CLA!

33FICATIONOF GEOTECHNICALPROCESSES
by
RUDOLPEIGLOSSOP,BSc.

SYN lOPsIS
A number of pmcesses are known which will
alter the properties of weak rocks and soils in situ,
for the purposes of civil engineering : me&an&l
strengh may be increased, and permeability de-
creased. The successful use of such processes is
possible only if the physical properties of the soils
to be treated have been studied, and recent progress
in soil mechanics bas thus contributed to tbis
branch of engineering.
In this Article, all the processes now in use are
presented in tabular form, and it is shown that they
are based on four fundamental principlesdrainage,
compaction, artificial cementing, and bass exchange.
Diff&ents pro&l& sont connus pour &anger
les attributs des rochers et sols faiblessur place, pour
le g&me civil: on peut augmenter la rdsistancs
mkaniaue et rduire la pernkbilit& L’emploi
r&rssi dk tels pro&Ms n’esf rendu possible que $ar
l’&ude antirieure des attributs physiques des sols
B traiter. et les progr&sr6cent.sdans la mkanique de
sol ont ainsi contribq6.B cette branche du genie.
Dans cet artick, on prdsente sous forme de
tableau tous les procdd6s employ& actuellement,
et on ddmontre qu’ils sont b&s sur quatre principes
fondamentaux-le drainage, le tasssment. la
cimentation artificielle, et l’kchange de la bass.

INTRODUCTION
A number of prkesses have heen invented during the past 100 years to alter the properties
of soils and weak rocks in situ ; in most cases their purpose is to increase the strength and/or
to decrease the permeability of the material treated. All these processes are hased on four
fundamental principles-compaction, artificial cementing, drainage, and base exchange.
Their application was at first somewhat haphazard, partly owing to the incurable optimism
of inventors and of their business associates, and partly because little data existed on the
mechanical properties of geological materials.
Methods of soil testing are, however, now being standardised, and a vast fund of informa-
tion is available on soil properties, so that these processes can be used with more confidence.
Nevertheless, there is still a tendency among practical engineers to look upon at least some
of them as desperate remedies to be adopted as a last resort, rather than as orthodox engi-
neering expedients. This tendency can be overcome only by the publication of detailed
accounts of their application, and it is to be hoped that many such accounts will be published
in the future.
The intention of this Article is to present a review of the scope and limitations of
geotechnical processes.

DRAINAGE
The term drainage embraces all methods whereby water is removed from the soil.Drainage
has two functions in engineering practice : permanent drainage is employed to stabilise slopes
and shallow foundations, whilst temporary drainage is necessary in excavating in water-bearing
ground.

DEEP DRAINAGE

(I) By pum$w.-Where an excavation must be put down in sand below groundwater-

level and conditions are such that it is impossible to isolate the site by sheet piling or other-
wise, drainage by pumping becomes necessary. The quantity of water to he dealt with is
then a function of the permeability of the sand and of the size and depth of the excavation
helow groundwater-level, and of these alone ; so that no matter what method of collecting
the water is devised, the quantity to he handled will he practically the same. The method
of collection, however, has a decisive influence on the stability of the ground in the vicinity
of the excavation, since any system of pumping directly from the excavation or from a sump
within it causes an inward flow and sets up in the ground a hydraulic gradient towards the
3

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 4 RUDOLPH CLOSSOP
excavation, which, on reaching a certain critical value, will give rise to piping or to internal
erosion of sand.
For this reason, in modern practice, water is collected by filter wells placed outside the
excavation. This method has several important advantages. In the first place, the wells
are sunk by boring or jetting, and since, in boring, excavation is carried out below water, no
ground is lost in the process. Secondly, an inverted gravel filter is placed round the well tube
so that no sand can be drawn into it when pumping is in progress ; and lastly the wells are
placed outside the excavation so that the flow is to the wells and from the excavation. There is
thus no possible danger of instability. This method may enable sheeting to be dispensed with
altogether, or, where a vertical face is necessary, greatly reduces the necessary penetration
of the piles below the bottom of the excavation. The great advantages of this system can be
appreciated only by those who have made use of it on important works.
In installing such a series of wells, their number, depth, yield, and influence on the level
of groundwater can be calculated with reasonable accuracy if the permeability of the ground
is known.
In very fine-g&red soils the permeability becomes so small and the tlow to the wells so
slow that drainage by this method becomes impractical. The lower limit for its successful
application is represented by material at the lower end of the tine-sand range.

ow.-Deep drainage by pumping is costly, and its use is generally limited

to J2E~~~Z~ction. Deep drainage by gravity flow is chiefly used, where topography
permits, to stabilize cuttings and steep natural slopes in fine sand.
Where a thick stratum of fine sand overlying an impermeable clay is exposed by an escarp-
ment or an artificial excavation, springs issuing at the base of the sand stratum may cause
internal erosion and slumping which, in an area of urban development, may have disastrous
results. Two cases which have recently been described were dealt with in the following
manner. Adits, or tunnels, were driven in the impermeable stratum, communicating with
vertical boreholes driven through the sand from the surface, and filled with a suitably graded
filter-gravel. In this way the water was removed harmlessly before reaching the outcrop.
A similar method was employed in a most interesting case in which landslides had been caused
by the weakening and erosion of a bed of clay. Groundwater flowing from a limestone, and
having calcium salts in solution, passed through a stratum rich in the mineral glauconite.
The calcium in solution was replaced, as a result of base exchange, by potassium ; the water,
on reaching an underlying bed of clay, consequently altered its properties to such a degree
that it became incapable of supporting the overburden load, and serious landslides occurred.
In recent years, deep vertical filter drains have been widely used to control under-seepage
beneath dams and levees.
Counterfort drains are an old device for stabilizing cuttings, and have been employed with
success in checking flow slides on natural slopes. A recent development has been to combine
them with multiple-layer graded-gravel filters to drain cuttings in fine sand. Graded gravel
has long been used to form a base to the sand stratum in filter beds for the purification of
water. Its use to prevent piping at the point of escape of groundwater below dams was
first suggested by Terzaghi, but its application is not confined to this purpose alone, and the
inverted gravel filter is a most valuable expedient in controlling strata of fine sand under all
kinds of circ rmstances.

(3) By elect&d forces.-The electro-osmosis of soils has been much discussed in recent
years, but its effect on engineering practice has so far been negligible. In fact, if correctly
applied, the method shows great promise. The true role of electro-osmosis is to reverse the
flow of ground-water in the neighbourhood of excavations and thus to stabilize the soil.
This reversal occurs only when the potential due to the applied electromotive force exceeds
that due to gravity, a condition possible only in fine-grained soils such as those which lie

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 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOTECHNICAL PROCESSES 5
well within the silt range. Such soils are, incidentally, rare in Great Britain, The method
extends very considerably the application of drainage by wells.
A complementary effect to electro-osmosis is known whereby colloidal particles of solid
matter migrate through a fluid under the influence of an electrical potential : this effect is
known as cataphoresis. It presents a possible method for altering the properties of soils
thataare too impermeable for treatment by injection processes.

(4) By pressureflow.-Many of the world’s great cities are situated on estuaries ; theplevel
reclaimed marshlands near them are perfect sites for airports from every point of view
except that of foundations. Such marshes are often underlain by many feet of soft recent
clay deposited during the post-glacial eustatic rise in sea-level. These clays consolidate
rapidly under load, and, indeed, may still be consolidating under their own weight. The
consequent settlement of their surface is sufficient to render a runway constructed on them
useless in a very few years. Consolidation may be hastened, and the period of serious settle-
ment thus shortened, by decreasing the length of the drainage path by which water must
escape from the consolidating clay. This has been done by providing closely spaced vertical
drains by which the water is expelled by pressure flow to the surface. Two types are in use :
the first, developed in the United States of America, makes use of boreholes backfilled with
sand ; the second, developed in Sweden, employs drains consisting of strips of corrugated
cardboard inserted into the ground by an ingenious mechanism.
It is claimed that, by this method, settlements that would normally extend over several
years are completed in a few months.

SHALLOW DRAINAGE

(I) By gravity fEow.-The various types of shallow drains are well known and need no
further description. Their chief use in civil engineering practice is in land drainage and
airfields and in draining the subgrade beneath roads and runways. This is done for three
reasons : to reduce the hydrostatic uplift and thus increase the bearing capacity of sands ; to
drain fissures in clayey soils and thus prevent their softening in the presence of water ; and
to prevent frost-heave in silty soils.

(2) By desiccation.-The drying of soils in situ is rarely practised, but an interesting

case has been described from California. Hot air was circulated through tunnels excavated
in a stratum of clay, thus stabilizing a steep slope in the neighbourhood of valuable property.
Clay roads are said to have been stabilized in Australia by the application of heat, but the
Author has been unable to find any description of this method.

(3) By transpiration.-The drying effect of vegetation on the soil is well known and, as
was demonstrated in the proceedings of the recent Conference on Biology and Civil Engineering
held at the Institution of Civil Engineers, its effects are often unintentional and disastrous.
Vegetation has, however, been.put to good use in the stabilization of railway cuttings.

DISPLACEMENT

Compressed air.-The use of compressed air is confined to tunnels and to vertical excava-
tions of limited horizontal area, and in these it cannot be employed at depths where the
hydrostatic head exceeds 100 feet. Within these limits it is a *most valuable engineering
expedient, without which even shield tunnelling would scarcely be possible in fine sands and
silts below groundwater-level.
Compressed air is effective over a very wide range of soils. Thus, silts and clays at the
liquid limit, which, although comparatively impermeable, would flow into the face of a tunnel,

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 6 RUDOLPH GLOSSOP

can be supported and controlled by air pressum, and fine sands, which it would be impossible
to drain by wells or sumps, are, when all free water has been displaced by air, converted to a
firm consistency by the capillary tensions of the remaining moisture.
In coarse sandy gravels the loss of air,increases the cost of the process and may even
endanger its success in tunnelling unless controlled by clay pocketing, or by the use of one of
the injection methods. In caissons the loss of air is never great, and they are most useful in
excavating, in soils too fine to be drained, to depths beyond the reach of sheet piling.

COMPACTION
Compaction increases the dry density of a soil by expelling air and water from the voids
and by bringing the solid particles into a close state of packing, thus decreasing the porosity
and permeability and increasing the shear strength.
Methods of compaction may be divided into two classes. Superticial compaction is
employed where soil is used as a material of construction, placed and compacted in thin layers,
as in the construction of embankments and roads ; deep compaction is employed to increase
the bearing capacity of soils in situ on the site of heavy foundations.

SUPERFICIAL COMPACTION
Compaction is one of the oldest engineering expedients, and has heen employed since time
immemorial.
In recent years, traditional methods have become inadequate : thus, in high earth dams,
economical designs call for a high shearing resistance in the soil of which they are composed,
and this can be ensured only by efficient and reliable compaction ; and, in the construction
of runways, the very heavy wheel-loadings of modem aircraft necessitate the use of a very
highly compacted sub-base.
The first important advances were made by proctor, in the United States, and by Kelso,
in Australia, who applied quantitative methods to the process. They suggested that the dry
density of the soil was a convenient measure of the degree of compaction, and showed that,
for any given soil, the degree of compaction obtained by a standard application of any one
method of compacting was a function of the moisture content of the soil-that is to say, that
the dry-density/moisture-content curve showed a maximum value for the dry density, corre-
sponding to a unique value of the moisture content. This is known as the “ optimum moisture
content,” and is constant for that soil and that method of compaction.
The effect of their work has been twofold : it has led to the development of new forms of
compaction plant, and enables the relative efficiency of different types of plant to be com-
pared ; and it allows rational methods to be used in the design and specification of earthworks.
The complexity of soil types makes it diflicult to correlate laboratory tests with results
in the field, and proctor’s original technique does not always give satisfactory results. Much
research is now in progress, but for the present it is desirable, in planning large works, to carry
out full-scale field tests, with the plant that it is proposed to use, rather than to depend entirely
on laboratory work.

COMPACTION IN DEPTH
Fine sands, whether natural or in filled material, often exist in a very loose state of packing
with porosities as high as 47 per cent. Such material is unstable, and vibration, such as may
be caused by blasting or pile-driving, may cause it to move into a denser state, with consequent
settlement of the surface, and possible development of a “ quick ” condition if saturated.
Compaction in depth is necessary before important structures can be securely founded on such
strata. Deep compaction may also be applied to unsaturated loamy soils, such as loess, or,
indeed, to any highly compressible soils of high permeability.
Three methods are in use for compaction of soil in depth : they are piledriving, vibration,
and the use of explosives.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOTECHNICAL PROCESSES 7
(I) Pile-driving.-A simple method of compaction suitable for loosely packed sands and
loamy soils is to drive into the ground short concrete or timber piles at close centres.. The
ground is thus compacted both by the vibration of driving and by the displacement of soil
by the piles. This method has long been known, and has been described by Rankine, who
states that “ short piles are driven in order to compress and consolidate the soil . . . The
mass’of consolidated soil and piles thus produced may be regarded as respects the relation
between its bulk and the load that it can bear in the same light as if a trench had been dug
of the same volume and filled with a stable material.”

(2) Sand$ik.s.-Sand piles are frequently used where compaction alone is required, since
they are inexpensive, do not decay, and are unaffected by corrosive groundwaters which
would attack concrete. In their simplest form they may be made by tamping sand into a
hole formed either by an earth auger or by driving and withdrawing a timber pile.
The first of these methods, although probably the cheaper, is not to be recommended,
since neither the vibration nor the displacement of soil due to pile-driving is obtained.
In addition to their compacting effect, such columns of sand are capable of sustaining
vertical loads without exerting excessive lateral pressures, but they are naturally unsuited
to heavy eccentric loads or uplift.
Advances have been made on the method of driving.and withdrawing a timber pile. In
a method introduced in France, but now apparently obsolete, a free-falling conical monkey
was dropped from a suitable pile-frame, and, by successive blows, a hole was formed into
which moist sand could be compacted to form a pile.
If the sides of the hole showed signs of caving in, lumps of clay were dropped into the
hole between blows of the monkey as sinking proceeded.
A more successful device has been employed in Germany. In this system a steel tube of
about 50 centimetres diameter is pitched from a pile-frame of heavy construction. A plug
of sand-gravel mixture is dropped into the tube and compacted by means of a heavy monkey
within the tube. The friction of the plug with the tube is sufficient to carry the latter into
the ground. When the desired depth has been reached more soil is added and compacted
and, simultaneously, the tube is withdrawn by a powerful winch.

(3) Com@ction in depth b vibration.- A device which might be described as a large-scale

version of the internal vibrators used in placing concrete was developed in Germany before
the last war and was successfully used in compacting sand strata to a depth of 30 metres.
The vibrator consists of a cylindrical housing 3 metres long and 40 centimetres in diameter,
in which is mounted an electric motor of 40-50 horse-power driving a vertical shaft carry&
unbalanced weights. A jetting nozzle is fitted at both ends, and at the upper end there is a
flanged connexion to a sectional hollow stem in which are the power cables and the pressure
water-pipe. The vibration has an amplitude of 10 millimetres and a frequency of 3,000 per
minute.
The vibrator is suspended from a frame and jetted down to the bottom of the stratum to
be compacted by means of the lower nozzle, a depth of 20 metres being reached in 10 minutes.
This nozzle is then closed, and water is admitted to the nozzle above the vibrator ; simul-
taneously the motor is started. When an increased ammeter reading shows that the sand round
the vibrator has been compacted, the apparatus is raised slightly and the process repeated
until it is completely withdrawn. As compaction proceeds a crater appears at the surface
into which additional sand is poured ; the quantity required is said to be 10 per cent. of
the volume of the ground treated. To give thorough compaction, vibration points must be
spaced at l+metre centres.

(4) Compact&m ia depth by muam of explosives.-Where well sorted cohesionless sand

occurs, fully saturated with water and having a density below the critical value (that is to say, in a

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 8 RUDOLPH GLOSSOP

very loose state of packing), compaction in depth may be achieved by the detonation of buried
charges of explosives. This method was used in the construction of the Franklin Falls dam
and of other dams in the United States.

SOIL STABILIZATION

The process of soil stabilization is of importance primarily in road and airfield engineering.
A soil is said to be stable when its shear strength is high under all conditions and its com-
pressibility low, and when climatic changes do not cause large alterations of moisture content
with consequent swelling or shrinking.
To be stable, a soil must be so graded that it contains sufficient sand for the grains, by
interlocking, to give it frictional strength, and sufficient clay to give it cohesion by acting as
a binder between the grains. The clay must not be of a type with a high capacity for
adsorbing water. Finally, the degree of compaction of the soil should be high.
To stabilize a soil, the grading should be corrected by adding those soil grades in which
it is deficient, and a reagent or stabilizer that will minimize changes in moisture content by
checking the flow of capillary moisture. The soil must then be thoroughly compacted at about
the optimum moisture content.
It may be said that stabilization is achieved largely by compaction, often in conjunction
with artificial cementing or waterproofing in which the clay fraction of the soil, kept at a
more or less constant moisture content by the action of the stabilizer, acts as a binder.

ARTIFICIAL CEMENTING

In geology, the term ‘I cement ” is used to describe mineral matter that fills the voids and
attaches together the detrital grains in sandstones and other sedimentary rocks. Such
substances as calcite, silica, and oxides of iron are often found to occur as natural “ cements.”
The term has been borrowed to describe processes by which loose deposits of sand and
gravel are rendered impermeable and, in certain cases, may be given a high degree of mecha-
nical strength by the introduction, in situ, of a cementing substance which, in effect, converts
them into an artificial rock.
Such artificial cementing may be carried out in two very different ways : either by injecting
the cementing substance into the soil as a fluid under pressure, which subsequently sets or
coagulates in the soil voids ; or by the application of cold to such a degree that the natural
moisture is frozen and itself acts as a “ cement.”
The effect of the injection processes is usually permanent, whereas that of the freezing
process lasts only as long as the refrigerating plant is kept in operation.

INJECTION OR GROUTING PROCESSES

Injection or grouting processes may be classified according to the fluid used. In practice,
it is also convenient to divide them into the single-fluid processes and the two-fluid processes,
since these differ considerably in the practical details of their application.
The method of application is also largely influenced by the site conditions. As a rule,
injections commence from the bottom of the zone to be treated and proceed upward in stages.
Thus, in rock where no casing is necessary, a hole is bored to the full depth and the injection,
tube, fitted externally with an expanding rubber ring, is lowered nearly to the bottom and
the first injection is given ; the tube is then withdrawn in stages after successive injections.
Where injections in rock are to be carried to great depths and with high pressures, injections
may proceed downwards, the hole being re-bored and deepened after each injection ; this
procedure is expensive but reduces the danger of uplift of the strata by the injection fluid.
In soils, single-fluid injections nearly always proceed upward and, for depths of up to
about 40 feet, steel injection pipes may be driven into the soil by means of a compressed-air
hammer, a quicker and cheaper method than boring. For greater depths, borings must be

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 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOTECHNICAL PROCESSES 9
used and, since the effect of the injections on the soil usually makes it impossible to withdraw
the casing, a small explosive charge is lowered into it to fracture it at the point where injections
are required. This method was carried out to a depth of 180 feet on the Sagitario river, in
Italy.

THEORY OF INJECTIONS

Although the use of injection processes is more an art than a science and the technique is
more difficult to acquire than the fundamental theory, it is desirable to understand the basic
principles of the process even though in practice they are obscured by details peculiar to the
site.
It can be shown that there is a relation between the permeability of the soil, K ; the in-
jection pressure, h ; the ratio of the viscosity of the injection fluid to that of water, v/vi;
the penetration of the injection, R ; the radius of the injection tube, r. ; the porosity, n ;
and the duration of the injection, t (all in c.g.s. units). This is expressed by the equation :
SO
;.K.$.ht

Thus it is possible to calculate the length of time required to inject a sphere of radius R for
any given pressure, and hence an economical spacing of injection pipes can be derived. This
formula is useful as a rough guide, but it must be remembered that sand strata are rarely, if
ever, homogeneous, and that, if the pressure is increased beyond a certain point, the fluid
will return to the surface along the outer surface of the injection tube. To prevent this, the
injection pressure at any depth must be balanced against the overburden pressure The
minimum depth of overburden necessary to prevent piping is known as the “ cover.”

SINGLE-FLUID INJECTIONS

(1)Cement groz&ng.-The use of cement grout, pumped in through a borehole, was appar-
ently first applied to the purposes of civil engineering in England in the early years of the
present century, being employed to seal fissures in rock beneath the dams then under construc-
tion in the Pennines ; it was here that the value of very dilute grouts for this purpose was
discovered.
Cement grout was introduced into the United States in 1912, and the formation of grout
curtains beneath dams is now standard practice in that country, where it has been brought
to a high state of perfection. Its success in this field led to many attempts to inject sands
with dilute cement grouts, and, incidentally, to many failures, since only really coarse sand or
fine gravel can be treated satisfactorily. Cement should never be adopted for the treatment
of sandy deposits unless they have been thoroughly examined and sizing analyses have been
made of representative samples, since practical experience has shown that no cement grout,
however dilute, can be persuaded to enter sand the effective size of which is less than 0.5 milli-
metre for a loose state of packing, or 1.4 millimetre for dense packing.
Where excavation is to follow successful cement injections into sand and gravel, the
treated ground may be virtually. concrete and the cost of excavation high ; in such cases,
clay and fine sand, or clay and rock flour, may be added to the cement to reduce its ultimate
strength.
Cuttings in stiff fissured clays become unstable with lapse of time owing to softening of the
clay along fissures into which surface water has found its way. Attempts have been made
to prevent this effect, or at any rate to postpone it, by means of cement injections.

(2) Thixotropic stispensions.-Clay slurries have been quite widely used, both alone and
mixed with cement or with bitumen emulsions, to render sands impermeable by injection.
Although they give some slight cohesion to the sand their effect on its mechanical strength
is not important.

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 10 RUDOLPH GLOSSOP

Bentonite, a naturally occurring clay, formed by the alteration of volcanic ash and rich
in montmorillonite, is well suited to this purpose. Bentonite has an enormous capacity for
absorbing water and forms remarkably stable suspensions ; moreover, its suspensions are
thixotropic-that is to say, they are quite liquid when agitated, but when allowed to stand
they set into a gel ; this transformation can be repeated inde5nitely. This enables a liquid
clay grout to be pumped into the ground, where it sets to form a gel blocking the voids and
decreasing the permeability.
Suitable bentonites are rare in Europe, and this has led engineers in France and Switzerland
to develop methods for inducing other and more easily obtainable clays to form stable and
thixotropic suspensions. The first stage of treatment is to produce a stable suspension
-that is to say, one which is so highly dispersed that it will not give trouble by settling out
and blocking the pumps and pipe lines (this is usually achieved by the addition of a salt of
an alkaline metal which modifies the properties of the clay by base exchange) ; the second
is to add to the stable suspension a solution of a metallic salt, such as ahuninium sulphate,
which will cause the suspension to flocculate after injection into the ground ; and the third
is to adjust the proportions of the reagents so that the volume of the flocculated clay is the
maximum and the voids in the soil are hence completely filled. Obviously a good deal of
laboratory work is necessary in each instance before the correct reagents and the best mix can
be found. The particle size of the clay is, of course, most important : it must be fine enough
to ensure entry to the strata to be treated.
The advantages of clay as an injection fluid are cheapness (if suitable clay is obtainable
near the site) and the fact that clay grouts will penetrate finer sands than will cement grouts.

(4, Bitume+r-.-The emulsion used in this process consists of minute globules of

bitumen with an average diameter of about 1 micron, dispersed in water with the addition
of a small quantity of soap solution. To prevent the premature coagulation of the emulsion,
a stabii reagent such as casein is used. Immediately before injection, a substance is
added which, after a lapse of time, will cause the minute particles of bitumen to adhere
together or coagulate, thus tilling the voids in the soil. For this purpose certain esters may
be used, which by hydrolysis release formic acid ; this acts as a coagulator. The speed of
coagulation may be greatly influenced by the chemical composition of the soil, or of the ground-
water, so that skilled supervision and control are necessary if the process is to be a success.
Great cam must also be taken in the preparation of emulsion, since, if only a small proportion
of coarse globules is present, these will be filtered out at the point of injection and will prevent
the entrance of more fluid to the ground.

(4) Singk#uid silicate injections.-Suggestions were made at least 100 years ago for the use
of water-glass in the manufacture of artificial stone ; during the past 20 years, water-glass has
been widely employed as the essential ingredient in fluids for sand stabilisation in situ by
injections.
Water-glass is a viscous liquid prepared by the fusion of sodium carbonate with silica.
Although it is much used in industry, its composition and structure are still obscure. It is
believed to consist of colloidal silica dispersed in an aqueous solution of sodium metasilicate.
It is valuable as an injection fluid because commercial grades exist whose viscosity is low
enough to allow them to penetrate comparatively fine sands, and also because it is easily
brought into an unstable state, when silica is precipitated as a sti5 gel. This gel is believed
to be formed of spherical particles of silica sol adhering together in a very loose state of packing.
Injection fluids are prepared by choosing a commercial grade of water-glass and mixing
with it a reagent which will cause gelation after a short lapse of time. Such substances are
sodium ahmfinate and the acid sodium salts of weak acids, such as sodimn bicarbonate.
The time of reaction may be varied by altering the concentration of the reagents.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF CEOTECBNICAL PROCESSES II

In all single-fluid silicate processes the gel formed is quite soft and, although the perme-
ability of the treated ground is much reduced, its mechanical strength is not appreciably
incread . The silicate injections can, however, penetrate finer-grained soils than can
suspensions or emulsions.

(5) As@t grout&.-In limestone, large natural cavities often exist in which the velocity
of the groundwater is sufficient to sweep away and disperse any of the injections so far described
before they can set. Under such conditions, hot asphalt or pitch may be used. When pumped
in slowly the asphalt, on entering the water-filled cavity, forms an expanding bulb with a
tough outer skin and a hot liquid interior. On cooling, the asphalt contracts, so that the
process must be repeated more than once to make a watertight job.

TWO-FLUID SILICATE INJECTIONS

The Joosten and Guttman processes differ from all those so far described in that two
fluids are injected successively. The first consists of water-glass, either alone or mixed with a
second reagent, and the second of calcium chloride. These fluids react almost instan-
taneously ; silica in the form of a gel is precipitated in the soil voids, and sand treated in
this manner develops a high degree of impermeability and a compressive strength far greater
than that endowed by the single-fluid injection processes.
The rapidity of the chemical action necessitates the use of an injection method which will
prevent the injection pipe from being cemented into the ground and rendered immovable,
and from itself becoming blocked with silica gel. The technique is as follows. The pipe is
driven in by short stages, and with each stage sufficient water-glass is pumped in to saturate
the ground for a distance of about 1 foot from the pipe. On reaching the full depth the pipe
is washed out and withdrawn in a similar manner with the injection of calcium chloride. This
method necessitates the driving of pipes at Z-foot centres : this is the most serious disadvantage
of these processes.

&&man process.-In this process the water-glass solution is diluted with sodium carbonate
or sodium sulphate, which gives a voluminous and insoluble precipitate in the ensuing reaction.
The effect of this dilution is to reduce the viscosity of the solution, thus enabling it to penetrate
finer sands and to increase the strength of the treated ground.
Test pieces prepared by this process have been found to be highly resistant to groundwater
containing sulphates in solution.

COMPARISON OF INJECTION PROCESSES

The two-fluid processes are the most expensive, since the cost of the ingredients is high
and the injection pipes are closely spaced : nevertheless, they have a very definite role in
engineering practice, and frequently offer the simplest and least costly solution to problems
involving underpinning of structures near tunnels and other excavations.
In tunnelling they are particularly valuable, since, where a short length of permeable
ground is to be traversed, they are more economical than compressed air, for which the first
cost of installation is high. They may also be used in tunnels driven in compressed air, to
check the loss of air in very permeable strata and to reduce the danger of blows where the
cover is small.
The fact that very small volumes of ground are treated at a time, although increasing the
cost, is in fact an advantage where injections are to be made beneath an existing structure,
since it prevents the uncontrolled spread of the injection fluid and the possibility of building
up dangerous pressures with consequent uplift.
Single-fluid injections are best suited to the treatment of fissured rock in shaft sinking,
and in forming impermeable curtains beneath dams. Here there are at least four principal

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 12 RUDOLPH GLOSSOP: CLASSIFICATION OF GEOTECHNICAL PROCESSES

substances to choose from, in addition to a number of mixtures of them ; in any case, success
depends upon the right choice, based on an adequate investigation of the geology of the site.
Cement, being comparatively cheap and easy to obtain, will always be considered first :
it gives excellent results in fissured rocks. Where large cavities exist in rock in which the
movement of ground is rapid, a cement grout will be swept away before it can set. In such
cases sawdust shavings and grain are added, in the hope that they will form a plug, and
bentonite and rock flour are added to the grout. If these measures fail, asphalt must be
substituted for cement in the injection fluid. In permeable rocks, or where fissures of width
less than O-1 millimetre exist, treatment by cement alone, even in dilute suspensions, will
not be effective and must be followed by single-fluid silicate injections.
In alluvial deposits, modern practice seems to favour cement for gravel and very coarse
sand ; clay or cement-clay suspensions for coarse to medium sands ; and single-fluid silicate
injections for medium to fine sands. Often, all three fluids are employed on the same site.
Clay suspensions and bitumen emulsions seem to cover about the same range of soils, and
the choice between them will generally be determined by their relative costs.

FREEZING

The place of freezing in civil engineering practice is in excavations through soils too fine-
grained for treatment either by drainage or injections, and at depths too great for compressed
air. Indeed, it represents the only method where very fine-grained water-bearing soils must
be traversed at very great depths.
Its chief use is, of course, in the sinking of mine shafts, but it has been employed in recent
years in two brilliant feats of improvisation. The first of these was in the State of Washington,
U.S.A., where a flow of waterlogged silt from a gorge into the foundation excavation of the
Grand Coulee dam was checked by freezing a zone of the silt in situ to form an arched dam.
The second was in the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil, where rapid settlements of a twenty-five-
storey building were checked and controlled by freezing until permanent underpinning could
be undertaken.

BASE EXCHANGE

Base exchange has been applied in civil engineering practice in two ways : by the method
known as the electro-chemical hardening of clays, whereby the cations of t.he alkali metals
in the natural soil are replaced by those of hydrogen and aluminium, thus reducing the
swelling properties and lowering the liquid limit ; and by the method of treatment by solutions,
which is used to produce the reverse effect.
If two aluminium electrodes are inserted into a mass of soft clay and a current passed
between them, it is found that the properties of the clay in the vicinity of the electrodes are
permanently altered, by the migration into it of cations of hydrogen (derived from electrolysis
of the soil moisture) and of aluminium (derived from the electrodes). Full-scale experiments
in Bavaria showed that the bearing capacity of friction piles could be considerably increased
by this process ; but apparently no one has yet been bold enough to apply it in practice.
The treatment of clay by solutions of suitable salts has already been mentioned in the
discussion of injection processes. At San Francisco, leakage from a pond lined with puddle
clay was stopped by filling it with sea water. In this way the calcium ions in the clay were
replaced by sodium ions, and the consequent swelling of the clay greatly reduced its
permeability.

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 DEWATERING

DRAINAGE

GRAVITATIONAL FORCES

I-
FLOW SET UP BY PUMPING
NATURAL GRADIENT

Groundwater lowering by wells Sumps

Land drains,
Adits and Counter-
1French drains
tunnels fort drains
Deep wells Shallow wells Well points Simple Filter mole drains
._
Filter wells Filter wells Well points Sunk ahead Double Shallow Horizontal Deep trenches
(20’ dia.) with (12” dia.) at of main ex- sheeted trenches with galleries some- backfilled
submersible about 50-foot !i2ZZ at cavation. sump with a or without times back- with suitably
NATURE
pumps centres centres Large enough gravel filling pipes, filled filled with graded mate-
OF for pump. with gravel, permeable rial. Ripe
PROCESS Timber run- ,etc. Mole filling round drain at
ners, sheet ,drains a pipe bottom
piles

-- I --
All types of All types of Silty sands,
soil soil if iissured clay ; par-
or permeable ticularly stiff
SOIL TYPES
All non-cohesive soils coarser than silt (e.g., sand, gravel) fissured clay
TO WHICH
APPLICABLE

L
Water table lowered ; artesian pressure Inflowing water collected and Moisture Moisture Moisture
relieved ; piping prevented ; lateral pressure controlled if necessary by content content of content
decreased ; sand after drainage will have filter media decreased ; non-cohesive reduced ;
PROPERTIES some cohesion cracks soils reduced ; fissures
MODIFIED drained ; internal ero- drained ;
BY THE standing sion checked. swelling of
PROCESS water re- In rock and clay checked.
moved stiff clay,
drains fissures

Drainage oi
T Drainage oi excavations Drainage of excavations To drain the To stabike To stabiiize
excavations subgrade of high natural small slopes,
and relief of roads, run- slopes, pre- sides of cut-
FIELD OF artesian pres- ways, and rail vent land- tings, etc.
sure ways; land slides
USE
drainage

Submersible Average re- Unsuitable Roth the sinking and sealing Essentially To drain large Chief use is
bore-hole duction in where head- of sumps are far more difhcult suited to areas to a to stabilize
_.__I__*____,L_~
pumps used water-revel oy room is man m me case or oorea wens draining iargc great depth ; siopes in ciay
shallow wells limited, and areas to a ver where topo- soils
and well where clay shallow depti g:hy per-
points is and
‘ sand often
15 feet alternate used’ in con-
REMARKS
junction with
vertical draim
Generally suited to excavations of large area
and moderate depth ; installation faster than
“&.l4..” .munxp,
uuuq .. . ^..I....J~LILC
zia~m
..._” . A_-.. UUIY
P^__.iS
. iiCii3 the
excavation ; prevents piping and internal
erosion

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 DEWATERING

DISPLACE-
MENT
- -

- I
ELECTRICAL
FORCES
CAPILLARY FORCES

/
ATURAL GRADIENT I PRESSURE
GRADIENT
SUPERFICIAL

- I
I
IN DEPTH

-
,ZOMPRESSEI
AIR
DRIVEN
-
I
TIMBER

Adits and Counter- Vertical

ELECTRO-
OSMOSIS
Vegetation
High temperature
I LOW
temperature,
natural
OR
CONCRRTE

tunnels fort drains drains

Permanent Temporary ventilation
._ __ -_
Horizontal Deep trenches (1) Boreholes Potential-dif- Surface Surface of Hot air Circulation of Air pressure Short piles c
galleries some, backfilled filled with ference set up planted with clay heated circulated air on surface in working driven at ti
times back- with suitably graded gravel between wells suitable by portable through adits or through chamber of close centres hm
filled with graded mate- (2) Artesian and electrode5 grasses. furnace deep rubble excavation is b
permeable rial. Pipe filter wells in soil reverses shrubs, wil- drains. adjusted to P
filling round drain at natural flow lows; etc. hydrostatic
a pipe bottom head

._ .
All types of Silty sands, t”;h~ and Silt All soils with Clay Clay ChY Sand, fine Sandy silts and la
soil if fissured clay ; par- a high mois- sand, and silt ; water, with nume
or permeable ticularly stiff (2) Sand ture content clay at or near used in permeable
fissured clay the liquid
limit-

- _-
Moisture Moisture Moisture Moisture Moisture Moisture Moisture Free ground- Angle of internal
content of content content content content content content water ex- increased ; poros
noncohesive reduced : decreased, reduced ; reduced ; much reduced ; reduced ; pelled ; sand: decreased .; shear
soils reduced ; fissures shear strength cohesion surface reduced ; clay cohesion cohesion acquire some capacity, Increase
internal ero- drained ; increased increased ; erosion is hardened increased increased cohesion ;
sion checked. swelling of gi;v;dwater slopes are decreased ; plastic flow of
in rock and clay checked. stabilized by stability clay checked
stiff clay, artesian pres- the reversal increased
drains fissures sure relieved of natural
drainage
- __
To stabilize To stabilize (1) To hasten Excavation Stabilization Improvement Stabilization Cuttings, etc. Tunnels and Beneath raft four
high natural small slopes, natural con- in saturated of slopes, air- of clay roads of slopes caissons buildings ; moder
slopes, pre- sides of cut- solidation silts fields, road can be used in soi
vent land- tings, etc. (2) To relieve verges below groundwatc
slides artesian pres-
sure or uplift
under dams

-_ .- __
To drain largt Chief use is To drain small Still in the Moisture con- Used in Only one A=&-fd=y Use limited A method C
areas to a to stabilize areas to a experimental tent near the Australia instance to tunnels long known ir
great depth ; slopes in clay great depth ; stage, but has surface is de- recorded counterfort and vertical and used on F
where topo- soils to control been used on creased and drams excavations 01 icompressible
graphy per- seepage be- a large scale controlled ; limited area soils
mits, often neath dams in Germany surface siips owing to up-
used in con- and prevent prevented lit ; depth is
junction with P’Pmg hmited to
vertical drainr 100 feet for
physiological
reasons :
range of soils
wide

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 GEOTECHNICAL PROCESSES

COMPACTION

-
-I
DISPLACE-
IN DEPTH
MENT

PILING PRESSURE IMPACT VIBRATION YNU

- -

“rn
COMPRESSEI IN-SITU SAND PILES
DRIVRN VIBRATION EXPLOSIVES
AIR
TIMBER 7-
RAMMERS
ROLLING VIBRATORS E
LOW AND PUNNERS
OR
bemperature, CONCRETE
natural Lined hole Unlined hole
ventilation

Xrculation of Air pressure Short piles Damp sand Concrete or Use of Detonation Sheepsfoot ; Hand or Heavy static La
.ir on surface in working driven at tamped into sand tamped specialist of buried pneumatic ; mechanical vibrators ; floe
c through chamber of close centres hole formed into hole plant charges smooth ; rammers ; vibrating wai
leen rubble excavation is by withdrawn formed by construction dropping rollers or I‘
adjusted to pile tube conical traffic ; also weights we1
hvrlrnutatir
-J ------- monkey man and
__-__ -..-
head animal power

Sand, fine Sandy silts and loams (loesa) unsaturated with Sandy and well sorted All soils except peat Ma,;” sandy San
sand, and silt ; water, with numerous air voids. Lined holes silty soils sands below
clay at or near used in permeable sand?, saturated with water critical
the liquid density ;
limit, saturated

Koisture Free ground- Angle of internal friction increased ; density Density Density in- Angle of internal friction increased ; cohesion AnI
ontent water ex- increased ; porosity decreased ; permeability increased creased above also increased if moisture content controlled ; intc
educed ; pelled; sand! decreased ; shear strength, and hence bearing the critical density increased tiol
ohesion acquire some capacity, increased value; hori- sit)
ncreased cohesion ; zontal perme-
plastic flow ol ability much
clay checked decreased

Zutigs, etc. Tunnels and Beneath raft foundations of Buildings, Compaction Foundations Compaction Compaction Compaction Co1
caissons buildings ; moderate loading bridge piers ; of fills for earth of subgrade of small areas, of embank- of I
can be used in soil above or heavy loading dams of roads and such as back- ments ;
below groundwater-level runways ; fill, and subgrades ;
embankments trenches ; earthworks
and earth embankments
dams

i secondary Use limited A method Chiefly used Chiefly used Developed Used on a Thorough compaction effected by repeated passes
:ffect of to tunnels long known in Germany ; in France ; in Germany number of foot, pneumatic, and smooth rollers ; soil should t
:ounterfort and vertical and used on Franki system Compress01 before the dams in the below optimum moisture content ; effect checked t
excavations 0 system ; war ; said to U.S.A.
ItiIlS
limited area
f icompressible
soils appears to be be highly
tests and full-scale field tests ; peat below embankn
be removed by bog blasting
owing to up- obsolete efficient
lift ; depth ir
limited to
100 feet for
physiological
reasons :
range of soils
wide

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 I iTABILIZA- ARTIFICIAL CE
CTION
TION
-_ _-

SUPERFICIAL PERMANENT

PRESSURE IMPACT VIBRATION INUNDATION INJECTION PROCESSES

SINGLE FLUID
)SIVBS
RAMMBRS -7 -7
ROLLING VIBRATORS PONDING
AND PUNNBRS
Cement Asphalt Bentonite and Bituminous Solubl
grouting grouting clay grouts emulsions silicate so

-_ -_
ition ;heepsfoot ; Hand or Heavy static Loose fills l’horough Cement grout Liquid asphalt Grout of Bitumen Solution
,ed uieumatic ; mechanical vibrators ; flooded with :ompaction pumped in pumped into thixotropic dispersed in sodium s!
S mooth ; rammers ; vibrating ’ water, with rfter the addi- through pipes drill holes clay-suspen- water with cate with
:onstruction dropping rollers or without ion of a or drill holes through pipes sion ; a dis- the addition addition
rafIic; also weights well points itabilizer to electrically persing agent of a floc- an agent
nan and :he soil, with heated may be added culating agent cause de1
nimal power n without Co1._ flocculati
section of
Irading
-- - -.-

Qrted soils
___-_--
ill extent neat
_..-- r- r--~~ Mainly sandy Sand 411 soils ex- Rock fissures, Wide fissures Coarse, medium, and moderately tie s
below SOik :ept heavy very coarse in rock (e.g., 0.1 millimetre
I :lays, peats. sand, gravel limestone)
Vi >rading may
ted lave to be
.mproved by
dmixture of
suitable soil
_-
y in- Angle of internal friction increased ; cohesion Angle of Z+llCUy Cavities and fissures blocked ; Cohesion very slightly increased ; pm&
1 above also increased if moisture content controlled ; internal fric- moisture pick. in granular material, perme- reduced
l&al density increased tion and den- up reduced ; ability decreased and strength
; hori- sity increased mechanical increased
perme- rtrength
much improved or
sed maintained ;
hearing capa-
:ity increased

-- -_
I- .:
lations )ompaction Compaction Compaction Compaction Earth roads Shaft sinking ( Sealing of Checking the flow of water in sand *hen
rth )f subgrade of small areas, of embank- of sand fills and sub-bases and tunnel- fissures and dams and into cofferdams, etc. ; preven
If roads and such as back- ments ; to roads and ling in rock cavities below of piping
runways ; fill, and subgrades ; runways ; dams
:mbankments trenches ; earthworks canal linings ;
md earth embankments low-cost
lams building
material Reduces compressed air losses in tunnels and caissons
- _ -. -
sn a Thorough compaction effected by repeated passes of sheeps- Cement, bitu A cheap and The only In all these processes the suspension or e
er of foot, pneumatic, and smooth rollers ; soil should be slightly men emul- effective injection sion coagulates after injection. They are
in the below optimum moisture content ; effect checked by Proctor sions, resins, method of method by ferable to the two-solution processes wh’
tests and full-scale field tests ; peat below embankments may soaps, mo- sealing water- which large very large volume of ground to is be tre
be removed by bog blasting lasses, lignin bearing cavities with but only if no increase in strength is reqi
liquor, etc., fissures more fast-flowing
used as than 0.1 milli- water can be
stabilizers ; metre in sealed
cement and width
bitumen have
proved the
-__* ___I*_%,_
rn”Si sulca”e‘

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 RudolE

ARTIFICIAL CEMENTING BASE EXCH,

PERMANENT TEMPORARY

INJECTION PROCESSES FREEZING

TRI
ELECTRO-
WI
CHEMICAL
LIQUID GASBOUS SOLID CE
SINGLE FLUID TWO FLUIDS HARDENING
REFRIGERANT REFRIGERANT REFRIGERANT so

Cement Asphalt Bentonite and Bituminous Soluble Soluble

Poetsch De Hottay Dricold
grouting grouting clay grouts emulsions silicate solution silicates

Zement grout Liquid asphall Grout of Bitumen Solution of Alternate Chilled Expansion of Application Direct cur- (1)
mmped in pumped into thixotropic dispersed in sodium sili- injections calcium- Ca&Otl of solid rent passed mil
:hrough pipes drill holes clay-suspen- water with cate with of sodium chloride brine dioxide into carbon between Sol1
rr drill holes through pipes sion ; a dis- the addition addition of silicate and circulated in freezing dioxide and aluminium
electrically persing agent of a floc- an agent to calcium bore holes circuit alcohol electrodes Fa[
heated may be added culating agent cause delayed chloride inserted in
flocculation the ground Sea

3ock fissures, Wide fissures Coarse, medium, and moderately fine sands : effective size Water-bearing sands and silts ; clays with Clays with
rery coarse in rock (e.g., 0.1 millimetre moisture content at or exceeding the liquid capacity for
and, gravel limestone) limit base exchange

Cavities and fissures blocked ; zliiess very slightly increased ; permeability Cohesion Cohesion temporarily greatly increased ; per- Moisture con- SW
9 ,granular material, perme- greatly meability reduced to zero tent reduced ; Prc
rb&Q$~reased and strength increased ; cohesion much inc
permeability increased; thi
reduced swelling de?
prevented ;
liquid limit !z
decreased liq
inc

;haft sinking Sealing of Checking the flow of water in sand beneath Under- Shaft sinking, underpinning, and excavation Excavation ; Prl
.nd tunnel- fissures and dams and into cofferdams. etc. ; prevention ;Fnin; ; prevention of of
ing in rock cavities below cf piping frost-heave slu.
dams excavation
2
prt
Cl23
ieduces compressed air losses in tunnels and caissons
-

i cheap and The only In all these processes the suspension or emul- Reaction A construction expedient chiefly used in shaft This process is Rc
:ffective injection sion coagulates after injection. They are pre- instantaneous sinking where depth precludes compressed still in the ire
nethod of method by ferable to the two-solution processe s where a after the air ; in underpinning in silt and mud where experimental cla
,ealing water- which large very large volume of ground to is be treated, addition of other methods are inapplicable, costly, and stage but has va
k%ing cavities with but only if no increase in strength is required the second slow been used on St1
issures more fast-flowing solution ,? a large scale m;
*an O-1 milli- water can be mechanical in Germany
netre in sealed strength is and Russia
tidth much in-
creased

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 Rudolph Gloasop
-

BASE EXCHANGE

EMPORARY

FREEZING
TREATMENT
_. ELECTRO-
WITH CON-
CHEMICAL
GASEOUS SOLID CENTRATED
HARDENING
lEFRlGBRANT REFRIGERANT SOLUTIONS

De Hottay

-.
Sxpansion of Application Direct cur- (1) ChY
arbon of solid rent passed mixed with
lioxide into CahOll between solutions
reesing dioxide and aluminium mechanically
ircuit alcohol &3ctrodes (2) Clay inun-
inserted in dated with
the ground sea water

-
rnds and silts; days with l!ays with
at or exceeding the liquid opacity for
3ase exchangf

__
zilsyratly increased ; per- Uoisture con- swelling
:ent reduced ; Iroperties
:ohesion muck ncreased ;
ncreased ; hixotropy
iwelling ieveloped ;
Irevented ; xzmeability
iquid limit decreased ;
decreased iquid limit
ncreased

-_
derpinning, and excavation Zxcavation ; ?reparation
nevention of If thixotropic
rost-heave ilunies for
njection
luids ; im-
xovement of
day puddle

-_
tpedient chiefly used in shaft Research
lepth precludes compressed ieeded, since
ming in silt and mud where experimental :lay is a
re inapplicable, costly, and ,tage but has valuable con-
reen used on Aructional
Llarge scale naterial
n Germany
md Russia

1
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