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Technical Writing

Mechanical Power Department


Faculty of Engineering
Cairo University

2007- 2008

techwriting52@gmail.com

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Send your Questions to the following email:

techwriting52@gmail.com

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What You Will Learn

9 Introduction: The problem with Communications


9 Planning your Report and Clarifying your Purpose
9 Analyzing your Audience and Targeting their Needs
9 Selecting the Information
9 Main Parts of your Ph.D.
9 Structuring the Report Keeping the Reader in Mind

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What You Will Learn

9 Writing a First Draft Efficiently and Rapidly


9 Designing Illustrations (Use of Color, Visuals, Tables,
Numbers, Units and Equations)
9 Revising and Proof Reading your Report
9 Tools to Make your Job Easier
9 Avoiding Common English Pitfalls

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The exam of September 2007 with its
answer are at the end of these notes

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Introduction: The Problem with Communication

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Introduction: The Problem with Communication

Encode Write / speak


Idea

Transmit
Same Decode
Idea? Read / hear

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The Problem with Communication

• Communicating your thoughts and ideas is a complex process


in both speech and in writing. At every stage of the process
things can go wrong. Some of the problems that occur are
outside our control.

• This means that we should take care to ensure that the parts of
the process that we can control are clear, simple and easily
understood.

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Planning your Report and Clarifying
your Purpose

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Planning The Report and Clarifying your Purpose

¾ The biggest cause of problems is the failure to clarify thoughts before


starting to write.

It is vital that you think a lot BEFORE you start writing.

Six steps to producing the correct structure:

1. Aim - Establish and clarify the purpose

2. Gather data - Be creative! Write all thoughts and information on


paper.

Pause

3. Group - Group the ideas into themes under headings.

4. Order - Order and number the themes appropriate to the aim

Pause

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Planning The Report

¾ There is now a good outline – if appropriate get it approved at this


stage. This may save time and effort later. Start writing only when you
know what you want to say

5. Write a first draft - Write bearing in mind the rules of aim and
language

6- Re-write - No body gets it right at the first time.

7- Revise and proofread - Get some one else to read it.

Note that the first four steps involve thinking. Only the last three involve
writing.

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Defining Your Objective

ƒ Is your objective:
- To inform? (or to record)
- To explain?
- To Persuade?
ƒ Each objective has its own structure and tone.
The structure will follow logically once you have
determined your objective.

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Defining Your Objective: The six questions you must ask

¾ These six questions will Keep the objective and the reader in your
mind:

Why, Who, What, How, When, Where?

¾ All these points concern the reader rather than the writer.

Keeping the reader in mind will save a lot of time and help you
make sure you hit the target.

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Defining Your Objective

Why Do I write?
Do I have to? Could I see the reader or phone him
first?
will they want to read it?

Who am I writing to?


what sort of person is the reader? Is he senior or junior?
else is involved?

What do they want to know?


do they know already?
will they know after reading?
do I want the reader to do?
sort of tone should I use?

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Defining Your Objective

How will the reader react?


can I make it clear?

When will it be read?


Might it be read in years to come?
has it got to be done?

Where will it be read? Home or abroad?


Internal or external to my organization?

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Analyzing your Audience
And Targeting their Needs

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Who Reads What ?
I .For an “Internal” Company Report:

1. Your immediate supervisor will read it all, as will your


contemporaries working on similar problems.

2. The department head will read the abstract, the introduction,


and the conclusions and results.

3. The vice-president will read the abstract.

4. At the end of the year, the title will be listed in the annual
progress report.

5. Most of the rest of the world will either NEVER hear of your
report, or will see its title only.

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Who Reads What ?
II. For a Paper Published in an Academic Journal:

1. Subscribers to the journal, who also happen to be working


in your field, will read it all.

2. Subscribers to the journal, who wish to keep in touch with


your field, will read the abstract only.

3. The title and abstract may be reprinted by an abstracting


service for wider circulation. Readers will then judge, on the
basis of your abstract, whether or not to read your entire
paper.

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¾ It is important that you keep these audience groups in
mind while you write the report, so that the appropriate
distribution of information can be made.

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Your Audience has Different View Points

Your first duty is to decide what is important about your work.


To illustrate, let us assume that you are about to write report
describing a series of products testing. What are significant results
of the test? There might be several viewpoints.

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Technician:
“I had to add three quarts of oil during that series; the rear shaft seal
let go. I’ll have to replace that before we run again.”

Test Engineer:
“That new carburetor looks pretty good, fuel consumption was down
5% and exhaust aldehydes were down nearly 23%.”

Engine Cycle Analyst:


“Improving the homogeneity of the air-fuel mixture raised the
engine’s thermal efficiency to within 3% of its predicated value.”

Vice president, Marketing:


“We are pleased to announce a major breakthrough in our battle
against smog.”

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Selecting the Information

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Data Gathering Techniques
¾ Brain Storming

¾ Internet Searches

¾ Libraries

¾ Academic periodicals (e.g., Science Direct and Engineering


Village)

¾ Interviews

¾ Newspapers

¾ Government Records

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Data Gathering Techniques: Brain Storming

¾ Explore the topic – not the problem

- Generate ideas and write them


- Don't evaluate ideas now
- Keep returning to the problem

¾ Talk to your reader


- What questions would they ask?
- What different kinds of readers might you have?

¾ Ask yourself questions

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Brain Storming
Journalistic questions

• Who?

• What?

• Where?

• When?

• Why?

• How?

• So What?

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Brain Storming
Definition Questions

- How does the dictionary define -------?


- What do I mean by -------?
- What group of things does ------- belong to?
- How is ------- different from other things?
- What parts can ------- be divided into?
- Does ------- mean something now that it didn't years ago?
If so, what?
- What other words mean about the same as -------?
- What are some concrete examples of -------?
- When is the meaning of------- misunderstood?

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Brain Storming
Comparison/Contrast

- What is ------- similar to? In what ways?


- What is ------- different from? In what ways?
- ------- is superior (inferior) to what? How?
- ------- is most unlike (like) what? How?

Relationship
- What causes -------?
- What are the effects of -------?
- What is the purpose of -------?
- What is the consequence of -------?
- What comes before (after) -------?

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Brain Storming
Testimony
- What have I heard people say about -------?
- What are some facts of statistics about -------?
- Can I quote any proverbs, or sayings about -------?
- Are there any laws about -------?

Circumstance

- Is ------- possible or impossible?


- What conditions, or circumstances make ------ possible or
impossible?
- When did ------- happen previously?
- If ------- starts, what makes it end?
- What would prevent ------- from happening?

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Brain Storming
Tagmemics

- How is ------- different from things similar to it?


- How has ------- been different for me?
- How much can ------- change and still be itself?
- How is ------- changing?
- How much does ------- change from day to day?
- What are the different varieties of -------?
- Where and when does ------- take place?
- What is the larger thing of which ------- is a part?
- What is the function of ------- in this larger thing?

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Brain Storming
Cubing

1. Describe it (colors, shapes, sizes, etc.)


2. Compare it (What is it similar to?)
3. Associate it (What does it make you think of?)
4. Analyze it (Tell how it's made)
5. Apply it (What can you do with it? How can it be used?)
6. Argue for or against it

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Data Gathering Techniques:
Internet Searches

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Internet Searches
• A search engine is an Internet tool that locates web pages and
sorts them according to specified keywords.

• Yahoo, Google and Alta Vista are the most useful search
engines for beginning searches.

• Use the advanced search options if possible.

• Some search engines will search through several search


engines at once.

• Always refine your search.

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Types of Web Pages

• Informative pages

• Personal web pages

• Political/interest group pages

• Marketing-oriented pages

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Refining your Internet Search

• AND tells the search engine to find your first word AND your
second word.

• Use OR when a key term may appear in two different ways.

• NEAR tells the search engine to find documents with both


words but only when they appear near each other, usually
within a few words.

• NOT tells the search engine to find a reference that contains


one term but not the other.

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Some Search Engines
• Google at http://www.google.com/

• Dogpile at www.dogpile.com and www.metacrawler.com are


metasearch engines (i.e., they search other search engines)

• All4one at http://www.all4one.com allows simultaneous


searching of 4 search engines.

• Alta Vista at http://www.altavista.com/

• Excite at http://www.excite.com/

• HotBot at http://www.hotbot.com/

• Infoseek at http://www.infoseek.com/

• Lycos at http://www.lycos.com/

• Northern Light at http://www.nisearch.com

• Open Text at http://index.opentext.net


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Some Search Engines
• Snap at http://www.snap.com

• WebCrawler at http://webcrawler.com

• World Wide Web Worm at http://www.goto.com

• DejaNews at http://www.dejanews.com (searches newsgroup


postings)

• People Search at http://people.yahoo.com/ (has online white-


page directories for telephone numbers, addresses, e-mail,
addresses, etc.)

• Big Yellow at http://www1.bigyellow.com (has electronic yellow


pages)

• WebSeer at http://webseer.cs.uchicago.edu (has a huge


database of graphics)

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Don’t Limit Yourself to Search Engines
• Looking for information about job opportunities? Look at some
of the sites listing job vacancies. Try university websites that
sometimes list jobs through their placement offices, or try
professional organizations which also sometimes list jobs in
that field. Or look through the websites of various large
companies because they usually have a section on job
opportunities in their company.

• Looking for information likely to be discussed on newsgroups


or chat rooms? Look through the lists of newsgroups or use a
search engine like DejaVu.

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Don’t Limit Yourself to Search Engines
• Looking for information about a current topic? Check the
newspaper and current newsmagazine sites. Most have a
search engine for articles in their publications.

• Looking for data that might have been collected on a


government site? Start with sites such as the Library of
Congress (at http://www.loc.gov/ ) or The White House (at
http://www.whitehouse.gov/)

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Don’t Limit Yourself to Search Engines
¾ Searching With a Subject Directory:
Subject directories are valuable for web researchers who have
an area on which they want to focus, but do not yet have a
specific topic. They can help a writer get general information
or a "feel" for the topic.

Some Subject Directories:


Yahoo About.com
Big Hub Invisible Web
Link2Go Open Directory Project

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Searching with an Subject Directory: Example
¾ Go to Yahoo! (an index)

¾ Find a topic that interests you ("education")

¾ Follow it through specifics (“Rural Education", “Rural


Education Institute")

¾ “Rural Education Institute" is a specific topic that can be


feasibly researched, either by following the listed links or by
using that phrase in a keyword search.

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Don’t Limit Yourself to Search Engines
Getting Engineering Information
¾ Argonne National Laboratory
¾ Engineering Connections the Internet
¾ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
¾ Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
¾ Lockheed Martin Energy systems
¾ MIT Directory of Research
¾ National Institute of Standard and Technology
¾ National Science Foundation

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Don’t Limit Yourself to Search Engines
Getting Engineering Information

¾ The Center for Renewable Energy and Sustainable Technology

¾ The Online Material Information Resource

¾ National Renewable Energy Laboratory

¾ National Technology Transfer Center

¾ Oak Ridge National Laboratory

¾ Penn State University Libraries (Engineering Collection)

¾ Writing Guidelines for Engineering and Science Students

¾ Mathematics Information Servers

¾ Math-Search

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Don’t Limit Yourself to Search Engines
Health, Medicine Information

¾ National Institute of Health


¾ World Health Organization

¾ Medscape

¾ Medweb Plus

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But Be Careful, Because

¾ Unlike most print sources, web sources do not have to be


professionally accepted and edited to be published.

¾ Virtually any person can publish almost anything on the


Internet.

¾ Some personal sites are used to express individual opinions


about issues, but not necessarily facts.

¾ Some marketing sites will offer misleading information in


attempts to sell their products.

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Evaluating Web Sources
• Who is the site’s creator and what is his authority or expertise?

• What else comes up when you type the author’s name into a
search engine?

• Is the site sponsored by a political or business group?

• If so, what can you find out about that group?

• Is the site affiliated with a business or a university?

• Can you purchase products at this site?

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Evaluating Web Sources
• Are there links to other credible sites with additional
information?

• Does the site provide a link for emailing the author or


webmaster?

• Does the material show signs of research, such as references


to other sources, hyperlinks, footnotes, or a reference page?

• Does the author consider opposing points of view?

• How closely does the site match the information you already
know about the topic?

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Evaluating Web Sources
• Can you locate a date on the web page?

• Dates on web pages can mean:


– Date the author first wrote or developed the material.

– Date site was first available on the Internet for public


access.

– Date site was most recently updated, including revisions,


additions, or subtractions to the material.

– More importantly, does the information cover recent


changes or advances in the field or topic you are
researching?

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Main Parts of your Ph.D.
Thesis

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A suggested thesis structure
The list of contents and chapter headings below is appropriate for some theses. In some cases, one or two of them may be
irrelevant. Results and Discussion are usually combined in several chapters of a thesis. Think about the plan of chapters
and decide what is best to report your work. Then make a list, in point form, of what will go in each chapter. Try to make
this rather detailed, so that you end up with a list of points that corresponds to subsections or even to the paragraphs of
your thesis. At this stage, think hard about the logic of the presentation: within chapters, it is often possible to present the
ideas in different order, and not all arrangements will be equally easy to follow. If you make a plan of each chapter and
section before you sit down to write, the result will probably be clearer and easier to read. It will also be easier to write.

Copyright waiver
Your institution may have a form for this (UNSW does). In any case, this standard page gives the university library
the right to publish the work, possibly by microfilm or some other medium. (At UNSW, the Postgraduate Student
Office will give you a thesis pack with various guide-lines and rules about thesis format. Make sure that you
consult that for its formal requirements, as well as this rather informal guide.)

Declaration
Check the wording required by your institution, and whether there is a standard form. Many universities require
something like: "I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and
belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial
extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher
learning, except where due acknowledgment has been made in the text. (signature/name/date)"

Title page
This may vary among institutions, but as an example: Title/author/"A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in the Faculty of Science/The University of New South Wales"/date.

Abstract
Of all your thesis, this part will be the most widely published and most read because it will be published in
Dissertation Abstracts International. It is best written towards the end, but not at the very last minute because you
will probably need several drafts. It should be a distillation of the thesis: a concise description of the problem(s)
addressed, your method of solving it/them, your results and conclusions. An abstract must be self-contained.
Usually they do not contain references. When a reference is necessary, its details should be included in the text of
the abstract. Check the word limit.

Acknowledgments
Most thesis authors put in a page of thanks to those who have helped them in matters scientific, and also indirectly
by providing such essentials as food, education, genes, money, help, advice, friendship etc. If any of your work is
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Table of contents
The introduction starts on page 1, the earlier pages should have roman numerals. It helps to have the subheadings
of each chapter, as well as the chapter titles. Remember that the thesis may be used as a reference in the lab, so it
helps to be able to find things easily.

Introduction
What is the topic and why is it important? State the problem(s) as simply as you can. Remember that you have
been working on this project for a few years, so you will be very close to it. Try to step back mentally and take a
broader view of the problem. How does it fit into the broader world of your discipline?

Especially in the introduction, do not overestimate the reader's familiarity with your topic. You are writing for
researchers in the general area, but not all of them need be specialists in your particular topic. It may help to
imagine such a person---think of some researcher whom you might have met at a conference for your subject, but
who was working in a different area. S/he is intelligent, has the same general background, but knows little of the
literature or tricks that apply to your particular topic.

The introduction should be interesting. If you bore the reader here, then you are unlikely to revive his/her interest
in the materials and methods section. For the first paragraph or two, tradition permits prose that is less dry than the
scientific norm. If want to wax lyrical about your topic, here is the place to do it. Try to make the reader want to
read the kilogram of A4 that has arrived uninvited on his/her desk. Go to the library and read several thesis
introductions. Did any make you want to read on? Which ones were boring?

This section might go through several drafts to make it read well and logically, while keeping it short. For this
section, I think that it is a good idea to ask someone who is not a specialist to read it and to comment. Is it an
adequate introduction? Is it easy to follow? There is an argument for writing this section---or least making a major
revision of it---towards the end of the thesis writing. Your introduction should tell where the thesis is going, and
this may become clearer during the writing.

Literature review
Where did the problem come from? What is already known about this problem? What other methods have been
tried to solve it?

Ideally, you will already have much of the hard work done, if you have been keeping up with the literature as you
vowed to do three years ago, and if you have made notes about important papers over the years. If you have
summarised those papers, then you have some good starting points for the review.

If you didn't keep your literature notes up to date, you can still do something useful: pass on the following advice to any
beginning PhD students in your lab and tell them how useful this would have been to you. When you start reading about a
topic, you should open a spread sheet file, or at least a word processor file, for your literature review. Of course you write
down the title, authors, year, volume and pages. But you also write a summary (anything from a couple of sentences to a
couple of pages, depending on the relevance). In other columns of the spread sheet, you can add key words (your own and
theirs) and comments about its importance, relevance to you and its quality.

How many papers? How relevant do they have to be before you include them? Well, that is a matter of judgement.
On the order of a hundred is reasonable, but it will depend on the field. You are the world expert on the (narrow)
topic of your thesis: you must demonstrate this.

A political point: make sure that you do not omit relevant papers by researchers who are like to be your examiners,
or by potential employers to whom you might be sending the thesis in the next year or two.

Middle chapters

In some theses, the middle chapters are the journal articles of which the student was major author. There are
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several disadvantages to this format.

One is that a thesis is both allowed and expected to have more detail than a journal article. For journal articles, one
usually has to reduce the number of figures. In many cases, all of the interesting and relevant data can go in the
thesis, and not just those which appeared in the journal. The degree of experimental detail is usually greater in a
thesis. Relatively often a researcher requests a thesis in order to obtain more detail about how a study was
performed.

Another disadvantage is that your journal articles may have some common material in the introduction and the
"Materials and Methods" sections.

The exact structure in the middle chapters will vary among theses. In some theses, it is necessary to establish some
theory, to describe the experimental techniques, then to report what was done on several different problems or
different stages of the problem, and then finally to present a model or a new theory based on the new work. For
such a thesis, the chapter headings might be: Theory, Materials and Methods, {first problem}, {second problem},
{third problem}, {proposed theory/model} and then the conclusion chapter. For other theses, it might be
appropriate to discuss different techniques in different chapters, rather than to have a single Materials and Methods
chapter.

Here follow some comments on the elements Materials and Methods, Theory, Results and discussion which may
or may not correspond to thesis chapters.

Materials and Methods


This varies enormously from thesis to thesis, and may be absent in theoretical theses. It should be possible for a
competent researcher to reproduce exactly what you have done by following your description. There is a good
chance that this test will be applied: sometime after you have left, another researcher will want to do a similar
experiment either with your gear, or on a new set-up in a foreign country. Please write for the benefit of that
researcher.

In some theses, particularly multi-disciplinary or developmental ones, there may be more than one such chapter. In
this case, the different disciplines should be indicated in the chapter titles.

Theory
When you are reporting theoretical work that is not original, you will usually need to include sufficient material to
allow the reader to understand the arguments used and their physical bases. Sometimes you will be able to present
the theory ab initio, but you should not reproduce two pages of algebra that the reader could find in a standard text.
Do not include theory that you are not going to relate to the work you have done.

When writing this section, concentrate at least as much on the physical arguments as on the equations. What do the
equations mean? What are the important cases?

When you are reporting your own theoretical work, you must include rather more detail, but you should consider
moving lengthy derivations to appendices. Think too about the order and style of presentation: the order in which
you did the work may not be the clearest presentation.

Suspense is not necessary in reporting science: you should tell the reader where you are going before you start.

Results and discussion


The results and discussion are very often combined in theses. This is sensible because of the length of a thesis: you
may have several chapters of results and, if you wait till they are all presented before you begin discussion, the
reader may have difficulty remembering what you are talking about. The division of Results and Discussion
material into chapters is usually best done according to subject matter.
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Make sure that you have described the conditions which obtained for each set of results. What was held constant?
What were the other relevant parameters? Make sure too that you have used appropriate statistical analyses. Where
applicable, show measurement errors and standard errors on the graphs. Use appropriate statistical tests.

Take care plotting graphs. The origin and intercepts are often important so, unless the ranges of your data make it
impractical, the zeros of one or both scales should usually appear on the graph. You should show error bars on the
data, unless the errors are very small. For single measurements, the bars should be your best estimate of the
experimental errors in each coordinate. For multiple measurements these should include the standard error in the
data. The errors in different data are often different, so, where this is the case, regressions and fits should be
weighted (i.e. they should minimize the sum of squares of the differences weighted inversely as the size of the
errors.) (A common failing in many simple software packages that draw graphs and do regressions is that they do
not treat errors adequately. UNSW student Mike Johnston has written a plotting routine that plots data with error
bars and performs weighted least square regressions. It is at http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/3rdyearlab/graphing/
graph.html). You can just 'paste' your data into the input and it generates a .ps file of the graph.

In most cases, your results need discussion. What do they mean? How do they fit into the existing body of
knowledge? Are they consistent with current theories? Do they give new insights? Do they suggest new theories or
mechanisms?

Try to distance yourself from your usual perspective and look at your work. Do not just ask yourself what it means
in terms of the orthodoxy of your own research group, but also how other people in the field might see it. Does it
have any implications that do not relate to the questions that you set out to answer?

Final chapter, references and appendices

Conclusions and suggestions for further work


Your abstract should include your conclusions in very brief form, because it must also include some other material.
A summary of conclusions is usually longer than the final section of the abstract, and you have the space to be
more explicit and more careful with qualifications. You might find it helpful to put your conclusions in point form.

It is often the case with scientific investigations that more questions than answers are produced. Does your work
suggest any interesting further avenues? Are there ways in which your work could be improved by future workers?
What are the practical implications of your work?

This chapter should usually be reasonably short---a few pages perhaps. As with the introduction, I think that it is a
good idea to ask someone who is not a specialist to read this section and to comment.

References (See also under literature review)


It is tempting to omit the titles of the articles cited, and the university allows this, but think of all the times when
you have seen a reference in a paper and gone to look it up only to find that it was not helpful after all.

Should you reference web sites and, if so, how? If you cite a journal article or book, the reader can go to a library
and check that the cited document and check whether or not it says what you say it did. A web site may disappear,
and it may have been updated or changed completely. So references to the web are usually less satisfactory.
Nevertheless, there are some very useful and authoritative sources. So, if the rules of your institution permit it, it
may be appropriate to cite web sites. (Be cautious, and don't overuse such citations. In particular, don't use a web
citation where you could reasonably use a "hard" citation. Remember that your examiners are likely to be older and
more conservative.) You should give the URL and also the date you downloaded it. If there is a date on the site
itself (last updated on .....) you should included that, too.

Appendices
If there is material that should be in the thesis but which would break up the flow or bore the reader unbearably,
include it as an appendix. Some things which are typically included in appendices are: important and 52original

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computer programs, data files that are too large to be represented simply in the results chapters, pictures or
diagrams of results which are not important enough to keep in the main text.

Some sites with related material


How to survive a thesis defence
Research resources and links supplied by Deakin University
"Final year projects": a guide from Mike Hart at King Alfred's College, Winchester, UK
Postgraduate Student Resources supplied by University of Canberra
A useful aid to surviving meetings with management
The National Association of Graduate - Professional Students (USA)

Some relevant texts


Stevens, K. and Asmar, C (1999) 'Doing postgraduate research in Australia'. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne
ISBN 0 522 84880 X.
Phillips, E.M and Pugh, D.S. (1994) 'How to get a PhD : a handbook for students and their supervisors'. Open University
Press, Buckingham, England
Tufte, E.R. (1983) 'The visual display of quantitative information'. Graphics Press, Cheshire, Conn.
Tufte, E.R. (1990) 'Envisioning information' Graphics Press, Cheshire, Conn.

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Scoring Rules for Different Sections

¾ Strategy/Purpose: Does the document meet its intended


objective?

• Well done: The objective of the document is easily


identified; the content supports the objective

• Acceptable Objective: is not immediately clear; some


additional content needed to support the objective

• Some Weaknesses: Objective is difficult to determine;


additional content needed to support the objective

• Problematic: The objective cannot be determined

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¾ Strategy/Audience: Does the document address the
intended audience?
• Well done: Content, structure, and language of document
geared to intended audience

• Acceptable: Document is missing some content required


by audience; some language used inappropriately (e.g.,
unfamiliar jargon, too much jargon)

• Some Weaknesses: Document is missing a substantial


portion of content required by audience; uses some
inappropriate or ineffective language

• Problematic: No organization apparent; content of


document reflects interests of writer but not of audience;
inappropriate use of language

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¾ Structure: Does the organization reflect the purpose of the
document and the needs of the audience?
• Well done: Subsections thematically coherent and
accomplish their intended functions; document organized
according to readers’ needs; relationship between ideas
clear
• Acceptable: Coherence or function of subsections weaker;
organization is evident but may be undermined by weak
transitions or occasional digressions
• Some Weaknesses: Subsections are not logical or do not
accomplish their intended function; organization is
confusing or unclear
• Problematic: No clear organization; thoughts in random
order without connections between them.

56
¾ Support/Evidence: Is the evidence used to support the
argument concrete, relevant, credible, accurate, and
sufficient?
• Well done: Argument is clearly supported by accurate
evidence considered credible by the audience; sufficient
detail to support the main points of the document
• Acceptable: Many details support argument, but some are
not fully elaborated or sufficiently specific; some evidence
not relevant
• Some Weaknesses: Some evidence is provided, but data is
not fully explained, relevant to the argument, or credible;
important pieces of evidence have not been included;
some data inaccurate
• Problematic: Little or no data to support the main ideas of
the argument; much of the data is inaccurate

57
¾ Coherence: Do sentences in paragraphs relate to one
another in a logical way? Are relationships between
paragraphs clear?
• Well done: Paragraphs are internally consistent (i.e., one
idea/theme runs through paragraph); transitions between
paragraphs allow reader to easily follow thread of
argument
• Acceptable: A few paragraph lack internal consistency; a
few weak or unclear transitions
• Some Weaknesses: Many paragraphs lack internal
consistency; many transitions are weak or used
inappropriately
• Problematic: Main idea in most paragraphs cannot be
identified; paragraphs have little or no discernible
relationship to one another

58
¾ Clarity/Conciseness: Are sentences structurally correct,
succinct, and easy to understand?
• Well done: Sentences flow smoothly, are structurally
correct, and convey the intended meaning; no wordiness
• Acceptable: Five percent or less of sentences are
awkward, incorrectly constructed, or wordy
• Some Weaknesses: Six to ten percent of sentences are
awkward, incorrectly constructed, or wordy
• Problematic: More than 10 percent of sentences are
awkward, incorrectly constructed, or wordy

59
¾ Formatting: Are formatting elements used appropriately
to strengthen the document?

• Well done: Formatting elements organize and highlight


ideas as needed; formatting elements are used
consistently throughout the document
• Acceptable: Formatting elements do not always support
main points; elements are used consistently throughout
• Some Weaknesses: Formatting elements often do not
support main points; elements are not always used
consistently
• Problematic: Formatting elements are confusing or
inconsistent; lack of any formatting

60
¾ Use of Tables and Graphs:
• Well done: They support key parts of the argument, are
easily comprehended, and are placed appropriately
• Acceptable: They are not always tied to the key points of
the argument; design makes it somewhat difficult for
reader to interpret data
• Some Weaknesses: They are disconnected from key points
of the argument; design makes it difficult for reader to
interpret data; They are not placed in the optimum position
in relation to text
• Problematic: They are disconnected from key points of the
argument; design makes it impossible for the reader to
interpret data; crucial tables or graphs are missing; table
and graphs do not relate to the argument included

61
¾ Mechanics: Are there grammar, punctuation, or spelling
errors?
• Well done: No grammar, punctuation, or spelling errors

• Acceptable: No more than three grammar, punctuation, or


spelling errors

• Some Weaknesses: Four to six grammar, punctuation, or


spelling errors

• Problematic: Seven or more grammar, punctuation, or


spelling errors

62
Structuring the Report Keeping the Reader in Mind:

•The Ten Rules for Clear Writing


•Which Font to Use?
•Connecting Words

63
Ten Rules for Clear Writing

Rule # 1: Keep Sentences Short

Control sentence length by noticing the number


of lines in each sentence. A typewritten line, or a line
in average handwriting, averages 10 to 12 words.
Remember to vary sentence length, but worry about
those that run more than two lines.

64
Rule # 1: Keep Sentences Short: Why Simple Words?
¾ Small words are easier to read than the long words because they are
easier to recognize and interpret. We get more practice in using the
words as we speak; so when we see a word which we do not use in
conversation, it is harder for understand.

¾ Never try to impress to reader by deliberately using long words.


¾ Use a short word (even two or three) instead of a long one. However,
we need some long words for variety and precision. Try to keep long
words below 10% of the total.
¾ Always try to use words whose meaning are precise, and not open to
doubt.
¾ Beware of jargon/technical/professional words which the reader may
not understand.

65
Words to use - Keep it Short and Simple
Rather than using Use

Discontinue stop
Submit for consideration propose
Proceed go
Commence start
Intelligible clear
Occurrence event
Dispatch send
Make modification to modify, change
Demonstrate show
Is in a position to can
We would be grateful If you would please

66
Words to use - Keep it Short and Simple
Use Rather than using
do Accomplish
try Attempt
use Utilize
build Construct
lack Deficiency
fair Equitable
rare Infrequent
end Terminate

But remember: Accuracy, and clarity are more


important than shortness

67
Rule # 2: Prefer the Simple to the Complex

¾ We can't resist the use of four-syllable words. We write


“utilization” when we could write "use," or "modification" when
we could use "change”.
¾ This principle does not outlaw the use of a complex form. You
need both simple and complex forms for clear expression. At
times, the complex form may be best. So, if the right word is a
big word, go ahead and use it. But if a shorter word does the
job, use it.

¾ Of the 10 rules, complexity is the one most violated.

68
Rule #2: Prefer the Simple to the Complex:

Use Rather than using


about On the order of magnitude of
like In the nature of
encourage Give encouragement to
since In view of the fact that
adjust Make an adjustment in
has Is equipped with
consider Take into consideration

69
Rule # 3: Prefer the Familiar Words

¾ Intelligent people use their large vocabulary only to give clear,


exact meaning -- never to show off.

¾ The most familiar words are 10 short ones: the, of, and, to, a, in,
that, it, is, I. They make up 25 percent of all that is written and
spoken in English.

¾ The 50 words most often used make up 50 percent of written


English. The 1,000 most common words turn up 80 percent of the
time and the 10,000 words most often used account for 98 percent
of all that is written. Remember, there are more than 500,000 words
in Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.

70
Rule # 3: Prefer the Familiar Words: Jargon

• Jargon is the technical, wordy language used by those


associated with a trade or profession. Often it is full of passive
voice, acronyms, technical terms, and abstract words.

• Writers use jargon in an attempt to sound educated,


sophisticated, or knowledgeable.

• Actually, jargon muddies and even distorts the message.

71
Jargon: Compare the Following Two Paragraphs
“Alex demonstrates a tendency to engage inappropriately in
verbal social interaction during class time. His grades are deficient
because he suffers from an unwillingness to complete supplementary
assignments between class periods.”

“Alex talks in class when he isn't supposed to. He has low grades
because he doesn't do his homework.”

The first paragraph above leaves the impression that Alex is a


sociopath with a serious problem. The second portrays him as a
student who needs to talk less and work more.

72
Rule # 4: Avoid Unnecessary Words

¾ Most reports can be cut in half and still say the same thing.

¾ Unnecessary words usually are included unconsciously.

¾ One minute spent organizing a mass of details will save several


minutes in its writing. Furthermore, a few minutes spent in
going over each sentence and making it more concise will also
pay off.

73
Rather than using Use
12 midnight midnight
12 noon noon
3 am in the morning 3 am
a person who is honest an honest person
a total of 14 birds 14 birds
biography of her life biography
end result result
Free gift gift
Future plans plans
period of four days four days
Return again return
Small in size small
Square in shape square

74
Rule # 5: Prefer Active Over Passive Verbs
¾ The verb is the most important part of the sentence. It generally
conveys action. There are three types of verb:

1. Active Verb (direct and concise - e.g. a message in only three words)

Bob Hit James

2. Passive Verb (Has less impact: i.e. the same message in five words)
James was hit by Bob

¾ Consider the following sentence:


“in the event of rail strike, road transport will be supplied.”
Supplied by whom? – Not clear!!!!

75
Rule # 5: Prefer Active Over Passive Verbs

3. The Verbal Noun: Totally not recommended

This is usually used as padding as in school essays or in pompous


pseudo legal writing.

For example:

The hitting of James was carried out by Bob

Notice how the sentence is now made of nine words!!!

76
Rule # 5: Prefer Active Over Passive Verbs

¾ Active voice leads to writing which is clear and generally more


emphatic. The active voice forces us to say exactly what we mean. We
have to clarify who took, or should take the action.

¾ The active leaves the reader with complete understanding and steers
clear of ambiguity and vagueness, and we have to accept full
responsibility for our statements.

¾ It is particularly risky to use the passive voice where action and


procedures are involved – they may never get done by anyone.

77
Rule # 5: Prefer Active Over Passive Verbs: Example
Passive
“The problem of the need for revision of stock taking procedures was
discussed last year. It was pointed out that no responsibility could be
accepted for the inadequacy of the system at that time.”

Active
“We discussed the problem of the need to revise your stock taking
procedures with Mr Brian Davis last year. We pointed out that we
thought that the system was inadequate then and we could not accept
responsibility for it.”

78
When To Use The Passive Voice??

¾ To avoid the impression of being critical of people.

e.g. “The accounts have not been completed.”


- The emphasis is on the object of the sentence rather than the subject.
e.g. “Standards of safety have been allowed to deteriorate.”

¾ To soften a passage which is predominantly active, particularly in


scientific reports where “by whom” is self evident.
e.g. “The computer was installed to mechanize the accounts”

79
Rule # 6: Write Like you Talk

¾ "Write like you talk" has its limitations. Most of us do talk rather
untidy English. We repeat ourselves. We pause. We hesitate.
However, in our speech we do not use long, involved sentences
laden with multi-syllable words that usually occur in our
writing.

80
Rule # 7: Use Terms Your Reader Can Picture

¾ An engineer might say an alloy is "not fabricable”.

¾ This is a general term that might mean several things. When


asked for a more specific meaning, the engineer might say "the
alloy cracks when it is cold-rolled."

81
Rule # 8: Tie In With Your Reader's Experience

¾ Many communications fail because writers ignore readers'


beliefs and experiences.

¾ Words are not fixed. They vary in meaning from person to


person, the meaning depending upon the experience of that
person and the pictures the words call to mind.

¾ In trying to persuade readers to accept your words, remember


that the meaning they give them will be determined entirely by
their past experiences and purposes.

¾ It isn't enough to write so you will be understood. You must


write so you can't be misunderstood.

82
Rule # 9: Make Full Use of Variety

¾ The style of your writing will grow as you write more and more.

¾ If you get "caught" writing simply, you have failed.

¾ Good writers work within a strict discipline of simplicity. But


they introduce enough variety of sentence length, structure, and
vocabulary so that the simplicity is not noticed. As a result,
readers never think the writing is choppy or childish.

¾ Variety is a main ingredient in the art of writing. Only practice


can lead to the facility that produces variety. Being aware of the
point, however, helps one gain facility more rapidly.

83
Rule # 10: Write to Express, not to Impress

¾ A trap awaits the inexperienced writer. We often try to impress


rather than express. We try to be someone else.

¾ Few are fooled by fanciness in language. It's been a long time


since any of us have heard anyone say, "I can't understand
what he is saying; he must be highly intelligent.”

¾ Don't get lost in the rules of grammar. Pay attention to clear


expression, and worry about grammar later.

84
Write to Express, not to Impress: Example

Written to impress:
“Males of advancing years are often characterized
by a deterioration of their recollective facilities”

Written to express:
“old men forget” Shakespeare

85
Which Font to Use?

¾For printed pages, most users prefer the type-style (Times


New Roman) that is used in newspapers and paperbacks.
¾Computer users prefer Arial because the solid lines in
Arial are easy to read on a backlit screen.
¾Many computer users prefer Verdana, which
has slightly larger and rounder characters than
Arial.
86
Connecting Words (Transitional Devices)

• Transitional devices are like bridges between parts of your


report. They help the readers to interpret ideas in the way that
YOU want them to understand.

• They carry over a thought from one sentence to another, from


one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another with
words or phrases.

• Some lead your reader forward and imply the "building" of an


idea or thought, while others make your reader compare ideas
or draw conclusions from the preceding thoughts.

• Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be


used to cue your reader in a given way.

87
Connecting Words (Transitional Devices)

To add
and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally,
further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more,
moreover, in addition, first (second, etc…)

To Compare
whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however,
nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where,
compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis,
although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast,
although this may be true

88
Connecting Words (Transitional Devices)

To Prove

because, for, for the same reason, obviously,


evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in
fact, in addition, in any case, that is, therefore

To Show Exception

yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite,


of course, once in a while, sometimes, but

89
Connecting Words (Transitional Devices)
To Show Time
immediately, thereafter, soon, since, after a few
hours, finally, later, previously, formerly, first
(second, etc.), next, and then, as soon as possible

To Emphasize
definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in
any case, absolutely, positively, naturally,
surprisingly, always, forever, eternally, never,
emphatically, unquestionably, without a doubt,
certainly, undeniably, without reservation, for sure

90
Connecting Words (Transitional Devices)
To Repeat
in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been
noted

To Show Sequence
first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so
forth. next, then, following this, at this time, now, at
this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally,
consequently, previously, before this,
simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence,
next, and then, soon, since

91
Connecting Words (Transitional Devices)

To Give an Example
for example, for instance, in this case, in another
case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the
case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an
illustration

To Summarize or Conclude
in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in
conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, as has
been shown, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as
a result, consequently

92
Writing A First Draft
Efficiently And Rapidly
• Higher Order Concerns and Lower Order Concerns

• Coping with Writing Anxiety

93
Writing A First Draft Efficiently And Rapidly

• While writing your first draft, Focus ONLY on Higher Order


Concerns (HOC). Ignore Lower Order Concerns (LOC) for now.
You also have to cope with the writing anxiety.

• What is the writing anxiety and how to cope with it?

94
Higher Order Concerns and Lower Order Concerns

¾ When you are writing your report, not every element have an equal
priority. The most important parts of your report, often called "Higher
Order Concerns" are the "big picture" elements such as logic or focus,
reader and purpose, organization, and development.

¾ After you have addressed these important elements, you can then turn
your attention to the "Lower Order Concerns" such as sentence
structure and grammar.

95
Examples of Higher Order Concerns
Focus:
• Does the report have a central thesis?
• Can you offer a one-sentence explanation or summary of what the
report is about?
• Ask someone to read the first paragraph or two and tell you what
he or she thinks the report will discuss.
Reader and Purpose:
• Do you have an appropriate redears in mind? Can you describe
them?
• Do you have a clear purpose for the report? What is it intended to
do or accomplish?
• Why would someone want to read this report?
• Does the purpose match the assignment?

96
Development:
• Are there places in the report where more details, examples, or
specifics are needed?

• Do any paragraphs seem much shorter and in need of more


material than others?

• Ask someone to read the report and comment if something is


unclear and needs more description explanation, or support.

97
Examples of Lower Order Concerns
• Sentence structure
• Tenses
• Word choice
• Spelling
• Punctuation
• Etc…..

98
Examples of Lower Order Concerns
• Are there a few problems that frequently occur? Keep
a list of problems that recur and check for those.

• Read the paper aloud watching and listening for


anything that sounds incorrect.

• Ask yourself why you put punctuation marks in


certain places. Do you need to check any
punctuation rules?

99
Coping with Writing Anxiety
Many situations or activities, such as writing, taking
tests, or speaking before a large audience, may make us
anxious or apprehensive. It's important to remember that a
moderate level of anxiety is helpful and productive. Without
it, we might not perform as well.

However, If we let our anxiety overwhelm us, it can


cause problems.

If we control that anxiety we can make it work for us.


One way to do that is to use some of the coping strategies
listed below.

100
Coping Strategies
• Focus your energy by rehearsing the task in your head.

• Stop the non-productive comments running through your head


and replace them with productive ones.

• If you have some "rituals" for writing success, use them.

• Break the task up into steps.

• Think of the present draft as a practice run. Write the draft


quickly, and revise it later.

101
Coping Strategies
• Begin in the middle

• Talk the paper

• Tape the paper

• Imagine changing the reader

• Take a break: physically walk away from the situation for a few
minutes if you can.

• Resign yourself to the fact that you have to write the report.

102
Relaxation Strategies
• Some relaxation techniques are proved to help you cope with
the writing anxiety and refresh your energy

• Stretch! If you can't stand up, stretch as many muscle groups


as possible while staying seated.

• Try tensing and releasing various muscle groups. Starting from


your toes, tense up for perhaps five to ten seconds and then let
go. Relax and then go on to another muscle group.

• Breathe deeply. Close your eyes: then, fill your chest cavity
slowly by taking four of five short deep breaths. Hold each
breath until it hurts, and then let it out slowly.

• Use a calming word or mental image to focus on while relaxing.


• If you choose a word, be careful not to use an imperative. Don't
command yourself to "Calm down!" or "Relax!"

103
Designing Illustrations
•Significant Digits
•Effective Use of White space
•Visuals
•Figures
•Tables
•Numbers
•Units
•Equations
•Significant Digits

104
Rules of Significant Figures
• The most-significant digit (MSD) is the leftmost, nonzero digit.

• The least-significant digit (LSD) is the rightmost, nonzero* digit.


*IF there is a decimal point, then the LSD also includes zero.

• The number of significant figures equals the number of figures between


and including the least-significant digit and the most-significant digit

EXAMPLE:
How many significant figures are there in each of the following ?
10.5800 105800 10.58 010580

6 4 4 5

105
EXAMPLE: How Many Significant Figures?
027.08450

MSD LSD
Number of significant figures = 7
Rounded off to 5 significant figures = 27.084

106
Working with Significant Digits:
Adding or Subtracting Two Numbers

Because 8.2 has only one digit to the right of the decimal point,
the answer, 19.4, MUST have NO more than one digit after the decimal point.

107
Working with Significant Digits:
Multiplying or Dividing Two Numbers

Because 8.2 has only two significant digits,


the answer, 10, MUST have NO more than two significant digits.

108
Effective Use of White space
• Effective report formatting can greatly increase readability and
appeal. Adding white space is just one method.
• A page should not run on and on. A page is easier to read if it is
broken into groups of ideas, or sections with headings. Those
sections should then contain paragraphs that are smaller visual
blocks.
• This way readers can skip around to the areas that most
interest them. Readers may not normally sit down and read a
whole page, but they tend to skim. So use meaningful titles to
pull them into relevant sections.

109
Why Visuals?
¾ Visuals help to increase the amount of information being
understood.
¾ Readers will remember more when they see visuals.
¾ Visuals have more impact than plain text.

Designing Visuals
¾ How much detail do YOU want to include?
¾ What design format would you like to use?
¾ How can you keep it consistent?
¾ How can color improve or detract from your presentation?

110
Figures
¾ Figures are used to quickly convey an understanding of the
relationships between the variables of a problem.
¾ Each figure must be self explanatory.
¾ The title should give a clear description of the figure so that the
reader can quickly understand what is being shown.

¾ Certain information must appear on each figure:


1. Title

2. Axis labels

3. Scale markings (ticks)

111
Figures
¾ Describe what exactly is plotted as function of what.

¾ The independent variable (the cause) is placed on the horizontal


axis and the dependent variable (the result) is placed on the
vertical axis.

¾ For example,

• If you measure the resistance as function of the


temperature: Place the resistance on the vertical axis.

• If you measure the temperature as function of a heater


resistance: Place the temperature on the vertical axis.

112
Figures
¾ Indicate the variable (preferably a symbol) and the units: e.g. I [mA]
or t [s] near ach axes.

¾ Near the vertical axis place the axis label horizontally or, if there is
lack of space and you place it vertically, it should be readable from
the right.

¾ When comparing two results, use exactly the same layout for the
results being compared.

¾ Be careful when using abbreviations, and acronyms, and special


phrases on your slides.

113
Figures
¾ Include peripheral information wherever YOU feel is necessary
to prevent the reader from missing or misunderstanding the
point of the figure.

¾ Carefully track the decimal points. A decimal point which


occurs right at the intersection of two major grid lines may be
concealed and lost.

¾ Critically important data should be tabulated as well as shown


in figures.

¾ Keep in mind the space that will be lost due to the binding of
the report.

114
Divisions on the Axis

¾The space should be used efficiently.


¾Usually the axes go preferably through the origin (0,0).
¾If you don’t start at 0, it’s good to show it (but
cumbersome with Excel).

¾Divide the axes in multiples of 1, 2, 5, 10, etc… (ticks).


¾Do not put ticks every 3 or 4 units!
¾Have enough (but not too many) ticks.
¾Consider the use of logarithmic divisions.
¾Realize what is useful and/or common.
115
The Power of the Y Axis

Notice how the same information looks very different


based on the scales of the Y- axis 116
Measurement Points
¾Include all the measurement points, also the ones that seem to
be out of range. Make them sufficiently large for the reader to see
them after you draw a curve through them.

¾Make sure during the measurement phase that the points will be
well distributed. Where the graph behaves strangely (resonance
peaks and so on) there should be more points (hopefully you
realized that when doing the measurement!)

¾Often it is useful to indicate an estimation of the inaccuracy


using error bars (especially when large or critical).

117
Curves
¾ Draw a smooth curve between the points without trying to
exactly force it through all of them, in accord with theory
(expectation) and common sense (error bars are helpful for
that).

¾ Use different curve styles, especially for curves that are close
together or have a different meaning, such as theory and
measurement (solid, dashed,..).

¾ If the theory predicts that the points lie on a straight line, draw
a straight through the points.

¾ If the theory predicts the line to go through the origin, show the
origin in the graph.

118
Example: A Poor Figure

Fig. 1: Results

119
Example: A Better Figure

Fig.2. Measurement of evaporation rate as a function of


input power (third order fit).
120
Tables
¾ The table must be self explanatory.

¾ The title should give a clear description of the table so that the
reader can quickly understand what is being shown.

¾ In the heading above each column mention:


ƒ The contents, often using a symbol (e.g. U).
ƒ The unit between brackets (e.g. [mV]). Choose the unit to
be convenient in size, e.g. 17.3 mV instead of 0.0173 V

¾ Choose the sequence of columns in a logical way (put together


what belongs together).

121
Tables
¾ Shift repetitive information from the columns to the heading.

¾ Consider rounding the number of digits for easier


understanding (45000 versus 49487.876)

¾ Don’t put very long or wide tables in the text if not necessary. It
is better for the reader if you put them in an appendix or split
them up in smaller tables.

¾ Avoid that tables continue from one page to another.

122
Tables
¾ Better not to make horizontal tables: They save space but are
difficult to read:

The vertical table has the cause in the


left and the result in the right and is
much earlier to read and comprehend

Each table must have a heading

123
Use of Numbers in Technical Reports
¾ Whenever possible, give numerical values in statements and
avoid ambiguous words.

For example,

"The voltage across a forward-biased silicon diode is small."


"The voltage across a forward-biased silicon diode is about 0.7 V."

OR

“The voltage across a forward-biased silicon diode is small (about


0.7 V)."

124
Use of Numbers in Technical Reports
• OLD: “The CVT's highway mileage is slightly less than a
manual's, but not much.”

• NEW: “A car with a CVT consumes 102% of the gasoline per


mile on the highway compared to the same car with a manual
transmission.”

• The improved sentence is longer because words were added


to make the consumption of gasoline refer, properly, to the
automobile and not to the transmission; also "mileage" was
expanded to the proper "gasoline per mile". However, the
increase in sentence length is justified.

125
Use of Numbers in Technical Reports
¾ Do not insert commas into numbers of more than three digits. (e.g.,
"1,000" is wrong). This is a violation of international scientific and
engineering practice. This rule is important because a comma is
used as a decimal point in some countries (e.g., Germany).

¾ Instead of commas, numbers with at least five digits on either side of


the decimal point may have a space inserted between groups of
three digits.

¾ For numbers between -1 and +1, insert a zero to the left of the
decimal point in order to avoid a "naked decimal point". For example,
use 0.47, not .47 The intent of this rule is to make it more difficult for
the reader to overlook the decimal point.

126
Use of Numbers in Technical Reports
¾ If the values of X and Y are compared, then X and Y must have
the same dimensions.

“In this design R was chosen to be larger than C.”

The writer probably intended to compare R to the capacitive


reactance.

“The current through the zener diode must be less than its
power rating.”

The writer may be is saying that the power rating of the zener
diode should not be exceeded.

Watch out for phrases like "400 volts of ac current". Current


does not have units of volts.

127
Improper Addition of Numbers
¾ In 1996, Delta Airlines and Finnair announced a new
partnership "with 145 years of experience". They based the
number 145 on the fact that Delta had 72 years of experience
and Finnair had 73 years of experience. The problem is that
experience is not additive.

¾ It is not possible than any person at the combined


Delta/Finnair firm has 145 years of experience with these
airlines, even if people had lifetimes longer than 200 years. One
might also ask if even 72 years of experience is meaningful:
experience gained in the 1920s and 1930s with short-range
propeller aircraft is not relevant to modern long-range jet
aircraft.

128
Improper Addition of Numbers

¾ Another example along the same lines is having four pots of


boiling water on the stove, each pot with a temperature of
100°C. If one poured all of the water into one container, then the
water would not have a temperature of 400°C of water, but only
100°C. Note that temperature is not additive: one liter of water
at 100°C when mixed with one liter of water at 0°C produces
two liters of water at 50°C.

129
Zero and Infinity
¾ Be careful with zero’s and Infinities in laboratory measurements.

¾ When tempted to claim that some value is “unmeasurably small", it is


better to give an estimate of the smallest nonzero magnitude that could
be detected. Don’t just say that it is zero.

¾ A concise way to phrase this is to write, e.g., "Vout was less than 5 mV",
instead of a long-winded discussion of least significant digits,
resolution, accuracy, and precision.

¾ When using "unmeasurably small" in an analysis and discussion, try to


compute an upper or lower bound.

130
Avoid These Situations
The voltage across the diode is smaller.

Sudso gets your clothes cleaner.

The range of options in the comparison must be specified, for


example:

The voltage across the diode is smaller than the voltage across
resistor R1.

“ Sudso gets your clothes cleaner than Crudso.” (and the writer
better be able to prove it to Crudso's attorneys!)

131
Five or 5?
¾ In general, most people spell out numbers that can be
expressed in one or two words and use figures for other
numbers:

There are several exceptions to this simple rule:

1. Use figures for all numbers when there are numbers of two or
more digits for related quantities in the same sentence , such
as "6 of 23 physicians recommend …….”

2. Always use figures when a unit of measurement follows (e.g., "5


A").

3. Repeat numbers in legal or commercial writing.


The bill will not exceed one hundred (100) dollars.

132
Five or 5?
4. Always spell approximate values, "round numbers“. If the
approximate value is followed by a unit, then the unit is not
abbreviated. For example:
about five years
two orders of magnitude
about four times larger
several kilovolts
a few tens of megahertz

5. When a number is at the beginning of a sentence it is


always spelled-out. If this rule produces a result that looks
awkward, it may be better to rewrite the sentence to avoid
starting with a number.

133
Five or 5?
6- Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.
two apples, six oranges, and three bananas
NOT: two apples, 6 oranges, and 3 bananas

115 feet by 90 feet OR 115' x 90'


The vote was 9 in favor and 5 opposed
7- Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a
combination will keep your writing clear.
Unclear: The club celebrated the birthdays of
6 90-year-olds who were born in the city.
(may cause the reader to read '690' as one number.)
Clearer: The club celebrated the birthdays of
six 90-year-olds who were born in the city.

134
Five or 5?: Examples of Specific Situations
Days and Years
• December 12, 1965 or 12 December 1965
• A.D. 1066
• in 1900
• in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972
• the eighties, the twentieth century
• the 1980's or the 1980s
Time of Day
• 8:00 A.M. (or) a.m. (or) eight o'clock in the morning
• 4:30 P.M. (or) p.m. (or) half-past four in the afternoon
Addresses
• 16 Tenth Street
• 3 West 114 Street

135
Five or 5?: Examples of Specific Situations
Identification Numbers
• Room 5 Channel 16
• Interstate 68 Henry VIII
Page and Division of Books and Plays
• Page 36
• Chapter 8
• In act 5, scene 6 (or) in Act V, Scene vi
Decimals and Percentages
• A 3.7 average
• 12 1/4 percent
• 0.047 metric ton
Large Round Numbers
• Five billion dollars (or) $5 billion
• 17,500,000 (or) 17.5 million
136
Use of Units with Numbers
1. All numerical values that have dimensions must have their
units specified. In general, the units must follow the numerical
value every time. However, in a table of numbers, the units may
be specified at the top of the column, provided all of the values
have the same units. If there are two numbers in a phrase with
the same units (e.g., "frequency between 4 and 5 kHz"), then
put the units only after the second number.

2. All units, including those that are named for a person, have a
lower-case first letter when written out (not abbreviated). Thus,
write "ohm, farad, coulomb, volt, ampere, hertz" for units.

137
Abbreviations for Units
• Units that are named for a person have an upper-case first letter
when abbreviated; all other units have a lower-case first letter.

• Only metric prefixes for 10+6 or more have an upper-case


abbreviation (e.g., M = 10+6, G = 10+9, etc.). In particular, note that the
prefix m indicates 10-3 and M indicates 10+6. The difference between
an uppercase M and a lower-case m is nine orders of magnitude!

• One should be warned that American manufacturers of capacitors


often use "mF" or "MF" to indicate microfarads, a practice that is
both incorrect and misleading.

• The proper abbreviation for "kilohertz" is "kHz": only the "H" is


upper case.

138
Abbreviations for Units
• Note that the proper abbreviation for "second" is "s", not "sec".

• The same abbreviation is used for the singular and plural form of a
unit.

• A period is not placed after an abbreviated unit, unless it is at the


end of the sentence. (The only exception is in.)

• The proper abbreviations for "alternating current, direct current,


and root mean-square" are lower case "ac, dc, rms". However, if
the term appears in a title or as the first letter in a sentence, then
the entire abbreviation is upper case: "AC, DC, RMS".

139
Watch Out for Expressions such as:
The signal generator had a 15 kHz frequency.

Units of measurement ("kHz") are nouns and can not be used


to modify another noun ("frequency").
The proper phrasing could be:

The signal generator had a frequency of 15 kHz.

¾ 6 cm long

The proper phrasing could be:


6 cm in length
The length is 6 cm
Having a length of 6 cm

140
Units with Axis
¾ Avoid labeling the axis on a graph or a column in a table
as, for example, volts x 10-3

¾ This is ambiguous: are the numbers to be multiplied by


the reader, or has the multiplication already been done?

¾ Maybe the number 3 on the axis of the graph or in a


column of text means 3000 V, which times 10-3 is just 3. In such
a case, the author should have written 3 kV

¾ Maybe the number 3 on the axis of the graph or in a


column of text means 0.003 V, which is 3 x 10-3. In such a case,
the author should have written 3 mV

141
Units with Prefixes
• In general, choose a metric prefix that will make the numerical
value between 0.1 and 1000. However, the value of a parameter
or a variable over the range of a few paragraphs or in a table
should have the same metric prefix to allow easy comparison
of different values.

• Never use a double metric prefix. For example, in older


American literature, one will find small capacitances expressed
in "μμF" (or, worse, "mmF"), for "micro-micro-farad", instead of
the modern preferred unit, "pF" for picofarad.

142
Spaces with Units
• There should always be one blank space between a number
and a unit: "5 kHz", not "5kHz”

• In modern word processors, the space between number and


unit should be a non-breaking space, so the number will always
appear on the same line as its unit.

• There is no space between the metric prefix and the base unit.

143
Equations in Technical Reports
• One must identify each of the variables and parameters by
name when they first appear. (One might be excused for not
saying that t is the time, since this is such a standard choice of
variable.)

• If an equation is so long that it requires more than one line,


then consider introducing new variables for terms in the
equation. If each term has some physical significance, it will
also make it easier for the reader to understand the equation.
For example:

D(t) is a damped oscillation that is superposed on a sinusoidal


oscillation to give the total voltage, V(t).

144
Equations in Technical Reports
• Technical writing often contains equations. Some rules apply:

• Do not embed equations in a line of text: every equation goes


on its own line.

• Number each equation at the right-hand margin. Even if it is not


necessary to refer to the equation by number in the text,
someone may want to refer to the equation in a letter or future
publication.

145
Equations in Technical Reports
Although equations are separated by white space, they should be
treated as part of the sentence:

To calculate the strain, ε, we used equation 1:

σ
ε = , (1)
E

where σ is the stress estimated by FEPC and E is the


modulus of elasticity of aluminum.

146
Equations in Technical Reports
The voltage, V, and current, I, in a resistor is given by
V = I R, (3)

The power, P, dissipated in any two-terminal device is given by


P = I V, (4)

where I is the current in the device and V is the voltage across the
device. For the special case of a resistor, the relation between
voltage and current, Eq. 3, can be used to express the power as a
function of only voltage:

P = V2/R. (5)

Notice the period at the end of Eq. 5, since it is the end of a sentence.

147
Reviewing the Report:

•Things to check if your report will be translated into


another language

•Proof Reading Strategies

•Checking Lower Order Concerns

148
If your Report will be Translated into Another Language
¾ Your report may end up being read by some one who does not know
English

¾ In our competitive environment, many products are similar in quality


and price. User friendly products and manuals may make the difference
between success and failure. Good translations will improve customer
satisfaction and help control product liability claims

¾ You must be aware of the audience that will be reading the report,
their culture, what they know about the subject matter, what they expect
from the report, and how they want the information delivered to them.

¾ Both the author-and the translator-must be knowledgable about the


target readers' characteristics: the level of education, country or region
of origin, socioeconomic status, political beliefs, affiliations, religions,
attitudes, etc…

149
If your Report will be Translated into Another Language
¾Avoid culture-bound references (i.e., jokes, slang, idioms,
national figures and/or events including sports, athletes,
politicians, national holidays, historical heroes, and the like). Also
avoid acronyms and abbreviations.

¾In English, there is a universal "you". The same "you" is applied


when addressing children, friends or elders. In many other
languages, however, there is a familiar and a formal "you". The
incorrect usage of this pronoun may result in offending the
reader.

¾ Be careful with pronouns: If the meaning is unclear in the


original English, the ambiguity will probably lead to
mistranslation in the target language.

¾ Provide glossaries for key technical terms and definitions.

¾Be consistent in your terminology. Is it always a box, or


sometimes have you used the words case or casing!
150
If your Report will be Translated into Another Language
¾ Be careful with pictures, colors, numbering, date formats, units,
telephone numbers, addresses, warranty information, technical
support information, paper size (letter, A4, tabloid), etc…

¾The color red in the U.S. means stop/danger, in China it means


prosperity and in India it means life. The color white in China
means authority while for Muslims it means peace and purity.

¾ English words are often shorter than their equivalents in other


languages. Text expansion can range anywhere from 20% to 40%
depending on the target language. Design your source documents
to allow for text expansion: This will make the page design and
page numbers consistent across several translated versions.

¾ Structure documents in small modules to give the translator


and the reader breathing room.

¾ Provide your translator with source files.

151
Examples on How Numbers and Dates are Written in Different Cultures

CARDINAL NUMBERS ORDINAL NUMBERS


U.S.A 1,107.61 1st, 2nd, 3rd
FRANCE 1 107,61 1er, 2eme, 3erne
GERMANY 1.107,61 1., 2., 3.

LONG DATES SHORT DATES


U.S.A Tuesday, January 11, 2000 1/11/00
FRANCE Mardi, le 11 Janvier, 2000 11.01.00
GERMANY Dienstag, 11 Januar, 2000 11.1.00
MEXICO Martes, 11 de enero, 2000 11/1/00

152
Proof Reading Strategies
1- Begin by taking a break: Allow yourself some time between writing and
proof reading. Even a five-minute break is productive because it will help
get some distance from what you have written. The goal is to return with a
fresh eye and mind.

2- Try to s-l-o-w d-o-w-n as you read through a paper: That will help your
eye catch mistakes.

3- Try reading with a "cover." Sliding a blank sheet of paper down the
page as you read encourages you to make a detailed, line-by-line review
of the report.

4- Have another person check it over as well.

153
Checking Lower Order Concerns

• Paragraphs
• Sentences
• Tenses
• Spelling
• Punctuations

154
Paragraphs
• Does each paragraph have a topic sentence which states the
main idea?
• Have you used examples and vivid specific details to describe
your topic?
• Have you used explanatory sentences to give your opinion or
judgment on the topic?
• Have you included sentences which pertain only to that idea?
• Are transitions used between sentences and paragraphs?
• Is there a concluding sentence?

155
Sentences
• Does each sentence follow clearly and logically from the one
before it? Have you used some type of transitional device
between each sentence?

• Check each sentence to make sure it has a subject, a verb, and


a complete thought.

• Have you run two sentences together incorrectly without a


period, conjunction or semicolon separating them?

• Compute the average number of words per sentence. How


close is that number compared to the average of 22?

156
Sentences
• Have you varied the length of sentences in each paragraph?

• If your sentences are too long, break them into shorter units.

• Sentences that are very short tend to produce a jerky style of


writing.

• Is the rhythm of your paper interrupted?


(except for a good reason, like emphasis)

157
Tenses
• Have you incorrectly jumped between different tenses?

• Have you used the correct form of the verb to express the tense
you want?

• Do your subjects and verbs agree?

158
Spelling
• Check any word you have doubts about.

• If you are unsure of the spelling of a certain word, look it up.

• Be especially careful of the words listed as spelling


nightmares: "ei" and "ie" words, words which add
"-ing" and "ed," and words with one or more sets of double
letters.

• Have you capitalized names of persons, cities, countries,


streets, and titles?

159
Punctuation
• Have you ended every sentence with a period, question mark,
or exclamation point?

• Are your thoughts within sentences broken up correctly by


commas for easier understanding?

• Have you broken up series with commas?

• Have you used a period after abbreviations?

• Consider these two sentences:

“women without her man, can not live”


“women without her, man can not live”

160
Tools To Make
Your Job Easier

161
Tools To Make Your Job Easier
¾ Microsoft Office Tools: (You can try these tools your self in
front of a computer)

ƒ Spelling and grammar checks


ƒ Format copier
ƒ Word count
ƒ Synonyms and antonyms
ƒ Auto correct
ƒ Hyper Links
ƒ Hiding columns, freezing pans and repeating
rows at top in Excel
ƒ Macros and goal seek

162
Tools To Make Your Job Easier
¾ Microsoft Office Tools:
ƒ Merge
ƒ Track changes
ƒ Meta data
¾ Other Tools:
ƒ Babylon dictionary and its glossaries
ƒ Online translation and dictionary resources
ƒ Printing to pdf
ƒ Speech
ƒ Digitizing figures (with Grab it)
ƒ Converting pdf files into word
ƒ Optical Character Recognition
163
Study the Meta data on your own

164
Tools To Make Your Job Easier
The Gunning Fog Index
http://www.online-utility.org/english/readability_test_and_improve.jsp

ƒ The Gunning fog index is a test designed to measure the


readability of a sample of English writing. The resulting number is
an indication of the number of years of formal education that a
person requires in order to easily understand the text on the first
reading.
ƒ If a passage has a fog index of 12, it has the reading level of a U.S.
high school senior.
ƒ Texts that are designed for a wide audience generally require a
fog index of less than 12.

165
The Gunning Fog Index: Examples
¾ The sentence: “I love you” has a fog index of 1.2

¾ Readers Digest has a Fog Index of between 8 and 9.


¾ Time magazine has a Fog Index of about 11.
¾ If you have a fog index higher than 13, your writing is hard to
read. The following paragraph, from the Wikipedia article on
"logorrhea", has a Gunning-Fog Index of 17.5:
“ The word logorrhoea is often used pejoratively to describe
prose that is highly abstract and contains little concrete
language. Since abstract writing is hard to visualize, it often
seems as though it makes no sense and all the words are
excessive. Writers in academic fields that concern themselves
mostly with the abstract, such as philosophy and especially
postmodernism, often fail to include extensive concrete
examples of their ideas, and so a superficial examination of
their work might lead one to believe that it is all nonsense.”

166
Some Online Translation and Dictionary
Resources

167
Avoiding Common English Pitfalls:
• Using Hyphens
• Some spelling Rules and Mistakes
• Commonly Confused Words

168
Using Hyphens
1- Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective
before a noun:
a one-way street; chocolate-covered peanuts; well-known author
However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not
hyphenated:
The peanuts were chocolate covered. The author was well known.

2- Use a hyphen with compound numbers:


:

forty-six; Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.

3- Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of


letters:
re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job); semi-independent (but
semiconscious); shell-like (but childlike)

169
Using Hyphens
4- Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former ), self- , all- ;
between a prefix and a capitalized word;

ex-husband; self-assured; mid-September; all-inclusive; T-shirt; pre-Civil


War; mid-1980s

5- For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the hyphen:
mass-produced; self-conscious

Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line,
and don't put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line:

lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.) eval-u-ate


(Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial e - at the
end of a line.)

170
Some Spelling Rules
Rule # 1: I before E except after C
• receive and chief
• achieve, believe, brief, hygiene, grief, thief, friend,
chief, patience, pierce, priest
• ceiling, conceive, deceive, perceive, receipt, receive,
deceit, conceit
• This rule does not work with words pronounced "ay"
as in eight, neighbour, freight, sleigh, weight, vein, and
weigh
• There are many exceptions to the rule: either, neither,
feint, foreign, forfeit, height, leisure, weird, seize, and
seizure.
• Still, the rule is relatively simple and worthwhile
remembering. 171
Some Spelling Rules
Rule # 2: Dropping Final E
• When adding an ending to a word that ends with a silent e, drop the
final e if the ending begins with a vowel:
Advancing - surprising
• However, if the ending begins with a consonant, keep the final e:
Advancement - likeness
• (However, if the silent e is preceded by another vowel, drop the e
when adding any ending: argument, argued, truly)
• Exceptions: to avoid confusion and mispronunciation, the final e is
kept in words such as mileage and words where the final e is
preceded by a soft g or c: changeable, courageous, manageable,
noticeable.
• (The word manageable, for example, without that e after the g, would
be pronounced with a hard g sound.)
172
Some Spelling Rules

Rule # 3: Dropping Final Y


• When adding an ending to a word that ends with y,
change the y to i when it is preceded by a
consonant.
• supply becomes supplies
• worry becomes worried
• merry becomes merrier
• This does not apply to the ending -ing, however:
Crying - Studying
• Nor does it apply when the final y is preceded by a
vowel: Obeyed - Saying

173
Some Spelling Rules
Rule # 4: Adding Prefixes
• Generally, adding a prefix to a word does not change
its spelling. For some reason, the word misspelling
is one of the most often misspelled words in English.

unnecessary, dissatisfied,
disinterested, misinform

174
Spelling: Between the Americans and the British
American Spelling British Spelling
Center centre
Theater theatre
Check cheque
Tire tyre
Gray grey
License licence
Realize realise
Criticize criticise

Color colour
Humor humour
Labor labour
Valor valour
Judgment judgement
Canceled cancelled 175
Commonly Confused Words

176
Accept/Except/Expect
• Accept is a verb meaning receive, bear.

• Except is a preposition meaning but, excluding.

• Expect is a verb meaning anticipate, demand, assume.

Examples
This client expects (demands) nothing except (but) the
most sophisticated options available.
Will you accept (bear) the responsibility for this
decision?
We expect (anticipate) everyone to come except
(excluding) John.
177
Advice/Advise
• Advice is a noun meaning suggestion, suggestions.
It rhymes with ice.

• Advise is a verb meaning suggest to, warn. It


rhymes with wise.

Examples

We advise (suggest to) you to proceed carefully.

That was the best advice (suggestion) I've received


so far.

178
Already/All Ready

ƒ Already is an adverb meaning as early as this,


previously, by this time.

ƒ All ready means completely ready, totally ready.

Examples

At age four, Alex is reading already (as early as this).

We had already (previously, by this time) finished.


Are we all ready (completely ready) to go?

179
Altogether/All Together

• Altogether is an adverb meaning entirely, completely.

• All together means simultaneously.

Examples

These claims are altogether (entirely) false.

The audience responded all together (simultaneously).

180
Affect/Effect
• Affect is a verb meaning alter, inspire or move
emotionally, imitate. Affected, besides being the past
tense of affect, can also be used as an adjective
meaning imitated, pretentious.
• Effect as a noun means consequence. As a verb, it
means cause.
Examples
How will this plan affect (alter) our jobs? What effect
(consequence) will this restructuring have on profits?

He affected (imitated) an English accent. The affected


(pretentious) speech fooled no one.

181
Always Split These Two

All right. There's no such word as alright

A lot. There's no such word as alot.

182
Brake/Break
• Brake as a verb means slow, stop. As a noun, it
means hindrance, drag.

• Break as a verb means separate, shatter, adjourn.


As a noun, it means separation, crack, pause,
opportunity.

Examples

During our break (pause) we spotted a break (crack)


in the pipeline.

Brake (slow) gently when driving on ice by applying


slight pressure to the brake (drag).

183
Everyday/Every Day

• Everyday is an adjective meaning ordinary, usual.

• Every day means each day.

Examples

These are our everyday (usual) prices.

The workers sort the merchandise every day (each day).

184
Maybe/May be
• Maybe is an adverb meaning perhaps.

• May be is a verb phrase meaning might be.

Example: Maybe (perhaps) the next batch will be


better than this one. On the other hand, it maybe
(might be) worse.

185
Lead/Led/Lead
ƒ Lead as a verb means guide, direct. As a noun, it means front
position. It rhymes with seed.
ƒ Led is a verb, the past tense of lead, meaning guided, directed.
It rhymes with red.

ƒ Lead is a noun that is the name of a metal. It rhymes with red.

Examples
Mike led (guided) the small band to safety.
We hope the next elected officials will lead (guide) us to
economic recovery.
Gold is much more expensive than lead
This gas station sells lead-free gasoline

186
Quite/Quit/Quiet

• Quite is an adverb meaning completely, very, entirely. It


rhymes with fight.
• Quit is a verb meaning stop, cease or stopped, ceased.
It rhymes with sit.

• Quiet as an adjective means calm, silent, noiseless. As


a verb, it means soothe, calm. As a noun, it means
tranquility, peacefulness. It almost rhymes with riot.

Example: The firm was quite (very) surprised when its


most productive investment specialist quit (stopped)
work and opted for quiet (calm) life.

187
Right/Write/Rite

• Right is an adjective meaning correct, proper,


opposite of left.

• Write is a verb meaning record, inscribe.

• Rite is a noun meaning ceremony, ritual.

Example
I will write (record) the exact procedures so you will
be able to perform the rite (ceremony) in the right
(proper) way.

188
Sent/Cent/Scent

• Sent is a verb, the past tense of send. It means


dispatched, transmitted.

• Cent is a noun meaning one penny, a coin worth .01


of a dollar.

• Scent is a noun meaning odor, smell.

Example
For ten cents (pennies) I bought an envelope
perfumed with the scent (odor) of jasmine. I sent
(dispatched) it to my grandmother.

189
Sight/Site/Cite
• Sight as a noun means ability to see. As a verb, it
means see, spot.
• Site is a noun meaning location, position.
• Cite is a verb meaning quote, make reference to.
Examples
At ninety-five my grandmother's sight (ability to see)
was acute enough to sight (spot) even the smallest
error in a painting.
This is the proposed site (location) for the new
building.
You must cite all the references you used in the
report. 190
To/Too/Two
• To is a preposition or part of an infinitive. Use it
only to introduce a prepositional phrase, which
usually answers the question where, or before a
verb. Use to for introducing a prepositional phrase:
to the store, to the top, to my home, to our garden, to
his laboratory, to his castle, to our advantage, to an
open door, to a song, to the science room, etc.

Use to as an infinitive (to followed by a verb,


sometimes separated by adverbs): to run, to jump, to
want badly, to seek, to propose, to write, to explode,
to sorely need, to badly botch, to carefully examine,
etc.

191
To/Too/Two

• Too is an adverb meaning also, very.

• Two is an adjective, the name of a number, as in one,


two, three.

Example

The couple went to (preposition) the deli to (infinitive)


pick up two (the number) plate dinners because both of
them were too (very) hungry.

192
Where/Wear/Were
• Where is an adverb referring to place, location.
• Wear as a verb means put on, tire. As a noun, it
means deterioration.
• Were is a verb, the plural past tense of be.

Examples
These shirts were (form of be) too tight.
The tires showed excessive wear (deterioration)
Where (location) are the clothes you were (form of
be) planning to wear (put on) tomorrow?

193
Passed/Past
• Passed is a verb, the past tense of pass, meaning
transferred, went ahead or by, elapsed, finished.
• Past as a noun means history. As an adjective, it
means former.

Examples
The first runner passed (transferred) the baton to the
second just as she passed (went by) the stands.
Three seconds passed (elapsed) before the next
runner came by.
She passed (finished) her bar exam on the first try.
My great grand father passed away by in 1970
194
Peace/piece
• Peace is a noun meaning tranquility.

• Piece as a noun means division, creation. As a


verb, it means patch, repair.

Example

If you can piece (patch) together the pieces (bits) of


this story, perhaps we can have some peace
(tranquility) around here.

195
Personal/Personnel

• Personal is an adjective meaning private.

• Personnel is a noun meaning staff, employees or


an adjective meaning dealing with staff or
employees.

Examples
The director of personnel (staff) keeps all the
personnel (employee) files in order and guards any
personal (private) information they contain.

196
Principal/Principle
• Principal as a noun refers to the head of a school or
an investment. As an adjective, it means primary,
major.

• Principle is a noun meaning rule, law, belief.

Examples

The principal (head) of the school used the principal


(investment) of an endowment fund to cover this
month's salaries.

The principal (primary) objective is to make


decisions that do not violate with our principles
(beliefs).

197
Plain/Plane/plan
• Plain as an adjective means ordinary, clear, simple.
As a noun, it refers to flat country, also sometimes
written as plains.

• Plane is a noun meaning airship or flat surface. It is


occasionally used as a verb or adjective meaning
level.
Examples
They wore plain (ordinary) clothes.
It was plain (clear) to us that the enemy did not see
our plane (airship) sitting on the open plain (flat
country).
What is your plan for tomorrow?
198
Scene/Seen

• Scene is a noun meaning view, site, commotion.

• Seen is a verb, the past participle of see, meaning


observed, noticed.

Example

We caused quite a scene (commotion) at the scene


(site) of the accident. It was the worst we had ever
seen (observed).

199
Threw/Through
• Threw is a verb, the past tense of throw, meaning
tossed.

• Through is an adverb or a preposition meaning in


one side and out the other. Use through to introduce
a prepositional phrase: through the door, through
the lobby, though the mist.

Example
Tom threw (tossed) the ball through (in one side and
out the other) the pipe.

200
Weak/Week

• Weak is an adjective meaning flimsy, frail,


powerless.

• Week is a noun meaning a period of seven days.

Example
The patient's heartbeat was so weak (frail) that the
doctor was certain he would be dead within a week
(seven days).

201
Which/Witch

• Which is a pronoun dealing with choice. As an


adverb, it introduces a subordinate clause.

• Witch is a noun meaning sorceress, enchantress.

Examples
Which (choice) one do you want? This car, which
(introduces subordinate clause) I have never driven,
is the one I'm thinking about buying.

He did not know which (choice) witch (enchantress)


he should ask. I told him to avoid all of them.

202
Interactive Activity

Select the Correct Word in the Parentheses below:


1. The package will be (sent, cent, scent) if you add
another (sent, cent, scent) of postage.

2. We noticed the distinct (sent, cent, scent) of cat litter


when we entered the room.

3. Was I (right, write, rite) in assuming I was to (right,


write, rite) you a memo about this matter?

4. Who will be performing the (right, write, rite) at


tomorrow's service?
203
Interactive Activity
5. If you will simply be (quite, quit, quiet), I will be
(quite, quit, quiet) happy to (quite, quit, quiet)
annoying you with my constant request for a (quite,
quit, quiet) atmosphere.

6. Our marching band (lead, led) the parade.

7. Mike, carrying a baton made of (lead, led), will (lead,


led) the band.

8. Over the next ridge we will be able to (sight, site,


cite) the (sight, site, cite) we've chosen for our new
home.
204
Interactive Activity
9. I would be honored to have you (sight, site, cite) me
in your research.

10. Even though these trousers (where, wear, were)


expensive, they are showing (where, wear, were)
along the seams.

11. (Where, wear, were) did you buy those earrings?

12. (Which, Witch) (which, witch) scares you the most?

205
Interactive Activity
13. Gerald (threw, through) away his opportunity when
he walked (threw, through) the door.

14. Sally slammed on the (brake, break) when she saw


the car ahead (brake, break) to avoid the (brake,
break) in the concrete road.

15. Have you (scene, seen) that pathetic (scene, seen)


in the movie?

16. The confused (which, witch) couldn't decide (which,


witch) stick to use.

206
Interactive Activity

17. The sales department has (passed, past) the


record it had established in the (passed, past) year.

18. We'll need at least a (weak, week) to repair the


(weak, week) linkage in this machine.

19. This (peace, piece) of news should give you


some (peace, piece) of mind.

20. The (plain, plane) brown packages were loaded


on the (plain, plane).

207
Interactive Activity
21. I (where, wear, were) my (everyday, every day)
clothes almost (everyday, every day).

22. (Maybe, may be) we should design a new model. It


(maybe, may be) just the thing to brighten our
financial picture.

23. If you had been (already, all ready), we could have


(already, all ready) begun.

24. You'll be (alright, all right) if you follow the


instructions.

208
Answers to the Interactive Activity
1. sent, cent 2. scent
3. right, write 4. rite
5. quiet, quite, quit, quiet 6. led
7. lead, lead 8. sight, site
9. cite 10. were, wear
11. Where 12. Which, witch
13. threw, through 14. brake, brake, break
15. seen, scene 16. witch, which
17. passed, past 18. week, weak
19. piece, peace 20. plain, plane
21. wear, everyday, every day 22. Maybe, may be
23. all ready, already 24. all right

209
Cairo University Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Power Department Technical Language
Final Exam – September 2007 Two Hours

Answer all questions. Use your time wisely. The maximum grade is 70 points.

Answer each question in a new page. You must answer clearly and neatly to get full credit.

Question # 1: (15 points)


State the different parts of a M.Sc or Ph.D. thesis. Describe in few lines the contents of each part.

Question # 2: (15 points)


Explain in details ONLY ONE of the following three subjects:
A- Meta data B- Fog index C- Search tools on the internet

Question # 3: (15 points)


Give ten thought starter questions related to your research topic.

Question # 4: (15 points)


State ten of the electronic tools that you may use to facilitate your technical writing job. Describe in
few lines each of them.

Question # 5: (10 points)


Give an example of a technically-correct table and an example of a technically-deficient table.

Best Wishes

210
Answer to Question # 1: (15 points)

State the different parts of a M.Sc or Ph.D. thesis. Describe in few lines the contents of each part.

The student should state the different parts of a M.Sc or Ph.D. thesis: Title page, copy right
waiver (optional), acknowledgments, table of content, list of figures, list of tables, abstract,
introduction, review of previous work, middle chapters (the middle chapters are the back bone of the
thesis and vary according to the methodology and topic. Student should give examples for an
experimentally-oriented thesis in which the middle chapters would be: -description of experimental
setup, experimental results and discussions, error analysis and/or numerically-oriented thesis: -Theory,
numerical methods/computer code, results and discussions and error analysis), summary and
conclusions, recommendations for further work, references and appendices.

The student should describe the content of each part briefly in few lines. Overall answer should
be in two to three pages.

211
Answer to Question # 2: (15 points)
Explain in details ONLY ONE of the following three subjects:
A- Meta data B- Fog index C- Search tools on the internet

Note: The instructor requested a report on ONLY one of these three subjects. Each student had to do a
report on ONLY one of these three topics, where the topic was decided according to the first letter in
his name.

For students electing to answer part a:


Meta data is data about data. It includes (but not limited to) the author name, the date on which
the file was created/modified or accessed, the changes made to the file (if it in MS word format), etc….

It can be eliminated by printing the MS file to pdf, or by downloading and installing a tool from MS
office website that eliminates this type of data. This usually requires saving the file with a different
name.

For student electing to answer part b:


The fog index is a test designed to measure the readability of a sample of English writing. The
resulting number is an indication of the number of years of formal education that a person requires in
order to easily understand the text on the first reading. If a passage has a fog index of 12, it has the
reading level of a U.S. high school senior. Texts that are designed for a wide audience generally require
a fog index of less than 12. There are some online tools that estimate the fog index for a certain
passage.

For students electing to answer part c:


The student should give examples of many search engines on the internet (not just google).
Examples include but are not limited to:

Yahoo at www.yahoo.com
Alta Vista at http://www.altavista.com/
Excite at http://www.excite.com/
Lycos at http://www.lycos.com/
Northern Light at http://www.nisearch.com
Open Text at http://index.opentext.net

The student may indicate the existence of some metasearch engines (engines that search other
search engines) such as
• www.dogpile.com
• www.metacrawler.com
• All4one at http://www.all4one.com (allows simultaneous searching of 4 search engines)

The student MUST show his understanding of the search tools (such as AND, OR, NOT, etc…) as well
as the advanced search options in the search engine (searching for a specific file format like pdf or ppt,
for a specific domain name like edu or gov or com, etc….)

The student may give reference to some specific Engineering websites such as sciencedirect,
engineeringvillage, ocw.mit.edu (open course ware at MIT), etc….

212
Answer to Question # 3: (15 points)

Give ten thought starter questions related to your research topic.

Examples of the thought starter questions include but are not limited to:

- What do I mean by ____?


- What group of things does ____ belong to?
- How is ____ different from other things?
- What parts can ____ be divided into?
- Does ____ mean something now that it didn't years ago? If so, what?
- What other words mean about the same as ____?
- What are some concrete examples of ____?
- When is the meaning of ____ misunderstood?

- What is ____ similar to? In what ways?


- What is ____ different from? In what ways?
- ____ is superior (inferior) to what? How?
- ____ is most unlike (like) what? How?

- What causes ____?


- What are the effects of ____?
- What is the purpose of ____? - What is the consequence of ____?
- What comes before (after) ____?

- What have I heard people say about ____?


- What are some facts of statistics about ____?
- Can I quote any proverbs, poems, or sayings about ____?
- Are there any laws about ____?

- Is ____ possible or impossible?


- What qualities, conditions, or circumstances make ____ possible or impossible?
- When did ____ happen previously?
- Who can do ____?
- If ____ starts, what makes it end?
- What would it take for ____ to happen now?
- What would prevent ___ from happening?

- How is ____ different from things similar to it?


- How has ____ been different for me?

- How much can ____ change and still be itself?


- How is ____ changing?
- How much does ____ change from day to day?
- What are the different varieties of ____?

- Where and when does ____ take place?


- What is the larger thing of which ___ is a part?
- What is the function of ____ in this larger thing?
213
*Describe* it (colors, shapes, sizes, etc.)
*Compare* it (What is it similar to?)
*Associate* it (What does it make you think of?)
*Analyze* it (Tell how it's made)
*Apply* it (What can you do with it? How can it be used?)
*Argue* for or against it

214
Answer to Question # 4: (15 points)

State ten of the electronic tools that you may use to facilitate your technical writing job. Describe
in few lines each of them.

Some of the examples include, but are not limited to:

ƒ Spelling and grammar checks


ƒ Format copier
ƒ Word count
ƒ Synonyms and antonyms
ƒ Auto correct
ƒ Hyper Links
ƒ Hiding columns, freezing pans and repeating rows at top in Excel
ƒ Macros
ƒ Merge
ƒ Track changes
ƒ Meta data
ƒ Babylon dictionary and its glossaries
ƒ Printing to pdf
ƒ Text to speech
ƒ Digitizing figures (Example: Grab it)
ƒ Converting pdf files into word
ƒ Optical Character Recognition
ƒ Online translation and dictionary resources

The student should describe briefly the content of each topic in two to three lines.

215
Answer to Question number 5: (10 points)
Give an example of a technically-correct table and an example of a technically-deficient table.

Example of a technically-poor table: (horizontal, without table heading, without variable names nor
units, etc…)

U 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example of a technically-proper table: (vertical, with table heading, with variable names and units,
etc…)

Velocity, U, m/s Hot-wire voltage, E, volt


0 1
2 2
4 3
6 4
8 5
10 6
12 7

Table 3.1: The variation of hot-wire voltage (E) with flow velocity (U)

216

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