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Ground improvement
1
CategoryGeoEngineering,
Section MethodCIE 4363 Principle
A. Ground 1 Dynamic compaction - By dropping a heavy weight
Ground improvement
improvement 2 Vibro compaction - By a vibratory probe
without admixtures 3 Explosive compaction - Shock wave induced by blasting
in non-cohesive 4 Surface compaction - Shallow depth compaction by a variety of machines
soils or fill materials
B. Ground 1 Replacement - Remove bad soil by excavation and replace by fill
improvement 2 Preloading by fill with - Fill is applied and removed to pre-consolidate
without admixtures vertical drains
in cohesive soils or 3 Preloading with vacuum - Vacuum pressure is used to pre-consolidate
fill materials drainage
4 Thermal stabilisation - Permanently or temporarily change soil properties by heating
or freezing
C. Ground 1 Vibro or dynamic - Compacted gravel driven as columns in soft soil
improvement with replacement or stone columns
admixtures 2 Sand compaction piles - Sand pile installed with casing
3 Geotextile confined columns - Sand in a geotextile lined cylindrical column
4 Microbial method - Microbial method to modify soil for increased strength or
reduced permeability
D. Ground 1 Cement grouting - Grouting soil or cavities to increase strength or reduce
improvement with permeability (gravel)
grouting type of 2 Chemical grouting - Solution of 2 or more chemicals react in soil pores to form a
admixtures gel or a solid (sand)
3 Mixing methods (MIP) - Mixing soft soil with cement or other binders in-situ; all soil
4 Jet grouting types
- High pressure grouting to erode the soil to form columns or
5 Compaction grouting panels; all soil types
- Very stiff mortar used to densify loose soil (sand)
+ Freezing 6 Compensation grouting - With viscous suspensions the soil is fractured to compensated,2
(all soil types) negate or reduce settlements (sand)
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363 Compaction
Ground improvement
Compaction methods
• Introduction
• Vibroflotation
• Dynamic compaction|
• Rapid Impact Compaction
• Applications
3
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement Introduction
Compaction
• To increase strength and stiffness
• To reduce possibility of liquefaction
• Only with non-cohesive soils:
4
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement Introduction
• Loose packing: n = 40 – 50 %
• Dense packing: n = 25 – 30 %
• Range depends on:
– Grain size distribution
– Shape of grain
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement Introduction
Compaction
• Decrease of pore volume >> draining pore
water
• Permeability is most important:
- Permeable soils: rapid compaction
- Low permeability: slow compaction
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement Introduction
Vibro compaction
Germany: Rütteldruckverfahren
UK: Vibro flotation
characteristics:
• torpedo diameter: 0.35 m
• length: 3 – 5 m
• engine with eccentrics on the axes
inside the torpedo
• electric: 60 – 150 Ampere
• frequency: 25 – 50 Hz
• water jets at the top and at the tip
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Werkwijze
Ground improvement
Rütteldruckverfahren
(Vibro flotation)
9
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Vibro compaction
Result:
• Compacted cylinder with diameter: 2 – 3 m
• C.t.c. distance : 1 – 2.5 m
• Depth depends on requirements
• Amount of sand to be added: 0.25 – 0.50 m³/m’
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Vibro compaction
Ground improvement
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Vibro compaction
Ground improvement
Result of
compaction
• Centre of
compaction
point
• In between
points
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Vibro compaction
Ground improvement
Dynamic compaction
(Menard Method or
Heavy Tamping)
Principle:
• Compaction with shock wave
(compression and shear waves)
• Drop heavy weight several
times at 1 point
• Soil liquefies
• After draining of excess pore
water the density has increased
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Dynamisch verdichten
(Methode Menard of
‘Heavy Tamping’
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Dynamic compaction
Ground improvement
Process:
• Operation in number of phases: 3 – 12
• Per phase and point: large number of impacts
: 5 – 10
• Size of compartment e.g. 8 x 8 m
diepte [m] 4 30
depth [m]
gewicht [ton] 4 830 180
weight [ton] 8 180
valhoogte [m] 7 30
drop height
7 30
[m]
• After each phase check density (with qc)
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Dynamic compaction
Ground improvement
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Dynamic compaction Taiwan
Ground improvement
Verdichtingsproject
Taiwan
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Dynamic compaction
Ground improvement
0
Compaction results
with dynamic
compaction.
10
m
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Dynamic compaction
Ground improvement
results
www.youtube.com/watch?v=KfuMrhRpvFM
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Rapid impact compaction
Ground improvement
number of blows
depth
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Rapid impact compaction
Ground improvement
• Reduce compressibility
• Increase shear strength
higher foundation pressures below shallow
footings
• Reduce liquefaction risk
– Earthquake areas
– Dynamically loaded structures
• machine foundations
• Wind turbines
24
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Applications
Ground improvement
25
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Applications
Ground improvement
f f
Pr;max = c ⋅ N c + γ ⋅ d ⋅ N q + 0,5 ⋅ γ ⋅ B ⋅ N γ
ϕ = 30o N q = 18, 4; N γ = 15, 2;
ϕ = 40o 64,2
N q = 18, 84,7
4; N γ = 15, 2;
E = B ⋅ qc ( B = 5…10 ) 26
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ontwerp
Ground improvement
• Reduce liquefaction
risk
27
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Applications
Ground improvement
Compact such
qc=13
that relative
density
Dr > 60%
Westerschelde
required
qc> 13 MPa
liquefaction No liquefaction
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
C. Ground improvement with Stone and sand columns To increase strength and
admixtures stiffness
30
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Grouting
Ground improvement
Grouting of soils
• Introduction
• Jet-grouting
• Permeation grouting (cement injection and
chemical injection)
• Soil-fracturing (compensation grouting and
compaction grouting)
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Introduction
Ground improvement
32
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Introduction
Ground improvement
jetgrouting
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Introduction
Ground improvement
Cement injection:
• dams, retaining walls in hard soils and roc
Chemical injection:
• Building pits (as groundwater sealing)
• Underpinning of foundations
34
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Introduction
Ground improvement
Purpose Soil-fracturing:
• compaction grouting; to increase the stresses
(p.e. the friction between soil and piles)
• compensation of settlements
(compensation grouting)
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Introduction
Ground improvement
Chemical injection
Water sealing
Injectie laag
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Introduction
Ground improvement
Water-
retaining
and bearing
injection
body
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Grouting
Ground improvement
Grouting of soils
• Introduction
• Jet-grouting
• Permeation grouting (cement injection and
chemical injection)
• Soil-fracturing (compensation grouten en
compaction grouten)
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Jetgrouting
Ground improvement
39
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Jetgrouting
Ground improvement
S Single
D Double
T Triple
Monitor
40
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Jetgrout rig
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Monitor
42
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Jetgrouting
Ground improvement
clay silt sand gravel
Diameter (m)
jetgrout
column in
different
soils
meters 43
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Jetgrouten
Ground improvement
Installing a
jetgrout
column
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Example of
permeation grouting
(hard gel injection)
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Jetgrouten
Ground improvement
Application:
Jet grouting and under-
tunneling to reduce
settlements
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Jetgrouting
Ground improvement
47
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
Grouting of soils
• Introduction
• Jet-grouting
• Permeation grouting (cement injection and
chemical injection)
• Soil-fracturing (compensation grouten en
compaction grouten)
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
49
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Permeation grouting Chemisch injecteren
Ground improvement
50
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
Chemical injection
Development of
viscosity in time for
different injection
fluids
(water has a viscosity
equal to 1 cP)
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
52
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
Reaction time as
function of the
percentage of
harder
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
Alternative materials:
• Ultra-fine-cement
for injection in fine sands with 20 % < 0.2 mm
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Ultra-fine or micro cement
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Ultra-fine or micro cement
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Ultra-fine or micro cement
• Composition of suspensions
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Ultra-fine or micro cement
Claimed (by producers) injection range for micro cement, but according to
tests in NL fine sands with 20 % < 0.2 mm is the limit
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Ultra-fine or micro cement
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
process
• Systems:
– Injection element
– Tube a manchette (TAM)
• Procedure using injection element or TAM
– Drill a bore hole
– Install injection element or TAM
– Fill space between element and bore hole with
bentonite cement suspension
– Wait for hardening of bentonite / cement
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Injection element
Tube a manchette
(TAM)
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Permeation grouting
Ground improvement
Horizontal layer
• Injection elements
• c.t.c. app. 1 m
• spheres with diameter 1 – 1.5 m
Vertical sheet
• TAM with injection openings spaced at e.g. 0.33 m
• diameter cylinder 0.6 – 0.9 m
• eventually more then one sheet
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Grouting
Ground improvement
Grouting of soils
• Introduction
• Jet-grouting
• Permeation grouting (cement injection and
chemical injection)
• Soil-fracturing (compensation grouten en
compaction grouten)
64
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363 Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
Compensation
grouting
65
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
Soil fracturing
• For lifting the soil predominantly horizontal
fractures are required
• Normally consolidated soils fracture mostly
vertical
• Therefore first “pre-conditioning” is required to
increase the horizontal stress and the stiffness
• Consequently horizontal fractures must be injected
in several charges
66
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
• Compensation grouting
trial at Sophia Tunnel
• Goal: to confirm that
compensation grouting is
able to lift piled Foundation
foundations as well piles
because of possible
Grouting zone
application at North
South line Amsterdam Tunnel
67
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
68
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
Result
• Pile foundation lifted (after
passage TBM) app 1 cm
• Not possible during TBM
passage because high bore Shortest distance sleeve - extensometer
speed and response > 1 mm
• Relation between injected 12
volume per injection
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance sleeve - extensometer [m] 69
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
North-South linen
70
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
71
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Soil-fracturing
Ground improvement
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
C. Ground improvement with Stone and sand columns To increase strength and
admixtures stiffness
73
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Methods
- Brine (in Dutch Pekel) as freezing fluid (app. –30
°C) flowing through a pipe system in the
ground from and to a freezing plant
- Liquid nitrogen (–196 °C)
delivered by trucks flowing through a pipe
system in the ground and evaporated into the
air
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
applications
Ground improvement
76
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Main characteristics:
1. only for temporary sealing
2. more reliable than grouting (frozen soil is 100%
water tight)
3. but once leakage trough a frozen soil body starts
you are lost
4. freezing flowing groundwater is hardly impossible
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
81
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
82
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
Costs
• Nitrogen method is fast but expensive
1000 – 3000 litre per m³ frozen soil
• Brine: 40 – 90 kWh/m³
• ≥ 500 €/m³
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
MPa
Decreasing
compressive
strength with
increasing
loading time
84
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
85
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Uitvoering
Ground improvement
σbr ϕ C E σbr ϕ C E
86
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Execution
Ground improvement
σbr ϕ C E σbr ϕ C E
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Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
Applications
88
Section GeoEngineering, CIE 4363
Ground improvement
89