The V ecto r Po tentia l is e

r prese n e d t by the bold fac d
-
e
v .

Mag netic
e te
Elec tri c or Inte nslt'es or F o rc e s in G e nera l are

re pres n d by
F or H .

Th e Differentia l V ec to r O pera to r V ( e
r ad del ) is e iv e t
qu al n

to
a . a
+’ +
se dy
i e eyi the w eye
Bes d i y vect it
et the e c e h
s ob ng la s ob d by o rd n a r o rs ,

t e i te et ti h
diflere ntiating
t e with
is a o p r a o r, a nd sam ar s o uld be

the i e e ti ti t an d
ak n in its use n rpr a o n as s o uld be ak n

e y t it
o r d ff r n a n g o pe ra o rs

c e e itt e c e ece y whe

As Pro f sso r Jo l *
p u s

e the e e it e i e y the e
Of o urs so m l l ar is n ss ar n V is ex

i the c e e i e i ti i h etwe
d in
press g n r al fo r m , but is pr c s l of sa m

k nd as ar r q u r d to d s n gu s b en

4 x
l i
6x 6x

x” ?
are

c i t tt che it i ic te the v i e which it

De l so m e tim es e e y
diffe re ntia te s pa rt ia ll y . G n rall a sub

h
s r p a a d to ,
nd a s ar a bl difler c

entl a tes T us
V h
.

a o

e th t the c ct the vect ve

a

c etii e ee the e e
m a ns a in s al ar p r o du o r a a bo is to
d r d
i i te w iti
be o ns va riable .

c i t the tity whi h

So m m s sa m p ro c ss m ay be nd c a d by r ng

e i i the i e e i ti h
subs r
as a p to the expr essi o n q ua n c is to
ma n consta nt dur ng d ff r nt a on T us

the e
r .

V (
a o
b )b is sam as V a (a h) o
.

Charles Jas pe r Jo ly, Ma nua l of Quaternio ns Macm illan ,

1905. Art 57. p 75 . . .

2 28 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

hich t ti
W e e e wi e e whethe
the vect i ee v i e
no a on is pr f rabl ll d p nd o n r all

whethe c t t e ctive y
but o ne of o rs a re to be c o ns d r d a r a bl or

eti e the t ti
r all but o ne a re o ns a n ,
r s pe l .

So m m s also no a on

b)
’ ' ’
V ( a o
s a o

the i e h vi the e cce t the

ei e i e e v i e i the var abl
is use ful , s a ng sa m a n as V,

ve e te t e c
b ng alo n c o ns d r d a r a bl dur ng difle ren tia tio n .

ti ve t the eve ce
G radie nt (gr a d ) , or c to r of gr a s slo p of a s alar

cti ive the e ti

func on V , is a c o r n o r m al to l l surfa s of the

cti th
fun on V a nd is g n by o p ra on of V upo n the

fun on us :

V V ie t e g ad
r n o r slo p of V gra d V

v c ve t ti ive
.

the t with the ti th F is g by form

Th e D i e rg e n e o f a c or fun c on n

i ng s c a la r p ro duc of V func on us

ive e ce
V F
-
d rg n of F div F

ve t cti tie
.

the vect t with the ti

Th e Curl of a c or fun on F is ob a n d by fo rming
or p ro du c of V func on

c
V xF t ti url F ro a on of F (ro t F )

e i t t vect y i
.

e w e e e ce
The m o r m po r an fo rm ul a of or a nal s s a re col

lecte d b lo fo r r f r n .
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 22 9

FO RM ULIEJ '

V e cto rs .

m= w l + mzi + w3 k

i 2 a, + j 2 a, k 2 a, .

l eo s a -

l
-

j C OS fi +k 00 8 T, (9)
w he e B the i e ti the i vect d o n a ngles o f r ad us

th h the t i
r a , , r are r c or r .

e ei vi e
o f a stra ig h t e rm nus o f
Th e e q ua tio n line ro ug

b and p a r a ll l to a is , 8 b n g a sc a la r ar ab l ,

r = b + sa

it th h the i i
.

If p asse s ro ug or g n

th h the e
'
l

A line ro ug n ds o f a an d b
r s a ( 1 s )b
s b ( 1 s ) a

th t th e vect h
.

the e t i ht i e
The c o nditio n a r e o rs , a , b, a nd c , s o uld end

in sa m s ra g l n is
xa y b zc 0 .

x y z 0 .

The num bering co rrespo nds w ith that o f the te xt .

23 0 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

The e q ua tio n ofete

i th h the t i ea the v ct
p la ne d rm n d by
is
e o rs a

and b, a nd p ass n g ro ug e rm inus o f c ,

r c sa lb ( 15)
th h the i i e
.

The p la ne ro ug or g n a nd p arall l to a an d b is
r sa tb (14)
i th h the th i
.

Th e e q ua tio n o f a p la ne pass ng ro ug ree po n ts

a, b, a nd c is
—s — t) c ( )
1 6
th t vec h
.

e e
c o nditio n a fo ur to rs , a, b, c , and ( 1, s o uld e n d

sa m
pl an is

The v e cto r
ma + n h
( 18)
ivi e the i e j i i the i t the ti
m n

d d s l n o n ng p o n s a a n d b in ra o of

v the ce te vity the

m to n .

it Th e e cto r to n r of gra of m asse s m , at

po n s a ,
is

the e ti
If r la on
m,a , m, a2 0
is to bei e e e t the i i ch e the
nd p nd n of or g n os n , n

m, m2 0 .

c
V e to r a nd Sca la r Products .

Products f
o Two Vector s .

a o
h ab cos ( ab ) b o
a

a ,b, a 2b2 a , b, .

2 c z 2 2
8 a al 072 “3 .

a,b ,
cos ab
( ).

2
( 0
8 a l °a l
 VEC TOR ANALYSIS . 23 1

a ob the
0, n a . Lb .

( b) ( d) we d b bd
tt ti e i the e the ct
a -
c a -
e o
.

a en on n e d be pa d to ord r o f fa o rs .

a xb c a b sin (ab ) b a
x

“ c abs Gab. ) i o.
(d b a b k (a l bz dub. )
i j k

01 “2 as

b, b2 b,

e is
i ti
a un it vect e e c
ch e e th t the e
t e tw
o r, p rp ndi ul ar to pl an o f a a nd b

c ew w v ce
a nd p o n ng in su a s ns a as a is urn d o ards b
a c o rk s r -
o uld ad an alo n g e.

sin ( ab ) .

a re O

the e
.

a xb = 0, n b is parall l to a .

j
2
l( 2 = 1 i j k k i 0
.
o s
.
( )
29
11 jj k xk 0 i j k, j k i, k xi j ( 5)
3
the c et the
x x x x
. .

If is o m po n n o f a n o r m al to b,
’
a n

a vb b
'
a x .
( )
3 6

(a d) we a xd bxc bxc ( )
38

e t tte ti i the e the t

.

3 r a a n on m ust be p a d to o rd r o f fac o rs .

Products o f Three V ectors .

Th e sca la r
ai “2 as

a -
b
( c)
x
(a xb )c ~
b, b2 b, [ a bc ]
c1 62 ca

[a bc ] repres ents all arr an em ents o f the triple s calar products,

g
hav in g the s am e c cli cal order o f
y facto rs .
23 2 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

Th e ve cto r ax (b c ) b a -c c ab (55)
e e e te t th the
x

the m ay be e rm s o f
An y v e c to r r r p r s n d in re e o rs

by fo rm ula

r a bc
[ ] [ rbc ] [ ] b [ ra b c ] ( )
61

i th h the te i
a rca .

Th e pla ne norm al to a a nd p ass n g ro ug r m n us

of b is
a- r ( b) O

the i thi e
.

The pe rpendic ula r fro m or gi n to s plan is

p = a
“
71 11

e th h the
-
.

Th e pla ne p arall l to c an d d ro u g e nd o f b is

(d )( -
r b) 0

e th h the th ee i t
.

Th e p la n ro ug r p o n s ,
a ,
b, and c is

( — a ) (a —C) 0, ( 67 )
whe e
r -

o -
(
r a ) 0, r (a xb bxc a s )

the i i thi e
.

Th e perpendicula r fro m or g n to s pl an is
=
¢ t p
fl
a

th h the
Th e l ine ro ug e e nd o f b and p arall l to a is

an r ( b) 0 ( 69)
t c i with
.

e te the i i
Th e e q ua (
io n ) of the sph e re or cir le o f rad us a

n r at or g n is

the i i the i t it ec e
If or g n is at p o n c b om s

c t
r
2
2 r c -
c
2
o ns

the i i ie the i e e ce
.

If or g n l s on c rc um f r n ,

r
2 —2 r a - = 0 .
 V EC TOR ANALYSIS . 23 3

D IFFER ENTIATI ON O F V E CTOR S .

Qfil
"
d a ° ' ’
l z
E a l
il h
‘
J
”
.
k .

" " “
dl dt dt”
dl

an d p
“ Q
dt
.

”
thi s m ay be w itt r en

iP IP l kP
n n
I
a a
P a ul ’ ‘
az ' '
d s:

p( a o
h) p a -
b a -
p b .

c
Nottea

a s ala r
ti t een

du
on n d be p a d to i the e the o rd r o f

pr o c .

p( a xb ) p a xb a xp b .
( )
80

e t tte ti t i the e the c

ve t t
Gr a a n on m us be pa d to o rd r o f fa to rs
In a c or p r o duc .

p [ a -
b x c ] p ab c a -
p b x c a -
b xp c,

p p a dv b xc
) ax b
( px
C )
.

Th e O pe ra to r V ( de l ) .

a 11
v = i _ _

67: By dz

f dr + j y
d + k de ,

a a
de l de — d (
az

v V 1 k gr a d V (a vect or )
, ( 106)
23 4 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

. (
a -
b) V b (a
’
b )E V (
a

dV aV aV —
aV
e
V V) + 8’ 7

dc ax ay az

s,

( St t + k Ft ).
a ( b V -
F F) b v -
y a -
F
( )
,

F
9_ , (f ;
i
div F ( a scalar ).

ax ay 62

Th e D ive rg enc e Th e ore m ,

whewe it
dra
r q is a ny

no r m al
vect or fun cti on a nd 11 Is the e tx ern all y
n un to dS .

i j k

l
63: 6s
a d
c url F

Fl Fs

V x
( (ox r ) 2 (0 , if (0 c t ve t
o ns . c o r.

Ge ne ra l D iffe re ntia ting F o rm ula fo r del .

V (uv ) vV u q ,

V -
( uv ) Vu v -
u V v, -

V x
( uv ) V u xv u v .
 VECTOR ANALY SIS . 23 5

V (n o v ) r v u x
(v ) v -
Vu Vx (q )
.

V v -
q u v -
,

V x
( u vx
) -
v ) V (V w
o
u)

uV v -
v -
vu vV u -
u Vv -
.
( 1 3 1 )

q( r dr ) q( r ) V q (dr q ) -
( 1 3 5 )
V (a -r ) a c tv t o ns . ec o r.

i a an d b c t vect
o ns . o rs .

V f (r )2
i (r )
”

T a y lor ’
s Th eorem .

f( r 6 )
S tok es Th eo rem
’
.

f f£
'

F dr = -
n
ap

V V V - E V V
E
)
’
div grad V de l squar e V (a c
s a lar )
6 V 2
6V 2
6 V 2

or ”
ag z
62 , ( 7)
1 4

2
is c e the
all d Lapla c i et
j
V a n o p ra o r .

V ’
F V 2
i F
( ,+ F, + k F, i V F, + ’

6F 6F aF
2 2 z

z ’ 2
ar dy 62
23 6 V EC TOR . L ALYSI
J ‘ S .

di v c url F E 0 .

c uri
’
F V V -
F) F (V V )
-

grad di v l
— V F,
” :

"
m( m In t
,

M i ni m a l.

( 50)
1

ac m rrl ing as the o rigin is ta ke n ins d ie or o uts ide of the

clmled s urface S .

Laplace Eq uat io n
’
s .

V V ’
0 .
( 1 5 7 )

Poisso n ’
s Eq uat io n . A cc io rd n g to s yt
s e m o f units c h o se n ,

it is
V V ’

Its s olu ti on is
1
or V res pt. ( 1 67)

If V sa ti fies s the e ti
q ua o ns

V z
V 0
a nd r-V V n V,

it is ll sphe ri al c harm o ni c e ee
of d gr n .

The o re m s
’
( i rc c n ll .

n l / V VdS
- n
-

UV 2
Vdv (V U V V )dv
-
,
l

( 8)
15

n - ( l IV V -
VV U) ds I UV W
'
—VV U) dv
’
.
 VEC TOR ANALY SIS . 23 7

G ree n ’
s F o rm ul a.

V.

1v v VV -
l
dS ,

S ur f ac es

Po t V ( 8)
1 6

is the i ve e e tn rs o p ra o r to V 2
( 169 )

c vect cti
c cti
url p o t fo r a or fun on .

p o t V fo r a s alar fun on.

Th e o rem of He lm h o ltz .

fff v
1

{s
v — dc + dv ( 1 75 )
x 4

—
4
1
ot (v W ) v x
po t (V W)
x .

q dr — V (q -
n )1dS

9
q any vect or fun cti on .

M axwell ’
s Electro m ag neti
-
c E q ua tions for Media at Be st.

69
'

"
9 e F,
at
636
56 H .

at

L i near Ve ctor F unctio n

i e vect cti
.

If I
()is a l n ar or fun on,

¢( T it
b
l ? i k:
“
l

=
¢ a 7 a ¢n

9 4 7

the c j te cti
t
'

1 ( o a

is s aid to be o n uga fun on

23 8 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

¢
the i e c j te
7

I
n ( ) is s a d to be s lf -
o n uga .

o) (a, i (a, j (oak

o n Aw, i s i Umsk , ( 23 2 )
m
bal ) E (b m
’
A m, i z
B wzj
’
C wak ,
’

( M m A w, i "
a zj U msk
”

wo ) e e ,

b
l
m A w, i ‘
B w2j
1
C w3 k
1
‘ “ ‘ ‘

vect fie ce whe
.

ee e vi ce which ve city
Co rio l is ’
E qua tio n . A or a in x d sp a ,
n

t ti ti fie the wi e ti
’

r f rr d to a mo ng spa has an an gular lo

o f ro a o n co, s a s s fo llo ng r la on :

coxq .

D Alcm be rt
’ ’
s E qua tion .

F or 0 .

E ul e r ’
s E qua tio n of Mo tio n of a R ig id Body a b o ut a

Fixe d Po int
dl l
. -

cox H M .

dt

Ham ilto n ’
s c
Pri n iple .

o
f ti
( T

Lag ra ng e
’
s t
E qua io n s of Mo io n t .

V ,,L 0,
 VEC TOR ANALYSI S . 23 9

Hydrodynam i cs .

Eq uatio n of C o ntinuity .

'

I
'
07

E uler’
s E quatio n of M o io n t of a F luid .

M( M w e 4) 9 F V 7» ( 2 75)
D, g,

C irc ula io nt a lo ng th e pa th AB .

ff
 ADD ITIO NS TO APPEN D IX .

N ote to § 4 .

i e
the v e t tic e i ti
No te on Differe n t V ari e tie s of V ec to rs . Co nsi d r a p art

the tic e e i e t the t w i e

cle on mo abl p la fo rm P . The p ar l is ni all y

the t A
i ce y iti
at . If p a r l r ma ns at r s on p la form hl

the tic e wi e c e the th

l f m i d l d unifo rm l
’
p a o r s s p a to a new pos on P ,

AA
hi ti c ve e t y e c i e ve
'
p a r l ll d s ri b p a rela ti vely to the ground .

mo be ni n l d b d by the
e c ci e y the i e y
T s on c an on s r cto r

the t e i e t the tic e v

AA m or l by s ngl m bol
’
or on s s a.

i y the th th e tive y
If p la fo rm r ma ns at r s a nd p a r l mo s
e

un form l B discribe d la l
e h ty
to , p a us r to the
is AB,
vi e t y the tic e ve y
gro und or m or s or l b .

from A to B
whi e the t ve y the
E d n l ,
if p ar l mo s uni fo rm l

tic e wi fi y wi h ve e c i e
l f m m unifo rm l fro m P to P ’
l p a o r o s ,

l ll nall end up at B, ’
a nd ll d b d t he
th B y with e ect the the
p ar a s r
-
’

ece tie et hivect th uni fo rm l

the the
p a A r sp to gro un d, an d in

w itte
s am m . T s p a is d efi ned to be sum o f dis

thi c e the e i ce e t t e ce
p la (
m n s ) or o rs a and b an d is r n a b .

c ec tive y eith e the fi iti the

( In s as also s d sp la m n s m ay ak p la

tic e wi the e )
o ns u l in e r o rd r and na l p os on o f

th t ce ve citie te
p a r l ll be sam .

hy ic titie ey thi e e ce they wi

No w i t i s a fac t a for s, lo s an d m any o h r

H
ey the c e e ce c c which w
p s al q u an s ob s s am law . n ll

the efi iti c i te t with the

ob o ns q u n s of a al ul us fo llo s from the
e ve, and o r d n o ns o ns s n facts .
 APPENDIX . 241

he thi e e which i e
e e the vect the ve hi W
T re is no ng ls but co nve ni e n ce obl g s us to

c h ve efi e the the w y the

d fin sum of tw o o rs in abo fas on . e

c t ict y e iti t e c i te t y i sum

ould a d n d in o r a s, and by o r

W ch e c e the efi ti which ee t
n on -
o n ra d or d fin o ns o b ain d a o ns s n anal s s .

t e t ite ee
e o os , of o urs , d ni o ns s m to us m os

ite te ce t i
n a ur al an d b s su d to our n ds .

Q
e t icti ce vect W
F ree V ec to rs, Slide or Axial V e c to rs . u of n r a n

e t ict ethe e which they i e t

r s r ons must be pla d upo n our ors . e m ay
r s r

e e e t ict the
m to a p lan in m ay sl d abo u ,

ie c th the i e which they e e t

or to r m ain norm al to so m p lan , or r s r m to
sl

eve tt ch the fi e i t wi ti gm
d ba k and fo r in l n s of are s n s,

h t ev
or n a a m to a x d po n allo ng n o mo on

w a so

e e we w th t c e
er .

e e e te vect e e ic thei e th t
Fo r xam pl I t is ll kno oup l s m ay be
‘

: n a

the e ect c e the e

r p r s n d by o rs p rp nd ular to r p la n an d a

vect e i e it e h weve the i e

ff o f an y o up l is sam as lo ng as its represen

i ce hi i the ee t vect
t ativ e or r ma ns p arall l to s lf, o r o rw s

e
m ay be
‘

d spla d . T s s fr s kind of a or an d

the the h ce ce the e e ect

c all d a F ree V e c to r .

y th t they i ce thei i e
On o r a nd, for s p ro du sam ff p ro

cti hi vect with e t icte ee

v i de d o nl a are not d sp la d o ut o f r l n of

e
a on . T s kind of a or r s r d fr do m is
c a ll

eve the e we e
d
the ti e the w e ect
a Sli d e V e c to r , o r Axi al V e c to r .

ci ce i e cti ch i
N r l ss , if di sr gard for m kn o n ff

e t t ive i we c i e ce
of disp la ng a for o ut o f its l n o f a on , i . e .
,
an g ng its

ee vect i t ce t tic the c iti

m om n abo u any g n ax s , m ay o ns d r fo r s as

e i i i th t the e t t the ce
fr o rs . Fo r ns an ,
in s a s , o ne o f o nd o ns

h v i h e e we
of q u l br um is a r sul an o f all for s, con

H
i e the ce ee vect the ti e ei
s i dered acti ng a t a com m on ori gi n , s all an s . r

e t icti th i i e cti i t i ic y c t i e
c o ns d r fo r s as fr o rs fo r m b ng . The

e i i e the v i hi the e t t e t
r s r on to e r l n of a on is n r ns all on a n d in

i t e v citie c vect i y
t he r ma n ng rul fo r an s ng o f r sul an m om n .

hi e fi ite t ti h t ti t
S m ul an o us angular elo s o m po und o r all ,

i we t ti t the
W l n ro a o ns do no t . T us a ro a on o f 0 abo u

an ax s follo d by a ro a on o f e abou a no r axis is

242 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

ee e th t ti t e eve e
e yet fi te t ti which
not , in g n ral , q ual to ose ro a o ns ak n in r rs

i ecti t it e th t e e
ord r . And a ni ro a on has an axis , is a

ect it e O ey the w vect y i

dr on and an am o un or m agn ud a nd is , in a s ns , a

weve the e t ti we e t e ce i t e
v or , but do s not b la s Of o ur o r a nal s s .

Ho
the e t t t ti w c ect y
r if s ro a o ns r to ak l
p a s m ul an

vect iti efi e ve ould

o usly r sul an ro a on be orr l found by

th ee th t we e ce c c
o r add o n as d n d abo .

which c i ci e e y i e with the e

It is us s n a ar e en de av o rl ng to d du a al ulus

e tie the j ity titie which we y it

o n d s as n arl as p o s s bl fundam n tal

vi th c t cte c i te t y i c i ci i
p p
ro r s Of ma or Of q uan s to a p pl .

Ha
c ey w th the ct it c e t ht
ng us o ns ru d a ons s n anal s s o n d ng

t ct y with t e e ce the te whe

as los l as m ay be i fa s, can Of o urs be a ug

titie O ey the e w vec

abs ra l ou r fer n to m . La r on n h
p y

h ve ee fi h ve we e y the e t the
sical q uan s are shown to b sam la s as to rs

vect c c the w th t the

a b n de ned to a ,
m ay m plo r s ul s O f

e y the w ite e ve the te chi

or al ulus to m i o u fur r a do .

ect y i t ct cie ce eve the

P rsonall r r do s no t appro Of a ng Of

ject te che th y
V or An al s s as an abs ra s n ,
nor n as a ma

i i with the hy ic e t which it ie

m atical sub unless by a a r w ho is oro ug hl

which it e i e
fam l ar p s al r sul s to app l s an d fo r

vect y i e ce thi th t ee
w as d s gn d .

vect
The o r an al s s as d du d in s book is a Of fr
o rs .

§ Note to 38

c
.

No rm a l, No rm a l Pla ne , Prin ipa l No rm a l, Bino rm a l,

c R e tif ying Pla ne

ve y i e e e ic the t e t c e
.

i t t e cy c e he e
E r l n p rp nd ular to ang n to a urv at the
M
e c e the e the
p o n Of ang n , ,
is all d a N o rm al . T s n o rm al s

i e eci e ti the which ie the

lie in a p lan all d N orm al Plan and from m tw o are

c ti e c e the i ci the
s ngl d
for sp o ut al m n o n : norm al l s in

e e ic thi e c e the i
Os ula ng Plan all d Pr n p al No rm al, and n orm al

B n orm al
e i th h i t t e cy
p p
r n d ul ar to s p la n all d .

the i ci c e the ecti yi

The plan p ass ng ro ug the p o n Of ang n p p
e r e n

llar to p r n p al n orm a l is all d R f ng Plane .

 APPENDIX . 24 3

ect t i i
y te vect
Thus the tangen , the pr nc pal i
i the i t
normal and the b norm al

c t t i i the ecti the vect

form a r angular s s m of ors . Tak ng po n

wy t e i ht h e y te
of on ac as or g n, dir ons Of se ors m ay

i ci h weve w y ch e it
al a s be n soak as to form a r g
-
an d d s s m . The

t w the ce te c v t e the c ve
p r n p al no rm al , o r, is al a s os n so as to po n

the it e the i c v t e
o ards n r Of ur a ur of ur .

vect the t e t i ci
Let R be m agn ud Of rad us Of ur a ur and le t
B
i e e tive y he
v, be uni t ors alo ng ang n , p r n p al n o rm a l
and b norm al r sp c l . T n

( )
'

1 a

vect c v t e whe e vect i

c v t e) efi iti the te ch e the it
The o r rad us Of
1
ur a ur c p p
-

or r

t e t it
ur a ur is, by d n on, ra Of ang Of un

a ng n p e r un ar c o r

43 — «
.
r
ds
ecti the i ci we
w it it whe e the
An d
it e the i c vt e
as its dir on is along p r n p al no rm al m ay
r e ,
r R is m agn ud Of ra d us O f ur a ur ,

l
'
"
1 c r

e ce
.

R
H n
v = Rr

t vect th it
.

As 6 is a uni 1 bo to r and v , is
'
or

()
c

ecti c i e the e i e the

the wi e ti
The dir on os n s Of s l n s are coefi cients of

j
i , , k in follo ng q ua ons .

. "
1 I

j Rz k ,
” ”
Rx i
”
v Rr Ry

i
’
j ’
k
’
T xv R x y 2

$ 1! ” ll
y z
I !
z
R
i n
,
”
244 VECTOR ANALYSI S .

Tor si on o r Tort uo si ty is d efi e n d on p ag e 78 as

d B
a.
“

3
( e e 6eci thec theet i
H r is ll Of p ag
vect c e the i
t i e ce
The r p ro al Of o rs o n is a or all d r ad us of

ors o n 5 . H n

T=

F orm ula t of F re ne fo r a Space Curve

the i ve ti ti the e tie ce e

.

ce t i e et et i t e
In n s ga on Of p p
ro r s Of sp a curv s

hey e e e e the the t ve t

r a n fo rm ula due to Fr n are Of fundam n al m po r an c .

the t e t i ci i
T nabl us to xp r ss deri va ti ves Of uni c o rs

thei ee evectti te the ivie ve

alo ng ang n , p r n p al n o rm al an d b norm al in te rms
of s o rs ms l s .

D ff r n ( ) a a g ng
"

which ( ) ec e
1 r

by b b om s

i e e ti te (c) ivi
D ff r n a g ng

fl
’ '

which ec e
T x v T xv

by I b om s

thi e ti we th t B i ce 6
it vect 6 B it the e e e we
’
From s q u a on see a is _L to and s n is

w ite
is L to is fo r p arall l to
'
a un or .

; r v a nd

m ay r

3
1
’

S
whethee i c t whi e efi itite v e e ti
r S is a s a lar os abso lu alu , as v is a un it vect o r,

i i ce i ht e [ ie
is ra d us O f o rs o n , by d n o n, u
q a on ( )
d .

Aga n , s n v is at r g a ngl s to 3 a nd we m ay wr t

V
p
 APPENDIX . 245

whi ch e ti q ua on o n diff e e ti ti ec
r n a ng b om es
!
p
i
$ ,

i we O t i
v x? 3 7

Us ng II and I b a n

v
R

8
'
r

S R
ti
fi t e iv tive e ti they e e
te the e ve
Eq ua o ns I , II , I II are Frenet
’
s q ua o ns ; xpr ss

B
c ms l s and
the rs d r a s Of v an d in rm s of

the ece i we
the s alars R an d S .

e iy O t i e the t i c ve
F orm ula for th e To rsio n . From p r d ng c an

( ) we h ve
as l b ain a s m pl fo rm ula for ors on of a ur .

Fr om II an d c a

v '

S (
T X V )
l ll II
e
l ll
e e e
ec t i e tic y e ti yi
x r x r .

By m ul pl
e ti ( we h ve
T he s o nd erm is d n all z ro . ng by
q ua on b), v = Rr , ”
a

fl
a
p RT e x t
ill
] .

H e ce the fi t t i e c
n , as rs r pl s al ar p ro du ct v he
ani s s

é R 2

e e ti te i
h w th t e c ve the t i
Exerci se : Exp r ss q ua o ns I , II , I II , IV in C ar s an

v h c ve e y
c o Or dina tes . S o a for a p lan ur o rs o n

a nis es , a n d on rs l .

Pa th De scrib ed b y an El ec tro n i n Unif orm M agneti c Fi el d

i te ti ic ti vect eth
a .

i e the ti ct i tic fie
As an n res ng appl a o n of the or m o d con

t e th w w e i et
s d r mo o n Of an ele ro n in a un fo rm m agn e ld
H
of

w th t vi ct i h e e iv e t ell
s r ng . I t is kn o n by the xp er m n s Of

et the v e the ch e the

R o la n d a a mo ng e le r c al c a rg is q u al n to a
c urr n . Le t 6 be a lu of arg ,
m m ass of
246 VECTOR ANALYSIS .

the e ect vect ve city ce

i e c ct e h
l ron, and v its or lo . The for acting on

l on du or Of l ngt dl is
‘
a n ar

F = i dl '
x H
thi c e t the c vecti e e t cit
.

c ie the e ect c t i e the e e e t

Le t s urr n i be due to on on o f l c ri y

with the c ve city the

arr d by n l ro ns on a n d in l m n dr , m ov
ing omm on lo v, n

i df ne v

e ce the ce i e e ect
.

H n for o n a s ngl l ron is

71.6 v
e H .

hi ce ce cce e ti ee
th t the e ti ti
T s for pro du s an a l ra on { r on the l ctron , so

a qua o n Of mo on is

e H .

Pu tti ng h H, the i e e ti e ti
d ff r n al q ua on Of the h p at is

V x h. ( )
1

the e ti we th t the cce e ti

the th he ce the c t t the cce e i
From q ua on see a a l ra on is norm al to

the ve city c e t e
p a ,
n speed is o ns an . As a l ra t on

c t t he ce the wh e cce e ti w e
is al so no rm al to h lo om p o n n p arall l to h is

e
o ns an , an d n ol a l ra on is al ays p ar all l

c t t vect we h ve ( )
to the pla n no rm al to h .

As h is a ons an o r, a from 1

hi o
'
h -
V xh 0
g —h
t
( -
- V )
, ( )
2

soth t the i a angl e ithece th e w thei

p a th thei fiec e c et
ld is ons ant m ak s i .

c t t the the cce e ti c t

( )
From 1 aga n, S n v a nd h a nd r n lud d an gl are

i c vt e th e te
o ns an , magni tude Of a l ra on is ons an t .

the cce e ti e ti
The ra d us Of ur a ur Of any p a is r la d to the speed
and n orm al a l ra on by qua on p age 8 1 ,
2
v
a :

p
 APPENDIX . 247

Hence
2
v
V xh

i ce the t e h
the it e
An d s n m agni ud s Of v and v x are constant so is
m agn ud of p.

77

h sin ( vh )
The c om pon n e t the ee
of sp d norm al to h is

( ) 7) sin vh

c v t e the th the e
ii y
The radius Of ur a ur of p a in l
p an norm al to
h is , s m larl to ( )
3

)
v sin
2 2
( vh 0 sin ( vh )
W h 7) sin (v h ) h s in (v l h ) h

he ce the th ci c e i
h ti c ete y ete i e c ve
as sin ( ) vlh 1, and n p a is a r l o f rad us p l .

c t t c v t e e c i e wi h c t t ee wh e
T us the m o on is om p l l d rm n d . It is a ur

jecti e the etic i e ci c e

Of ons an ur a ur , d s r b d t o ns an sp d os

i ve city e the fie c t t
p ro on o n a p lan no rm al to m agn l n s is a r l

the e e i ht ci c he i wh e i
o f rad us p l

e
. The lo p arall l to ld is ons an .

i e ce
I t is r for a r g r ular l x os ax s is p arall l to

i e ti ( ) ( ) we th t the i
t he l n s Of for .

c v t e c ve th t
C o m p ar
jecti e an d
ng q ua o ns 4 5 see a r ad us
of

e te the
ur a ur Of a ur an d a Of its pro on on a plan

are r la d by form ula,

( ) $1
P 11
2
6
w e e the e etwee the c ve the
PI

e hi h eve y c ve ec e
h r 0 is angl b n ur and norm al to

ti it c i ee ti e he i
the plan . T s o lds fo r r ur , b aus any sm all

i e t e
po r o n Of m ay be o ns d r d to be a p or o n Of som l x .

ci he i eti e efi e c ve h vi ( )
Th s r sul is due to Eul r .

A
c vet tht ct thev t eve th( c het i t t i v W
r cular l x is som m s d n d as a ur a ng a

o ns an ur a ur and b) o ns an ors on e . can also

i ( ) h w th t the c v t e c t t
a bo is a l x by p ro ing b
p ro a ( ) p a . Equa
t on 4 S o s a ur a ur is o ns a n .
24 8 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

The tors i
on T is by IV Of F renet
’
s form ula

]
t i ff
[
”
T g r I
'

p r

whe e the i
are 8
r pr m es d e t no e diflerentia tion w h
'

it
.

and s nce v i is c t t
o ns an

S ubs tit ti
u ng in ( )
7
1 [w ( v xh ll v-

2
(V h)=
i e e ti ti
v x

By d ff r n a ng ( )
1

Yh
’ ’

He e
v u
(w hy s
nc

I
2
( h) 2

which e ce ec e
v V x

r du d by (58) b om s

voh
T i
zz
2

the t the cti e te y c t

77

t i c t t
As two p ar s Of fra on are s p ara l ons ant the

e t ( ) O t i e ve the i e w itte
ors o n is o ns an .

The r sul 4 b a n d abo , o rw s r n

v Hp sin (vH),

is Of gr e t i t ce O t i i e ti etwee
a m p or an in b a n ng a r la on b n

e ect which c i ti with the e ti

e ete i e thei e te v e
77 fo r an l ro n , in o m b na on o r r la ons

abl s us to d rm n r s p ara alu s.

 APPENDIX 24 9

N ote to 58

t
.

Two Proof s of S ok e s
’
Th eo rem

ithe e i te the i e i tethe i c thevee e e t

.

°
1 The l n n g al aro und
r bound ng ur , F ig 54 i
, s
.

e i t w ich the ce c i ee
eq ual to sum O f l n n grals aro un d l m n ary

ve ev y i e the e e i te te
p arall logram s n o h surfa m ay be o ns d r d
di id d
twice it i cti the e t c ce
. Fo r er s d Of s p ar a ll lo gram s is n gra d

e ce t the i e which c i ci e with the c ve

and in o p po s e d re o ns , and r sul s an l,

i e et y e
x p s d s o n d bounding ur .

lo gram ABCD let AB

the i c e e t
C o ns der an lem n ar p ar all dpl

th t
AD dF F
( )
he
and dpz . Let , be n r m n Of along

dpl and dF 2
( ) a a long dpz . T n

F
( )1
d dpl V F, o

F
( )2
d dPr V F

vect i t cti the i t the v e

.

the v e the v e ( ) A
The or p o n -
fun on F has at p o n alu F;
B
ieit the e the
at alu F F
( )1 ;
d at D alu F dF 2 .

efi ti
The l n n e gral aro un d p arall logram is n by
d ni on

F dPI
‘
[F F dP2 '
F
[ l ’ "

dF
( )1 s '

( p
d V F
) pz
d ( pz V
d F )F dpo
- - -
r
-
t

( p pc)
d t d x b
( y
( n V F ) S
d x

ec e whe e the it thi

-
.

B
ee e t y e
aus dpl x dpz n dS r n is un no rm al to s

th e w i i te y
l m n ar ar a dS .

i ive e ce he e which
The eo r m fo llo s m m ed a l .

the t the t ti v e
Aga the D T m is
°
2 n by m eans Of rg n or

i t ei t vice v we ce t e
fun dam e n al form ula fo r ra nsform a o n Of o lum

he e which the t the t

de du S ok s
’
n o sur fa c n e grals and e rs a , ca n

ti ce i t i e i te
T or m is fun dam e n al fo rm ula for rans

y the
form a o n O f surfa n o l n n g r als .

Appl fo rm ula

I F o
n dS ,
2 50 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

(w ichthe v the eive e ce vehethee ce t c e eth ceh

h is D rg n T or m and is to be ak n ro ug

o ut

to
e an i fi ite
n n i o lum

m al r gsi ht cy
e e i e e
Oi , and o

t
l nd r, Of hei
the cht e w e r surfa Of, any

g h a n
lo s d spa )
d bas ho s
a r a is S

ie theveccy i e the th et
a nd c , a un t
Le t ds be an l m n Of
.

to r 1 to bas .

c
.

i e e .
o nto ur Of the base ,

t t th eh e t itc cethe ch the theice i t v ve

Suppo s
s an ro ug o u
l nd r so small a F m ay be o ns d r d co n
so a t the two surfa
, n egra ls o r

e ce ( l he
t he two pla n
R pla
nds a n
F in l ) by c
l a
, t
o

n
r and r sum ani shes .

d?) C ,X F o n ds .

v r F v m
hich cthe fit tt tevect hethe cei h h
By ( 13 0) ee )
ev e
. . c, co :

in w rs rm of r g t -
and num b r anish s,

as c, is a o ns a n or ; n

ff f cl o F dv ,
r F n dS
.

w e, dS *

th t the v e ce
.

i te ec e ce i e i te e ective y
But do
n grals
h dS , a nd dS
b om surfa
h dc SO
and l n
a

n grals r sp
olum and surfa

l , an d

ds

e the e e e e t e ce
.

Now
e the c ecec which
suppo s

bound d by a lo s d o n o ur t we c he ec whe t it vecte

ba s to be an l m n Of ar a Of a surfa
T n c , b om s a un . or

norm al to
ec
f
e it vect ll
the i ecti
d w f m rly
s u r a a 11 a n a a s o r
, ,

om s a un o r in dr o n of ( it , so

ht i
n x C , in 2 b
( )
x
ee e t
t a P u e , ds F d r .
.

S um m ng up the l m n s

n e
v X F dS

ti the ce i te
i te
The sum m a o n Of surfa n grals m eans sim ply that
the n g ral

ei v e ti e te ce c t
is to be tak n o er the n r surfa .

ee ec et tth y e i t c t twice
I n sum m ng up th e line in grals , the on our o f
l m n a r area is ra ed
x ep o s fo rm ng par Of
,
b
the c t
ut in

o n o ur
o ppo s d rite i ec i .
e v e ry

t o ns

The negativ e S ign indicates relationshi p Of direction around the

con to ur an d the v e ctor 11 .
 APPENDIX . 251

Henc e e i te ec i e i te
the sum
i c ve grals b om es the l n n
ve i e
Of the lin n

l d the bound ng and we ha aga n Sto k

’
g r a aro un ur s

Theorem .

Note to 65 .

Anoth er Proo f Theore m

’
of Gauss s

e ive e ce he e
.

By m
ee ive
ans Of the D rg n T or m an ew y

e
G auss s th o r m m ay be g
ev te the i te
’
n .

The probl m is to alua n g al

r

ff r02

e the c e ce
s

hi i te w itte
ov r lo s d surfa S .

T s n gr al m ay be r n

by

eth e ththee c ce cc i the i i with t

Th r are re ases , a o rd ng as or g n is ou ,

wi in , o r o n
i with t thi c e evesurfa S .

e he ce c e the ive e ce he e
CAS E 1 . The orig n is ou . In s as r can n r

be z ro , n be aus by D rg n T or m

ff s fff a -
v -

de =

by 64 .

we h ve
a

dS 0 .

i i w thi the i
he e i the the i i e c e
CAS E II . The or g n is i n . S urround byorig n

ei
sm all sp

e e ce the e i e i te
Of rad us 15 ;
a r n or g n is x lud d from

H
t e ve th ce e e
bound d by S
’
t he r g on and S . n r qu r d n

gr al ak n o r bo surfa s is z ro , by C as I, i e , . .

dS = 0 .
252 VEC TOR ANALYSIS .

But for t he sp he e r ,
r, e, n l
-
'

H e ce n

dS = 4 7r .

i i the
i t e e e t y he i he e
CAS E III ce c e the. The or g n is on surfa . Ex lud

he cee i e we t t the e i e
p o n by an l m n ar m sp r .

it e i the i te ve the he i e e
T n p o
r d ng as in C as II , fi nd ha r q u r d
n e gral is q ual to m nus n g al o
r r m sp h r ,

i . e .
, to 2 7r .

N ote to § 52

e
.

Oth er I nteg ratio n Th eo r m s .

ev te v e i te
We e ii
th t ive the ive e ce he e i t
c an alua tw o o lum n gr als in a m ann r s m lar
to a g n by D rg n T or m . F rs , to fi nd

ff
whe e c i t cti t
vect
r F is a s alar p o n -
fun on . Le t c be a c o ns ant

o r,

fff ( ) V CF dv
.

the ive e ce he e D rg n T or m

V o
(
oF ) dv
ff n -
(
CF ) S,
d

c do c
fa dS,
 APPENDIX . 253

or S n i ce 0 is p e ect y it y
rf l arb rar

V F dv

G
o ff V d v

fff V

ff n

ff c

H e ce fi y
n n all

ff ff V d v a ds .

i i ce e t ti w ththe ive e ce he e
By S m lar pro
w ich e D
ss s , s ar ng i rg n T or m,

y the e ti twee ce v e i e
h is se n to be a fo rm ula Of funda m en ta l i m porta nce,

i ee etwee i e ce i te i
m an o r r la o ns be n s urfa an d o lum nt gr als,

the evice e ye the ec t e he e

an d nd d also b n l n an d surfa n gr als, us ng

ve e ce
m
’
d m plo d in s ond proo f O f S ok s T or

a bo , m ay be d du d .
 I NDEX .

A c ce l e ra te d m o tio n, 82 .
Bo o k of K e ll a n d a n d T a it , 63 .

Ac ce le ra t io n , c e n tral , 84 Of La m é 1 04

W
. ,

ce n t r ipe ta l , 1 97 . of R o uth , 4 1 , 1 8 1 .

n o rm a l , 81 . of e bs t e r 112 .

of m o v in g s p a ce , 1 97 .

Ca l c u lus o f v a ri a ti o n s, 1 25 .

r adi a l , 81
q
.

Carte s ia n e x p a ns i o n fo r sc al ar p od
r
Ac tiv it y , e ua t io n o f , 1 65
u ot , 30
Additio n o f v e c to rs , 4
.

e xp a ns io n fo r triple v e c to r p rod
Am pbre , 1 61 , 1 65
q
.

u et , 53
Ana lyt ic s o lut io n o f E ul e r s
.
’
e ua
e xp ans io n fo r v e c to r p r o du c t, 38 .

ti o ns , 2 00 .

e xp ans io n o f div e rg e n ce , 1 1 1
An gle , so l id 1 3 8 , 1 66
.

.
,
Ce n te r of m ass , 1 9
An g ular v e lo c itie s , co m po s it io n
.

o f,
of m as s , m o t io n o f, 1 79 .

41 .

Ce n tral a cc e le ra t io n , 84 .

App a re n t in e rt ia , 1 8 2 .

a xis , 65
Appe ndix , 22 1
q
.

u ad ric , a x es o f , 1 89
Ap plic a tio n s to geo m e t ry , 73
.

Ce n trifug a l c o u p le , 1 98 .

to m e c h a ni cs , 3 9 .

C e n t ri p e t a l a c c e l e ra t i o n , 1 97
Are al v e lo c i ty , 86
.

Ce n t ro id , 1 8
Are as , des c rip tio n o f, 85
q
.

C irc le , e u a t io n o f , 61
Axe s , m o v ing , 1 9 4
.

Ci rc ul a r m o t io n , 8 2
n o rm a l to s u rf a ce fo r m a xim um
.

C irc ul a t io n , 2 1 4
a n d m inim um
fi
.

1 89
q
.

n it io n ,
,
de 32 .

o f a c e n t ra l u ad ri c , 1 89 .

Co ll e c t io n of fo rm ul a , 2 29 .

pe rm a n e nt , 1 93 .

C o llin e a r v e c to r s , 3 .

p rin c ip a l , 1 86 .

Co m bin a tio ns of t h ree v e c to rs

Ax is , c e n t ra l , 65 .

in sta n ta n eo us , 4 3 , 1 8 8, 1 9 4
Of 8 v e c to r p r o d u c t , 34 ‘
. Co mm uta t iv it y Of d an d
f , 1 25 .

Co m p a ris o n Of v a rio us n o ta t io ns ,

Bo dy . ri g id. 4 1 , 181 . 223 .

sy s te m o f fo r c es o n r ig id , 63 . Co m p l e x v a r i a b le , 15 .

Bo o k of Bu c h e r e r , 1 2 7 . Co m po n e n ts o f v e c to r , 8 .

of F e h r , 80 . Co m po s it io n O f a n g ul a r v e l o c it ie s , 4 l .

of FOp p l 38 Co m po u n d c e n t ri p e t al ac ce le ra t io n ,

W
.
,

of Cl a n s , 1 1 2 , 1 2 7 .
198 .

o f G i b bs -
ils o n , 4 7 , 5 6, 1 09 , 1 2 7 .
Co n dit io n fo r re l a t io n t o b e in de pe n e

o f Jo ly , 1 2 3 . de n t o f o rig in , 21 .
256 INDEX .

Co n dit io n of in te g r a b il it y , 1 3 0 . D A l e m b e r t, 1 7 8 , 1 80 , 202
’
.

e l , a p p li c a t io n s o f , s c a l a rs , 1 04
of p a r a lle lis m O f v e c to rs , 35
g to
of e
p pr e n d i c u l a r it y , 28 . a p p l ie d to a v e c to r , 1 09 .

t hat fo u r v e c to rs te rm in a te in fo rm u la fo r u s e o f, 12 1 .

s am e l a n e 1 8 ru l e fo r u se of, 13 4
p , . .

t h a t t h re e v e c t o rs e nd in sa m e the o p e ra t o r , 94 .

s t ra ig ht l in e , 1 3 . D e riv a t iv e , dire c t io n a l , 1 06, 1 07 .

t h a t t h re e v e c t o rs l ie in a l
p a n e , 50 . to ta l , 1 07 .

Co ne , p o lh o de a n d h e r p o l h o de , 1 9 2 . D e s c rip t io n O f a re as , 85 .

C o n ic se c t io n s , 63 . De te rm in an t al c ub i c , 1 90 .

se c t io n o rb it O f p l a n e t ,
87 . De te rm in a n t fo rm o f v e c to r p ro d u c t ,
C o n jug a te , l in e a r v e c to r -
fu n c t io n ,
1 86 D e te rm in a n t fo rm of t r ip le sc a l ar

q
.

se l f 1 83 p ro du c t , 5 0

q
. .

C o n s e r v a t io n o f c ir c u l a t io n , 2 16 . D iffe re n tia l e u a t io n g e o d e t ic , 7 8 of .

C o nse rv a t io n of m o t io n o f c e n te r o f e u a t io n O f ha rm o n i c m o t io n , 8 6 .

m ass , 1 7 9 . o pe ra to rs , 94 .

O f v o rt e x m o t io n , 2 1 3 .
pe rfe c t , 1 2 9 .

C o nse rv a t iv e s y s te m Of fo r c e s , 1 2 9 , D iff e re n tia t io n b y V 12 1

q
, .

“
by V , 1 3 5 .

Co n t in u it y , e u a t io n o f , 1 1 6, 2 07 . O f v e c to rs , 70 .

o f a s c a la r i
p nt
o -
fun c t io n , 7 . o f v e c to r a n d s c a l a r p r o d u ct s , 7 2 .

o f a v e c to r p o i n t -
fu n c t i o n , 8 .
p a rt ia l ,
90 .

Co n v e rg e n ce , 1 1 2 . w it h re s p e c t to s c al ar v a r ia b l es ,

C o o rd in a t e s , c urv il in e a r , 7 9 . 70 .

iso t he r m a l , 8 0 . D ire c t io n al de riv a t iv e , 1 06 .

of li n e a r v e c to r -
f u n c t io n , 1 8 5 . D is c o n tin uit ie s , 9 5 .

o rth o g o n a l , 80 . D is p la c e m e n t c u rr e n t , 1 61 .

p o l a r , 61 . D is t rib u t iv e l a w fo r c r o ss p o ducts,
r

Co pla na r v e c to r s , 8 . 35 .

C o rio lis , 1 9 8 l a w , p h y s ic a l p r o o f o f , 3 7
fi
. .

co m p o u n d a c c e l e r a t io n o f, 1 98 . D iv e rge n c e , d e n it io n , 1 09 .

t h e o re m O f, 1 9 4 . C a rte sia n e x p a n si o n fo r , 1 1 1 .

C o r k s c re w rul e ,
-
1 60 , 1 8 3 . i n t e rp re t a t io n o f, 146 .

i e rp re t a t io n
’
C o ul o m b s la w , 9 8 , 1 4 3 p h y s i cal n t o f, 1 09

P
. .

C o u pl e , m i n i m u m , 65 . t he o re m , 1 1 2 .

C re m ie u a nd e n de r , 1 62 . D iv is io n Of a l in e in a i
g en
v ra t i o , 18 .

C r o ss p ro du c t , 3 4 Do t o r s c a la r pr o du c t , 2 8

q
. .

d is t r ib ut i v e l a w o f, 35 . D y ed , r e fe re n c e t o , 1 09 .

Cu rl , e x a m p le O f , 1 18 . D yn am ic al e u a t io n s o f E ul e r , 200 .

c o n d it io n O f v a n is h in g o f , 1 27 D yn a m ic s 1 7 8 , .

in d e p e n de n t O f a x es , 1 17 . in c lu de d in a s in gl e fo rm ul a , 2 07 .

of m a gn e t ic b o dy , 1 2 0 ,

t he o p e ra t o r , 1 17 E l e c tri c a l th e o ry , 1 3 8 .

C u r v a tu re , 76 E le c tro m a g n e t ic w a v e s , 1 63
-

fi
. .

C u r v e in sp ac e , 74 . E le c t r o m o tl v e f o r ce de
-
n it io n , 32 .

Cur v ili ne ar coo rdinate s . 79 . Elec t ro -

d yn am i c po te nt ial , 1 7 3 .
 I NDEX . 257

E l e c tr o n th e o ry , 1 62 , 1 82 . F ie ld , e n e r gy i n t e rm s o f, 1 57 .

E l e m e n ta ry p r o pe rti e s of lin e a r v ec in te n s it y , 1 5 7

q
.

to r fu n c t io n , 1 83
-
. F i e l ds , a d dit io n o f , 6 .

E l l i pse , e u a t io n o f 86 F i la m e n t , v o rt e x , 215
q
. .

e u a t io n r e l a t iv e to fo c us , 9 0 F i x e d p o in t , m o t i o n a b o ut , 198

qq
. .

E llip so id , m o m e n t al , 1 84 . sp a c e , 1 9 5 .

of Po in so t , 1 84 , 2 0 1 . F lo w of he a t , e u a t io n o f , 1 14 .

E n e rg y of d is t r ib ut io n in t e r m s of F lu id , E ul e r
’
s e u a t io ns of m o tio n
fi ld i
e n te n s it y , 1 57 . of a , 2 10 .

of s y ste m in te rm s of p o te n t i a l , F lu x o f a v e c to r , 33 .

1 56 of he a t , 1 1 4
q
. .

E ua l v e c t o rs , 2 F o ppl , b o o k b y , 3 8
q
. . .

E u a t io n o f c i r c le , 61 . F o rc e , c e n t ra l , 8 4 .

o f c o n t i n u it y , 2 08 c e n t ri fu g a l , 197
fi ld
. .

o f e le c t r o -
m a g n e t ic e ,
1 60 . fo r N e w t o n ia n l a w , 1 4 3 .

of h o do g ra ph , 8 3 . F o r m u las fo r use o f V , 121 .

of in s t a n t a n e o us a xis , 43 .
p rin c ip a l , o f v e c to r a n al ysis , 2 2 9 .

of L a gr a n ge 2 05 , . F o u c a ul t gy ro s c o pe , 1 9 9 .

o f L a p la c e 146 F o u ri e r la w , 1 04 , 1 1 4
’
s

P
. .
,

of p l a n e ,
1 7 5 8 , 59 . . F r i c tio nl e ss flu id , 2 1 3 ,
2 17 .

of o iss o n ,
’
146 . F un c t io n , G re e n s, 148 .

o f s p he re , 61 L ag r a n g ia n 2 04

q
. .
,

o f s t r a ig h t l in e , 1 1 , 60 l in e a r v e c to r , 1 85
q
. .

E u a t io n s , d y n a m ic a l , of E ule r , 2 00 . F un d a m e n t a l e u a t io ns of hydro
of hy d ro d y n a m i c s , 2 07 . dyn am ic s , 2 07 .

of m o t io n , 1 7 8 .

of p o l ho d e a nd h e r p o l ho de c urv e s , G a n s, b o o k o f, 1 1 2 , 1 27 .

1 93 G a u ss t h e o re m 13 8
’
s

q
. .
,

o f su rf a ce s , 79 t h e o r e m fo r t h e p l a n e , 1 4 0

q
. .

E u ip o te n t ia l s u r fa c e s , 98 t he o r e m , s e c o n d p r o o f , 1 4 1

q
. .

Eth e r , 2 1 3 G e n e r al e u a t io n s of m o t io n of

q
.

Eule r ’
s d y n a m ic a l e u a t io n s , 2 00 . L a g ra n g e , 205 .

e u a t io n s of m o t io n of a flu id , G e n e ral iz e d p a r am e te rs o f a s y s te m ,

2 10 . 2 05 .

th e o re m , on h o m o g e n e o u s fu n c G e o de t ic lin e s o n a s u rfa c e , 78 .

t i o ns , 1 3 1 . G e o m e t r ic a l re p r e s e n t a t io n of mo
Ex p a n s io n fo r m o m e n t of m om en t io n o f a r ig id b o dy , 1 9 1

PW W
.

tu m , 1 8 5 . G eo m etry , a p p l ic a t io n s to , 7 3 .

fo r t r ip l e v e c t o r p r o du c t , 5 3 . G ib b s , ro f . ill a r d , 2 2 1 , 2 2 4 .

E x p lo di n g s h e ll , m o t io n o f 1 7 9 . G ibb s -
ils o n , b o o k o f, 4 7 , 56, 1 09 ,
E x t e n de d v e c to r , d e fi n it io n s , 2 04 . 127 .

E x t e n s io n of v e ct o r to n -
d im e n G r a d ( g r a d ie n t ) o f a s ca l a r fun c t io n ,
s io n s , 2 04 . 1 02
in d e p e n de n t of c h o ic e o f a x es ,

F a ra d a y , 1 60 . 1 03 .

F ehr, bo o k o f, 80 . G ra p h i c a l re p r e s e n t a t io n of dis
F iel d due to a curre nt , 1 65 , 1 70 . c o n t in ui t ie s , 9 6 97 , .
258 I NDEX .

G rassm a nn , 50 . In te g ra t io n theo rem , 1 74 .

G rass m ann s n o ta t io n , 22 1 ,
’
In te rp re ta t io n o f p ro d uc ts , 5 7 .

G r a v ity , ce n te r o f , 20 . I n v ariab le lin e , 1 9 2 , 1 99 .

G ree n ’
s fo rm ul a 14 8 plan e , 1 84 , 1 9 1
q
.
, .

fun ct io n , 1 4 8 . In v e rse s ua re la w , 87 , 1 05 , 1 4 3 .

t heo re m , 1 48 , 1 58 . I rro ta tio nal m o tio n , 1 1 9 , 2 1 2 .

G y ra t io n , r ad ius o f , 1 81 . Is o the rm al surface . 1 04 .

G yr o sc o pe , 1 99 . s y s te m o f c u r v es
, 80 .

Ha m i l to n ’
s in te g ra l , 2 02 , 2 04 , 2 06 . J o ly , bo o k o f, 1 23 .

n o t a t io n , 63 22 1 , 223 J o ul e , 1 64

H
.
, .

r i
p n c ipl e , 2 02 .

a rm o ni c fun c t io n , 1 4 7 K e ll a n d a n d Ta i t, bo o k o f, 63
q
HH
. .

m o t io n , diff e re n t ial e ua t io n o f , 8 6 .
K e l v in , L o rd , 217 .

e a v is ide , O liv e r , 50 , 1 5 5 , 1 64 K e ple r , la w s o f , 86

HH
. .

e a v is ide s n o t a t io n ,
'
22 1 , 223 .
K in e m a tics o f a p art i c le , 80 .

e l m ho l t z , 1 25 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 3 2 17 K in e tic e n e rgy o f r o ta ti o n 1 81

H
, . . .

e l m h o lt z s theo re m , 1 5 5 , 1 7 3 of trans l a t io n , 1 7 9
’
. .

e rp o l ho de c u r v e , 1 92 .

Ho do g ra ph an d o r b it un de r Ne w L a g ra n g e ’
s e q ua ti o n s of m o ti o n.

Hq e
to n ian fo r c e s , 8 7
o do g r a p h ,

u a t io n o f ,
de
83
fi ni tio n ,
.

81 .
2 05

L am é b oo k o f 1 04
.

L agrangia n fun c tio n , 2 04 .

fi
.
.
, ,

o f ac c e le r a te d m o t io n , 82 . de n it io n o f , 6 .

of a p a rt i c l e a t res t, 82 . Lam ellar co m po n e n t of a v e c to r

o f un ifo rm c ir c ul a r m o t io n , 82 fun ct io n , 1 54

HH
. .

o f un ifo rm m o t io n , 82 . v e c to r , 1 2 8 , 1 54 .

o m o g e n eo us fun c t io n , 1 3 1 La pl a c ian the o p e ra to r 13 4

q
.
, , , .

y d ro d y n a m i c s , 2 07 L a p l a c e s e u a t io n 1 4 3
’
, .

La w , dis trib u t iv e fo r v e c to r p od
r

In c o m p r e s s l b ili ty , c o n d i ti o n o f , 2 09 . u c ts , 35 .

I n de p e n d e n t of t he o r ig in , re l a t io ns of Co ul o m b , 9 8 .

o f, 21 . of F o urie r , 1 04 .

I n du c ta n ce , 1 7 1 . of K e ple r , 8 6 .

I n du c t io n , v e c to r , 1 58 . o f L e n z , 1 60 .

I n e rt ia , ap p a ren t , 1 82 . of Ne wt o n , 8 7 , 1 05 , 1 43 .

m o m e nt o f, 1 8 1 , 1 85 . Law s b y i l k , 29 , 3 5
o be y e d .

p r o d u c t s o f, 1 85 . o b e y e d b y s c a l a r p r o du c ts , 29 .

I nst a n t an e o u s a x is , 43 , 1 83 , 1 94 . o b e ye d b y t ripl e s c al ar p ro duct ,

I n te gr al d u e to N e um a nn , 1 7 1 , 1 7 5 49
q q
. .

lin e o f a v e c t o r , 3 1 . L aye rs , e u iv a l e nt , n o t e u ipo te ntial,

of G a uss , 1 3 8 . 1 51
s u rf a c e , o f a v e c to r , 32 . Le n z l aw o f 1 60
, , .

I n te g ra t in g fa c to r , 1 2 9 . Le v el surfa c e s 9 8 , .

O pe r a to r p o t , 1 5 2 . L in e a r v e c to r fu nc tio n 1 8 2 1 83 -

, ,
23 8 .

I n te gra t io n , 83 . Lin e inte gr al o f a v e c to r 3 1 , .

as a v e c to r sum , 5 . o f n o rm al co m pon ent , 1 68 .

 INDEX . 25 9

Lines of fo rc e , 1 09 Ne um ann s inte gral , 1 7 1 , 1 7 5

’
.

o f v e ct o r fun c t io n , 3 2 Ne wt o n ia n f o r ce s , 87
q q
-
. .

L i uid fun dam e n ta l

, e ua t io ns , 207 . l aw of fo r ce , 1 05 , 1 4 3 .

L o rd K e l v i n 2 1 7 , . Non v o rt ic al m o ti o n , 1 2 0 , 2 1 2
-
.

No rm al a c ce le ra t io n , 8 1 .

M a g n e ti c fi e ld du e to a c u rre n t, 1 65 and t an g e n t , 7 5
fi ld q
. .

e du e to e le m e n t of c urre n t , to ta n g e n t pl a n e of uad ri c , 1 89 .

1 67 un it , 7 8
M fi
. .

ag ni tude o f a v e c to r , de n it io n , 3 . No ta t io n of G an s , 2 2 3 .

o f a v e c to r , 29 of Gib bs , 2 2 2 , 2 23
M
H
. .

at he m a ti c al and h
p y s i ca l dis co n of G ra s s m a n n , 2 2 1 .

tin uities , 9 5 of a m i lt o n , 2 2 1 , 2 23
M
. .

a xw e ll , 1 1 6, 1 2 8 of He a v is i de , 2 2 1 , 2 2 3
M q
. .

a xw e ll s e u a tio ns ,
’
1 60 . of t his b o o k , 2 2 4 .

M c Aul a y , the o r e m o f, 1 70 No ta t io n s , co m p aris o n o f, 2 23

M
. .

e c h an i c al fo r c e o n e le m e n t o f c i r v a r io u s , 22 1 .

c uit , 1 67
M
.

e c h an ic s , 1 78 . O p e ra to r , in te g ra tin g p o t, 1 52 .

a p p li c a t io n s to , 3 9 th e , c u r l , 1 1 7
M
. .

e t ho ds o f so lu tio n o f p ro b le m s , 13 t he , V 94
M
. .
,

“
inim um c o upl e o n ce n t r a l axi s , 65 the , p 7 2 , 73
M
. .

o m e n t a b o ut a n a x is , 1 80 . in v o l v i n g V t w i ce , 1 3 3 .

as v e c to r , 40 t 1 87
fi
. .

de n it io n , 39 . O rb it of a pl an e t , 84 .

of in e rt ia , 1 8 1 , 1 85 un de r Ne wt o n ia n fo rce s , 87
M
. .

o m e n ta l e ll i p s o id , 1 84 O rigin o f o p e r a to r V 90
M
.
, .

o m e n ts o f in e rt ia , p rin c ip al , 1 86 O rtho g o n a l s y ste m o f c ur v es , 80

M
. .

o m e n tu m , m o m e n t o f , 18 1 . O s c ul at in g pl an e , 77
of m o m e n t um , 1 8 1
M
PP
.

o t io n , c ir c ul a r , 82 . P a ra b o l a , pa th o f p ro je c ti l e , 1 79 .

h arm o n i c , 8 6 . a ra b o l i c o r b it , 84 .

irro ta tio n a l , 1 1 9 aralle l is m c o n diti o n o f , 35

PP
. .
,

o f a rigi d b o dy , 4 1 . c o n di t io n o f , o f v e c to rs , 35 .

o f ce n te r o f m as s , 1 7 9 a rall e lo gr am law , 4 0

PP
. .

Po inso t , 192 . a r a lle l o p ipe d p rin c ipl e , 50 .

un de r n o fo rces , 1 84 . a re n th ese s , 51
v o rt e x , 2 12 a rtial diff e re n tia t io n of v e c to rs ,

M
.

o v in g a x e s , 1 9 0, 1 9 4 90

PP
. .

s p ac e , 1 95 diff e re n t ia t io n w it h V , 1 05 , 1 06
M
. .

ul t ip le v e c to r p r o d u c ts 55 a rt ic l e , k in e m a t i c s o f 8 0

M
PP
.
, .

u t u a l e n e rgy o f t w o c ir c u its , 17 1 e r fe c t d i ff e re n t ia l , 1 29 .

1 75 e rm a n e n t a x e s , 192
M
. .

utu a l in du c t a n c e , 1 7 3 176 erpe n di c ul a r fro m o r ig in to a pl a n e ,

PP
.
,

59
—
.

n d im e n si o n s, e x te n s i o n of v e c to r e r pe n di c ul a rity , c o n d it io n o f , 28 .

to , 2 04 . h y si c al dis c o n t in u it ies , 95 .

Negativ e v e c to r , 2 .
p roo f of distributiv e l a w , 3 7 .
 260 I NDEX .

P lan e , e q u a t io n o f ,

in v a r ia b le , 1 84 .
1 7 , 58 , 5 9 . PP r o d uc t

ro d u c t s o f
, v e c to r , 34
i n e r t ia , 1 8 5
.

o s c u la t in g , 77 of tw o
.
v e c to rs , 28 .

p ass ing t h r o ug h e nd of a v e c to r , of t h r ee v e c t o rs , 48

PP
.

58 of m o r e t h a n th r e e v e c to rs , 55
.

i t h r o ug h e n ds o f th re e
p as s ng v ec
j
r o e c t il e ,
p a th o f 1 79

P
, .

t o rs , 5 9 .
ro je c t io n s o f v e c to r 2 9
, .

p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o a v e c t o r , 58 . ro o f o f del f o rm ul ae, 1 2 1 .

t h ro ug h e n ds o f th re e g iv e n o f n o r m al it y o f
p rin c ip a l a x e s , 1 90
v ec

P
.

t o rs , 1 7 o f e x a ns io n o f t r i le v e c to r
p p p od
.
r
la n e t ,
Po in so t
o rb it o f ,

e ll ip s o id ,
84
1 8 4 , 20 1
.

P uc t , 5 1 , 5 3
r o pe rt ie s of
, 54 .

f r i c t io n le ss flui d , 2 1 3 ,

P
.

m o tio n , 1 9 2 .
217 .

o in t -
fun c t io n , s c al a r , 6

Pq q
.

v e c to r , 7 . Qua d r i c su r f a c e , 63 , 8 6, 1 84 .

o iss o n s e p in c i p al
’
u a t io n , 143 r a xes O f: 1 89

PP
. °

e u a t io n , so l u t io n o f , 1 52 .
t a ng e n t p l an e to , 1 8 8
o l a r c o o rd in a te s , 61 . Qua te rn io n s , 63
o l a r i z a t io n , e n e r in te rm s of 1 59
gy

PP
.

Po l ho de a nd h e rp o lho de c u rv e s , 192 . R a d ia l a c c e l e r a ti o n , 81 .

o l yg o n o f v e c t o rs , 4 . R a d ia n t -
v e c to r, 1 65 .

o te n t ia l , 6 Ra d iu s of gy r a t i on , 181
fi
. .

de n itio n , 98 Ra t io , d iv is io n lin e in giv e n , 18 of .

d er iv a t iv e s o f, 1 02 , 1 4 9 . Re c ip ro c al o p e ra t o r , 1 8 7 .

fo r c e s h a v in g a, 1 29 , 2 16 . s ys te m o f v e c t o rs , 57
t he , 6, 1 4 3 . v e c to r , 3 .

v e c to r , 1 53 1 73 Re c t a n gul a r c o o r d in a te s , 62

PP
. .
,

v e l o c it y , 216 . Re l a t io n be t w e e n any fo u r v e c t o rs ,

o yn t in g s
’
t he o r e m 1 65 56

q
. .
,

ra c t i c a l a p p li c a t io n o f s te a dy m o b e tw e en fo rc e p o te n t ia l , 1 00
and

P
.

t io n e u a t io n , 2 12 . Re l a t io n s in d e p e n de n t o f th e o rig in ,
rin c ip al a x e s , 1 8 6, 1 89 . 21 .

a x e s , a t r ig h t a n gl e s , 1 90 . Rel a t iv e m o t io n , 1 9 4 .

m o m e n ts o f in e r t ia 1 8 6 , . Re m a rk ab le fo rm ul a , 207 .

o f D Ale m b e r t 1 7 8 , 2 02 Re m a rks o n n o t a t io n , 63 22 1 , 22 3
’

P
, .
, .

of H a m ilto n ,
2 02 . Re p re se n t a t io n o f a v e c to r -
fun c tio n ,
ro b l e m s , m e th o d o f so l u t io n , 13 . 74 .

to C h a p . I, 22 . o f v e c to r o r c r o ss p r o duc t , 3 4 .

to Ch a p . II, 43 . Re so lut io n o f a s ys te m o f fo r c e s , 63 .

t o Ch a p . I I I , 66 . o f a v e ct o r -
fu n c t io n i n to s o le n o id a l
to C h a p . IV , 9 1 . an d l a m e ll ar c o m p o n e n ts , 1 54 .

t o Ch a p V , 1 3 6 . . o f v e lo c it y , 81 .

to Ch a p V I , 1 76 R es u m e of n o t a t io n of th is b oo k ,

P
. .

t o Ch a p V I I , 2 1 7
. . 22 4 .

ro du c t , c r o ss , 34 . R ig id b o dy , 4 1 , 1 8 1 .

do t 2 8
. . b o d y , m o t io n o f, 41 .

s cal ar, 28 . sys t e m , 1 80 .

 l ND EX . 261

R ig id ity , v a r io u s k in d s , 1 2 0 S ur fa ce in te g ra l o f a v e c to r , 32

q
. .

Ro l l i n g e l l i p s o id , 1 9 1 , 1 93 o f r e v o l u t io n , 1 9 1

q
. .

Ro t a t io n a s v e c to r , 41 . S u r fa ce s , le v e l or e u i po t e n t ia l , 98 .

e u a t io n s fo r , 1 7 9 . S y m m e t r ic a l to p , 1 9 9 .

k in e t ic e n e rg y o f , 18 1 . S y s te m o f fo rce s o n a r ig id b o dy ,
Ro u t h , b o o k o f, 2 02 . 63 .

Ro w la n d , 1 62 . S y s te m s o f u n its , 155 .

Ru le , c o rk s c re w , -
1 60 , 1 83 .

T a i t, 63 , 1 70 .

S c a la r a n d v e c to r fi e ld s , 94 T a n ge n t a nd no r m a l , 75
q
. .

a nd v e c to r fun c t io n s of p o s it io n , p l a n e to u a d ric , 1 88 .

95 un it , 7 4
fi
. .

de n it io n o f, 1 Ta n g e n t i a l c o m po ne n t in l i n e in te
fi ld
.

e , 6 .
g r a l ,
31 .

t he o r e m
’
p ro d u c t , 28 . Ta yl o r s ,
1 24 , 13 1 , 2 13 .

p ro d u c t s of th re e v e c to r s , 48 . Te n s o r o f v e c to r , 3 .

p r o d u c t s, d i ff e re n t ia t io n o f, 72 . T e rm in o -
c o ll in e a r v e c t o rs , 13 .

v a r ia b l e s , in t e g r a t io n w ith re s pe c t T e rm i n o -
c o pl a n a r , 18 .

to , 8 3 . Th e o r e m d ue t o He lm h o l t z , 1 55 ,
S e lf -

j
c o n u g a te , 1 83 . 1 73 .

in d u c t a n c e , 1 73 ,
1 76 . of C o rio l is , 1 9 4 .

S in k of he a t , 1 1 2 . of E u le r , 1 3 1 .

S lo p e ,
1 02 . of G a uss , 1 3 8 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 1 .

S o le n o id a l com p o n e n t of a v e c to r of G re e n , 1 4 8

P
.

fu n c t io n , 1 5 4 . of Mc Aula y ,
1 70 .

d is tr ib ut i o n , 1 1 7 . of o y n t in g , 1 64 .

v e c to r , 117 of S to ke s , 1 24 , 1 60 1 61 , 1 68 , 2 1 4
q
q
. .
,

S o lid a n g le , 1 3 8 , 1 66 . Th ird in te g r al of e u a t io ns o f r o ta
S o l u t io n of d iffe re n t ia l e u a ti o n s , t io n , 2 0 1 .

86 . T h ree a xes in a r igi d b o dy , 1 9 3 .

S o u rc e of he a t , 1 1 2 . To p , 1 99 .

S o u rc e s a n d s in k s , 1 14 . To rt uo s it y , 7 8 , 9 2 .

S pa ce c u rv e , 74 . T o ta l c u r re n t , 1 62 .

S pa c e of n -
d im e ns io n s , 2 04 . d e r iv a t i v e , 1 0 7 .

S pe c ial n o t a t io n , 2 04 k in e t i c e n e rg y o f a s ys te m 1 82

q q
. .
,

S pe e d , 8 1 . T ra ns fo rm a t io n of h y d ro d yn a m ic
S p h e re , e u a t io n o f , 61 e u a t io n , 211
q
. .

S t e a d y m o t io n , 2 1 2 . T ra n s l a t io n , e u a t io n fo r , 1 7 8 .

Ste p , 2 . T rip le v e c to r p r o d u c t s , 27 , 48 .

S to ke s ’
t h e o re m 1 2 4 , 1 60 , 1 61 , 1 68 , v e c to r p ro d uc t , e x p a n s io n fo r , 5 3

q
.
,

2 14 . Tu be o f v e c to r f u n c t io n , 2 1 5 .

S t ra ig h t l in e , e u a tio n o f, 1 1 , 60 .

p a ra lle l t o a g i v e n v e c t o r , 60 . U n i fo r m m o ti o n , 8 2 .

t h ro ug h e n d o f a v e c to r , 60 . Un it n o r m a l 7 8 , .

S t ro k e , 2 Un it s o t he r s y s te m s o f, 1 55

q
.
.
,

S ub t ra c tio n o f v e c to rs , 4 . t a n g e n t , 74 .

Su rfa ce , e ua t io ns o f, 79 . v e c to r , 3 .
262 INDEX .

V a ria b l e, c o m p l e x, 1 5 . V e c to rs , co pl an ar , 8 .

V a ri a t io ns , ca lc ulus o f , 1 25 dec o m pos itio n o f , 8

fi ld
. .

Vec to r an d s c a lar di fi e re n tia tio n o f , 70

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e s, 94
q
. .

V ector , co m p o ne nts o f 8 . e ua t of 2 .

c u rv a ture , 76 r o du ct s o f t h ree , 4 8
p
fi i ti
. .

de n o n o f, 1 .
p rodu cts o f m o r e than th re e , 55.
eq ua tio ns , 1 1 , 58 re c ip roc al s y s te m o f , 5 7

fi ld
. .

e , 6. te rm in o -
c o ll in e a r , 13 .

fun c tio n , re p rese n ta t io n o f , 74 . te rm in o -

c o pla na r , 18 .

g ra p hi c al re prese n t a t io n o f, 1 . t he un it , i j k , 9, 2 9, 3 5 .

l a m e ll a r , 1 28 . V elo c ity al o n g t an ge n t a n d n o rm al

l in e in te gr al o f, 31 . o f a cu r v e , 81 .

m ag ni tude o f, 29 . a ng ul a r , 41 .

n e g a t iv e , 2 . are a l , 86 .

r p e n di c ul a r
p e to a pl a ne , 59 . o f e le c t ric w av es , 1 64 .

po i n t fu n c-
t i on , 7 . V e lo c ity po te n tia l , 2 1 6
-
.

po te n t ia l , 1 53
-
,
1 73 . V o lum e o f sp he re b y div e rgen ce
p o du c t , 3 4
r . theo re m , 1 14 .

d d ifi e re ntiatio n o f, 72 V o r te x m th eo ry , 2 1 7
'

p ro u c ts , -
a to

fi
. .

p ro d uc ts o f t h ree v e c to rs , 48 . V o r te x lam en t , 2 1 5 .

rad ian t 1 65 . m o tio n , 2 1 2 .

re c ip r o c al , 3 . V o rt i c ity , 2 1 1 .

su m as an in teg ra t io n , 5 . in de st ruc tib le , 2 1 3 .

su r fa ce in te gra l o f, 32 . u n c re ata b l e , 2 16 .

-
to rtuo s ity , 78

W
.

un it , 3 . W a ve e q ua ti o n , 1 63 .

v e l o c it y , 80 a ys in w hi c h a v ec to r m ay v a ry

WW
.

l e c to rs , ad d it io n a nd s ub t r ac 70 .

tio n , 4 e b s te r , bo o k o f, 1 12

W
. .

co ll in e a r o r p a rall e l , 3 . ilso n G ibbs , b o o k

-
o f, 1 09 .

co n di t io n o f p a ra ll e l is m o f 35 . o rk o f a fo rce , 3 1 .