WHAT IS METAL FORMING?

Forming is a fabrication process for solid substances by controlled plastic deformation

in order to obtain alterations of:
- the shape,
- the material properties and/or
-the surface properties.

Metal Forming is a process in which a simple metallic geometry is transformed into a

complex one through plastic deformation. Tools or dies impart pressure on the material
to transfer the desired geometry through the tool/material interface.

Classification of Metal forming

 Classification by State of Stress
 Classification by Type of Raw Material
 Classification by Methods of Induction of Forces into the Work-Piece
 Classification by Forming Temperature
Classification by State of Stress
Compression Forming
Rolling, forging, extrusion, Indenting,
etc.
Tension Forming
Bulge Forming, Stretch Forming etc.
Classification by Type of Raw Material
Sheet-metal Forming
The raw material consists of flat parts of
constant thickness. Sheet metalworking
processes are forming and cutting operations
performed on metal sheets, strips, and coils.
Bulk Deformation
Bulk deformation processes are generally
characterized by significant deformations and
massive shape changes, and the surface area-
to-volume of the work is relatively small.

Tension-Compression Forming
Drawing, Deep Drawing, Collar
Forming, Upset Bulging. Etc.

Bend Forming
Bending with Linear Tool Movement,
Bending with Rotating Tool Movement

Shear Forming
Shear Displacement, Blanking
Classification based on the type of force
applied on to the work piece

• Direct-compression-type processes
The applied force is normal to the direction
of the metal flow in compression, i.e.,
forging and rolling processes.

• Indirect-compression processes
The primary forces are either tensile or
compressive, with indirect compressive
forces developed by the reaction of the work
piece. The metal flow is therefore under the
combined stress state, i.e., extrusion,
wiredrawing, tube drawing.
Classification by Forming Temperature

COLD WORKING is metal forming performed at room temperature. During cold

work, the metal experiences an increased number of dislocations and
entanglement of these dislocations, causing strain hardening.
Advantages: better accuracy, better surface finish, high strength and hardness
of the part, no heating is required.
Disadvantages: higher forces and power, limitations to the amount of forming,
additional annealing for some material is required, and some material are not
capable of cold working. Heavier and more powerful equipment and stronger
tooling are required, Less ductility is available, Metal surfaces must be clean
and scale-free.
Classification by Forming Temperature (Contd.)

WARM WORKING is metal forming at temperatures above the room

temperature but below the re-crystallization temperature. The forces required
to deform metal in the warm working regime are higher than during hot working.
The final finish and dimensional tolerances are better than hot working but not
nearly as good as a cold working process
Advantages: lower forces and power, more complex part shapes, no annealing
is required.
Compared to hot forming, the lower temperatures of warm working produce
less scaling and decarburization, and enable production of products with better
dimensional precision and smoother surfaces. Finish machining is reduced and
less material is converted into scrap.
Compared to cold forming, warm forming offers the advantages of reduced
loads on the tooling and equipment, increased material ductility, and a possible
reduction in the number of anneals due to a reduction in the amount of strain
hardening.
Disadvantages: some investment in furnaces is needed.
Classification by Forming Temperature (contd.)

HOT WORKING involves deformation of preheated material at temperatures

above the re-crystallization temperature. Hot working occurs at temperatures of
51% or above the melting temperature of the metal. At elevated temperatures,
the metal has decreased strength, hence the forces needed for deformation are
reduced.
Advantages: big amount of forming is possible, lower forces and power are
required, forming of materials with low ductility, no work hardening and
therefore, no additional
annealing is required.
Disadvantages: lower accuracy and surface finish, higher production cost, and
shorter tool life.
MATERIAL BEHAVIOR IN METAL FORMING
 Behaviour of metals during forming can be obtained from the stress–strain
curve. A typical stress–strain curve for most metals is divided into an elastic
region and a plastic region
 Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest because material is
plastically deformed
 In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the flow curve (Flow curve
based on true stress and true strain):
  K n
where K = strength coefficient;
and n = strain hardening exponent.
MATERIAL BEHAVIOR IN METAL FORMING (CONTD.)
Review Topics
• Offset method for determining the yield strength • Stress-strain curve (F-∆L curve)
• % elongation and % reduction of area. • Engineering vs. true stress and strain.
• Strain Hardening

  K n
Work hardening, or strain hardening, If we apply a stress S1 that is greater than the
yield strength Sy, it causes a permanent deformation or strain. When the stress is
removed, a strain of e1 remains. Our new test specimen would begin to deform
plastically or flow at stress level S1. Strain hardening results in an increase in the
strength of a material due to plastic deformation. Plastic deformation = adding
dislocations
Strain Hardening Mechanism

flow at stress the new flow Each time we apply a

level S1 stress is S2 higher stress, the flow
stress and tensile
strength increase,
and the ductility
decreases
FLOW STRESS
 We define the flow stress as the stress that is needed to initiate plastic flow in previously
deformed material. Flow stress is also defined as the instantaneous value of stress
required to continue deforming the material to keep the metal ‘‘flowing.’’
 For most metals at room temperature, strength increases when deformed due to strain
hardening.
 Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to continue deforming the material
where σf = flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a
 f  K n
function of strain
 TRUE STRAIN (LOGARITHMIC STRAIN) & TRUE STRESS

The Engineering strain is given by:

l l l  l1 
  1 0  1  1, or      1
l0 l0  l0 
Taking log we get: l  ln   1  (a)

Similarly, for true stress we

have: P P A P A  Ao l 
  . o . o  Ao .lo  A.l   
A A Ao Ao A  A lo 

P l    lo   
 .  S.   S .   1   S    1
Ao lo  lo   lo 
  S   1  (b)
WORK OF DEFORMATION (IDEAL WORK)
Work of deformation in metal forming simply involve a method of estimating the forces
and energy involved in some metal forming operations. The energy to complete a metal
forming operation can be divided into the ideal work, wi, that would be required for the
shape change in the absence of friction and inhomogeneous flow, the work against
friction, wf, and the redundant work, wr.
To calculate the ideal work, it is necessary to envision an ideal process for achieving the
desired shape change. It is not necessary that the ideal process be physically possible.
For example the axially symmetric deformation in the extrusion or wire drawing of an
circular rod or wire can be simulated by tension test. The fact that necking would occur
in a tension test can be ignored. The ideal work is
  
_
PROBLEM: The strain hardening behaviour of a metal is approximated by  f  140
0.25

MPa. Find the work done, if a bar of the material is reduced from 12.7 to 11.5 mm
diameter in tension.

  2  ln 12.7 /11.5  0.199

 FRICTION AND LUBRICATION IN METAL FORMING
In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable for the following reasons:
– Metal flow is retarded, causing residual stresses and sometimes defects in the product
– Forces and power to perform the operation are increased
– Faster wear in tooling
Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work interface in many forming operations to
reduce harmful effects of friction
Benefits of using lubricants:
– Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
– Better surface finish
– Removes heat from the tooling
Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant:
– Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal drawing, etc.)
– Hot working or cold working
– Work material
– Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
– Ease of application
– Toxicity
– Flammability,
– Cost
 METHODS OF ANALYSIS & ESTIMATION OF LOAD
DURING FORMING PROCESSES
The theoretical analysis of metal forming processes requires the mathematical solution
of the equations of plasticity theory for boundary conditions representing work-tool
geometry and motion as well as tool-interface friction. Traditional methods used to
calculate metal forming parameters are:
 Slab Method
 Visioplasticity Method (Visioplastic Method)
 Slip-line Field Method
 Upper-Bound Method
Above analysis methods are mainly limited to plane or symmetrical deformation, thus
are not adequate for the problem solution of forming processes with high complexity (die
forging, shape rolling, etc.). For highly complex forming processes, computer based
analysis methods are thus used, which include:
 Finite Difference Method
 Finite Element Method
None of these methods is perfect because of the assumptions made in developing the
mathematical approach. In addition, every method of analysis requires flow stress and
friction as input. These two quantities (flow stress and friction) must be determined by
experiments and are difficult to obtain accurately. Thus, any errors in the measurement
of the value of flow stress and friction factor may influence the accuracy of the results of
the analysis.
 PROCESS VARIABLES AND OBJECTIVES OF
ANALYZING FORMING PROCESSES
Various process variables are involved during the analysis of metal forming
processes that include:
 Work Material Properties
 The Tooling/Dies
 Tool/Work-piece Interface Conditions
 Metal Forming Equipment
 Mechanics Of The Deformation Zone
 The Environmental Conditions

The major objectives of analyzing any metal forming operation are:

 Establish the kinematic relationships (shape, velocities, strain rates, and strain)
between the un-deformed part and the deformed part (final product), i.e., predict the
metal flow during the forming operation.
 Establish the limits of formability or producibility, i.e., determine whether it is possible
to perform the forming operation without causing any surface or internal failures (cracks
or folds) in the deforming material.
 Predict the stresses, the forces, and the energy necessary to carry out the forming
operation. This information is necessary for tool design and for selecting the appropriate
equipment, with adequate force and energy capabilities, to perform the forming
operation.
 SLAB ANALYSES METHOD
In the slab method, the work-piece being deformed is decomposed into several slabs.
For each slab, simplifying assumptions are made mainly with respect to stress
distributions. The resulting approximate equilibrium equations are solved with imposition
of stress compatibility between slabs and boundary tractions. The final result is a
reasonable load prediction with an approximate stress distribution.

SLIP-LINE FIELD METHOD

The slip-line field method is used in plane strain for perfectly plastic materials (constant
yield stress) and uses the hyperbolic properties. The construction of slip-line fields,
although producing an “exact” stress distribution, is still quite limited in predicting results
that give good correlations with experimental work. From the stress distributions, velocity
fields can be calculated through plasticity equations

VISIOPLASTICITY METHOD
The visioplasticity method combines experiment and analysis. A grid is imprinted on the
metal or modelling substance before deformation starts. Pictures taken at small intervals
during processing enable the investigator to construct a flow pattern. After the velocity
vectors have been determined from an actual test, strain rates are calculated and the
stress distributions are obtained from plasticity equations. The method can be used to
obtain reliable solutions in detail for processes in which the experimental determination
of the velocity vectors was possible.
UPPER-BOUND METHOD
The upper-bound method requires the “guessing” of admissible velocity fields (i.e.,
satisfying the boundary conditions), among which the best one is chosen by minimizing
total potential energy. Information leading to a good selection of velocity fields comes
from experimental evidence and experience. This method, with experience, can deliver
fast and relatively accurate prediction of loads and velocity distributions

All Of The Above Highlighted Methods Of Analysis Fail To Consider Temperature

Gradients, Which Are Present In The Deforming Material During Hot Forming
Operations. As A Result, The Effect Of Temperatures On Flow Stress And Metal
Flow During Hot Forming Are Often Not Considered Adequately.
FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD
In the finite difference method, the derivatives in the governing partial differential
equations are written in terms of difference equations. Therefore, for a two-dimensional
domain, a grid of cells is placed inside the domain and the differencing approximation
applied to each interior point. This results in a system of linear algebraic equations (with
a banded solution matrix), which yields a unique solution provided the boundary
conditions of the actual problem are satisfied. Though temperature gradients can be
taken into account, this method is limited to problems with simple boundaries.
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
In the finite element method, the entire solution domain is divided into small finite
segments (hence, the name “finite elements”). Over each element, the behaviour is
described by the differential equations. All these small elements are assembled together,
and the requirements of continuity and equilibrium are satisfied between neighbouring
elements. Provided the boundary conditions of the actual problem are satisfied, a unique
solution can be obtained to the overall system of linear algebraic equations (with a
sparsely populated solution matrix).
The FE method allows the user to incorporate: (a) the tool and work-piece temperatures,
(b) the heat transfer during deformation, (c) strain-rate-dependent material properties,
(d) strain hardening characteristics, and (e) capabilities for microstructure analysis. This
results in a more accurate analysis of the forging process.
 SLAB ANALYSES METHOD & BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
The following assumptions are made in using the slab method of analysis:
● The deforming material is isotropic and incompressible.
● The elastic deformations of the deforming material and the tool are neglected.
● The inertial forces are small and are neglected.
● The frictional shear stress, s, is constant at the die/material interface and is defined as
m. f
   n   pn 
3
● The material flows according to the von Mises rule.
● The flow stress and the temperature are constant within the analyzed portion of the
deforming material.
CLASSIFICATION OF BULK
DEFORMATION PROCESSES

FORGING: Forging is a deformation process in which the work is compressed between two dies,
using either impact or gradual pressure to form the part. Forging is usually performed at elevated
temperatures; dies and equipment costs are high; moderate to high labour costs; moderate to high
operator skill.
ROLLING: Rolling is a deformation process in which the thickness of the work is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls. The rolls rotate to pull and simultaneously
squeeze the work between them.
EXTRUSION: Production of long lengths of solid or hollow products with constant cross-sections,
usually performed at elevated temperatures; product is then cut to desired lengths.

Drawing: Production of long rod, wire, and tubing, with round or various cross-sections; smaller
cross-sections than extrusions; good surface finish; low to moderate die, equipment and labour
costs; low to moderate operator skill.
TYPES OF FORGING PROCESS
Open Die Forging: Deformation operation reduces height and increases diameter of
work. Common names include upsetting or upset forging.
Open-Die Forging with No
Friction
If no friction occurs between work
and die surfaces, then
homogeneous deformation occurs,
so that lateral flow is uniform
throughout workpiece height. h1
Here true strain is given by:   ln
h o

Open-Die Forging with Friction

Friction between work and die
surfaces constrains lateral flow of
work, resulting in barreling effect.
In hot open-die forging, effect is
even more pronounced due to
heat transfer at and near die
surfaces, which cools the metal
and increases its resistance to
deformation.
TYPES OF FORGING PROCESS (CONTD.)
CLOSED DIE FORGING
(a) Impression Die Forging: In impression-die forging, the die surfaces contain a shape
or impression that is imparted to the work during compression, thus constraining metal
flow to a significant degree. In this type of operation, a portion of the work metal flows
beyond the die impression to form flash, as shown in the Figure-c. Flash is excess metal
that must be trimmed off later.

(b) Flashless Forging

In flashless forging, the work is completely constrained within
the die and no excess flash is produced. The volume of the
starting workpiece must be controlled very closely so that it
matches the volume of the die cavity
Swaging: swaging is accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece radially
inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies. Swaging is used to reduce diameter
of tube or solid rod stock.
Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of internal diameter of tubular
parts
 GRAIN FLOW LINES IN UPSETTING A SOLID

Illustration of grid deformation in

upsetting: (a) original grid pattern;
(b) After deformation, without friction;
Steel cylindrical specimen forged at elevated (c) after deformation, with friction.
temperature between two flat cool dies. The Such deformation patterns can be
resulting deformation is highly inhomogeneous used to calculate the strains within a
and barrelling. The difference in shape of the deforming body.
bottom and top sections of the specimen
results from the hot specimen resting on the
lower die before deformation proceeds. The
lower portion of the specimen began to cool,
thus exhibiting higher strength and hence
deforming less than the top surface.
 SLAB ANALYSIS FOR PLAIN STRAIN COMPRESSION BETWEEN
TWO FLAT DIES IN UPSETTING OPERATION
Compression with Coulomb Friction
In slab analysis method it is assumed that plane sections before the deformation remain
plane during deformation and non-uniformity in the metal flow is not taken into the
account.
In coulomb friction it is taken that frictional force between two surfaces is proportional to
normal stress or pressure. Figure below shows a cross section of the strip being
compressed between two flat dies. The region shown hatched is the slab of width `dx` at
a distance `x` from the center line. The stresses acting on the faces of the slab are: (i) -
the die pressure,(ii) -the frictional stress at the die-material interface,(iii) and the lateral
stresses acting on the vertical faces of the slab.
Let “L” denotes the half the
width of strip cross section
and let “b” denote the
dimension of strip
perpendicular to the paper.
No generality is lost even if
we take b=1. Let “h” be the
thickness of the strip.
The equilibrium of the forces acting on the slab in the x-direction gives the following
equation.
( x  d x )h.b  x .h.b  2 x dx.b  0
Dividing all the terms in the above equation by h.b.dx and on simplification we get,
d x  Substituting coulomb friction  x  . px we get
d x  px
2 x 2
dx h dx h
We take that σx and px are the principal stresses. As per Von Mises yielding criteria, the
three principal stresses are:
Ref: Mechanical behaviour of Materials, page 71
SLAB ANALYSIS FOR AXIALLY SYMMETRIC PLAIN STRAIN
COMPRESSION (σr +dσr)
P

τr

(1)
ROLLING OPERATIONS
Rolling is the process of reducing
the thickness or changing the
cross section of a long workpiece
by compressive forces applied
through a set of rolls. Rolling is
generally classified as flat rolling
and shape rolling.

Flat rolling of plates and sheets is

essentially a plain-strain compression
because the length of contact between rolls
and work piece, L, is usually much smaller
than the width of the sheet, w.
On the inlet side of the gap, the roll surface
is moving faster than the work material,
whereas on the outlet side material moves
faster than the roll surface
LAW OF VOLUME CONSTANCY & DEFORMATION IN
ROLLING PROCESS

h1.b1.v1  h2 .b2 .v2

h2  hg   f   r   s ( for cold rolling )
h2  outgoing sheet thickness
hg  Roll gap
 f  Elastic deformation of frame
 r  Elastic deformation of rolls
 s  Elastic recovery of sheet

h2  hg   f ( for hot rolling )

MECHANICS OF DEFORMATION ZONE IN ROLLING
PROCESS
EXTRUSION AND DRAWING PROCESSES
A billet of diameter D0 is extruded through a die of diameter D1. Except for the very first
and last material to be extruded, this is a steady-state operation. The volume of metal
exiting the die, A l must equal the material entering the die, A0 l0 , so the total
external work Wa is
1 1
Wa  Fe .l
Substituting work per volume as:
Wa F .l Fe
 wa   e   Pe
Ao .l Ao .l Ao
Where Fe and Pe are the extrusion force
and extrusion pressure respectively.
ANALYSIS OF DRAWING PROCESS

dx dx
 x  d x  t  dt  w  2 p sin  . w  2 p cos  . w   x .w.t
cos  cos 
dx dx
 x  d x  hx  dhx  b  2 px sin  . b  2 x cos  . b  b x hx
cos  cos 
Above Equation can be simplified by neglecting second order differentials as:
 x hx   x dhx  hx d x  2 px dx tan   2 x dx   x hx
 x hx h d
  x  x x  2 px dx tan   2 x dx   x hx
dhx dhx

 x hx   x dhx  hx d x  2 px dx tan   2 x dx   x hx
MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES
The material removal processes are a family of shaping operations in which excess
material is removed from a starting work-piece to get the desired final geometry.
In CONVENTIONAL MACHINING a
sharp cutting tool is used to mechanically
cut the material to achieve the desired
geometry.
ABRASIVE PROCESSES mechanically
remove material by the action of hard,
abrasive particles.
NON-TRADITIONAL PROCESSES use
various energy forms other than a sharp
cutting tool or abrasive particles to
remove material. The energy forms
include mechanical, electrochemical,
thermal, and chemical.
MACHINING PROCESSES
In Machining process surplus material is removed from a solid object (workpiece) in the
form of small pieces (e.g. chips) by means of tools, thus generating surfaces by relative
motions between the work-piece and tool provided by the machine tool. The common
feature is the use of a cutting tool to form a chip that is removed from the work-piece.
Machining is one of the most important manufacturing processes. Machining is important
commercially and technologically for several reasons listed below:
Variety of work materials. Machining can be applied to a wide variety of work materials.
Virtually all solid metals can be machined. Plastics and plastic composites can also be cut
by machining. Ceramics pose difficulties because of their high hardness and brittleness;
however, most ceramics can be successfully cut by the abrasive machining processes.
Variety of part shapes and geometric features. Machining can be used to create any
regular geometries, such as flat planes, round holes, and cylinders. By introducing
variations in tool shapes and tool paths, irregular geometries can be created, such as
screw threads and T-slots. By combining several machining operations in sequence,
shapes of almost unlimited complexity and variety can be produced.
Dimensional accuracy. Machining can produce dimensions to very close tolerances.
Some machining processes can achieve tolerances of 0.025 mm (0.001 in), much more
accurate than most other processes.
Good surface finishes. Machining is capable of creating very smooth surface finishes.
Roughness values less than 0.4 microns (16 m-in.) can be achieved in conventional
machining operations. Some abrasive processes can achieve even better finishes.
TYPES OF MACHINING OPERATIONS
There are many kinds of machining operations, each of which is capable of generating a
certain part geometry and surface texture. Machined parts can be classified as
rotational or non-rotational.
A ROTATIONAL work part has a cylindrical or disk-like shape. The characteristic
operation that produces this geometry is one in which a cutting tool removes material
from a rotating workpart. Examples include turning and boring. Drilling is closely related
except that an internal cylindrical shape is created and the tool rotates (rather than the
work) in most drilling operations.
A NON-ROTATIONAL (also called prismatic) workpart is block-like or plate-like, as in
Figure (b). This geometry is achieved by linear motions of the workpart, combined with
either rotating or linear tool motions. Operations in this category include milling, shaping,
planing, and sawing.
TYPES OF MACHINING OPERATIONS (CONTD.)
Some of the more common cutting processes are as follows:
TURNING, in which the workpiece is rotated and a cutting tool removes a layer of
material as the tool moves to the left, as in Fig. (a).
CUTTING OFF is a machining operation in which the cutting tool
moves radially inward and separates the right piece from the bulk
of the blank.
SLAB MILLING, also known as Peripheral Milling is a cutting
operation in which a rotating cutting tool removes a layer of
material from the surface of the workpiece.
END MILLING also known as Face Milling is a cutting operation
in which a rotating cutter travels along a certain depth in the
workpiece and produces a cavity.
NOMENCLATURE OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL
The single point cutting tool has only one cutting point or edge. These tools
used for turning, boring, shaping or planning operations. These tools used on
lathe, boring and shaper machines.
Flank: Portion tool which faces the
work. It is surface adjacent to & below
the cutting edge when tool lies in a
horizontal position.
Point: Wedge shaped portion where
face & flank of tool meet.
Face: Top surface of tool b/w shank and
point of tool. Chips flow along this surface
Base: Bearing surface of tool on which it is
held in a tool holder.
Nose radius: Cutting tip, which
carries a sharp cutting point.
Nose provided with radius to
enable greater strength, increase
tool life & surface life. Typical
Value : 0.4 mm – 1.6 mm
NOMENCLATURE OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL (CONTD.)

Shank
It is the main body of the tool.
Heel
It is the intersection of the flank and the base of the tool.
Nose
It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect.
Cutting Edge
It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from the work
piece. The cutting edge consists of the side cutting edge(major cutting edge) and
cutting edge(minor cutting edge) and the nose.
CUTTING CONDITIONS IN TURNING
The rotational speed in turning is related to the desired cutting speed at the surface of
the cylindrical work piece by the equation:

where N=rotational speed, rev/min; v=cutting speed, m/min (ft/min); and Do=original
diameter of the part, m (ft).
The turning operation reduces the diameter of the work from its original diameter
Do to a final diameter Df, as determined by the depth of cut d:

The feed in turning is generally expressed in mm/rev (in/rev). This feed can be
converted to a linear travel rate in mm/min (in/min) by the formula:
where fr=feed rate, mm/min (in/min); and f=feed, mm/rev (in/rev).
The time to machine from one end of a cylindrical workpart to the other is given by:

Where, Tm=machining time, min; and L=length of the cylindrical workpart, mm (in). A
more direct computation of the machining time is provided by the following equation:

Where, Do=work diameter, mm (in); L=work-part length, mm (in); f=feed, mm/rev (in/
rev); and v=cutting speed, mm/min (in/min).
TYPES OF CUTTING
Depending on whether the stress and deformation in cutting occur in a plane (two-
dimensional case) or in the space (three-dimensional case), we consider two principle
types of cutting:
Orthogonal cutting the cutting edge is straight and is set in a position that is
perpendicular to the direction of primary motion. This allows us to deal with stresses
and strains that act in a plane.

Oblique Cutting the cutting edge is set at an angle (the tool cutting edge inclination
λs). This is the case of three-dimensional stress and strain conditions.
MECHANICS OF CHIP FORMATION
Cutting is performed with a cutting tool moving at a cutting speed V in the direction of
primary motion. The cutting tool is inclined at the rake angle γo. The rake angle can be
positive, zero, or negative, typically taking values from +15o to -6o. The rake angle
influences significantly the process of plastic deformation in cutting and therefore the
chip thickness, cutting forces and temperatures.
The tool is set to remove a cut with thickness hD and width bD. In the simplest model of
orthogonal cutting shown in the figure, the plastic deformation takes place by shearing in
a single shear plane inclined at the angle Φ (shear plane angle). The produced chip has
a thickness of hch (chip thickness), width bD and moves at speed Vch (chip speed).
MECHANICS OF CHIP FORMATION (CONTD.)

In reality, chip formation occurs not in a plane but in so-called primary and
secondary shear zones, the first one between the cut and chip, and the second one
along the cutting tool face.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHIP FORMATION
CHIP
CHIP FORMATION AFFECTS

 Surface finish
 Cutting force
 Temperature
 Tool life and
 Dimensional tolerance
CHIP THICKNESS RATIO
The chip thickness compression ratio r is defined by

Since the chip thickness after cutting is always

greater than the corresponding thickness
before cutting, the chip ratio will always be less
than 1.

but to  ls sin  , tc  ls sin    

ls sin  sin 
Therefore, r  
ls cos     cos    
This can be re arranged to
determine ϕ,
 SHEAR STRAIN DURING CHIP FORMATION

Chip formation is depicted as a series of parallel

plates sliding relative to each other (as shown in
Figure-a). The shear strain that occurs along the
shear plane can be estimated by examining single
shear plate and each plate experiences the shear
strain as shown in Figure-b. Using shear strain
triangle (as shown in Figure-c), the shear strain can
be expressed as:

The above equation can be reduced to the following

definition of shear strain in metal cutting:
FOUR BASIC TYPES OF CHIP IN MACHINING

1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip
 DISCONTINUOUS /SEGMENTED CHIP

 Brittle work
materials (e.g.,
cast irons)
 Low cutting
speeds
 Large feed and
depth of cut
 High tool-chip
friction
 CONTINUOUS CHIP

 Ductile work materials

(e.g., low carbon
steel)
 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and
depths
 Sharp cutting edge on
the tool
 Low tool-chip friction
 CONTINUOUS CHIP WITH BUILT-UP EDGE (BUE)

 Ductile materials
 Low-to-medium cutting
speeds
 Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to
adhere to rake face
 BUE formation is
cyclical; it forms, then
breaks off
 SERRATED CHIP

 Semicontinuous - saw-tooth
appearance
 Cyclical chip formation of
alternating high shear strain
followed by low shear strain
 Most closely associated
with difficult-to-machine
metals such as titanium
alloys, nickel-base
superalloys, and austenitic
stainless steels when they
are machined at higher
cutting speeds
 FORCES IN METAL CUTTING

Friction force ‘F’ and Normal force to friction ‘N’ 

F
 tan 
N
Shear force ‘Fs’ and Normal force to shear ‘Fn’

 Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

 Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
 Forces acting on the chip must
be in balance:
 R' must be equal in magnitude to R
 R’ must be opposite in direction to
R
 R’ must be collinear with R
FORCES IN METAL CUTTING (CUTTING FORCE & THRUST
FORCE)

 Forces F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly

measured
 Forces acting on the tool that can be
measured:
 Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Figure: Forces in metal cutting: (a) forces acting on the chip in orthogonal
cutting, and (b) forces acting on the tool that can be measured.
FORCES IN METAL CUTTING / MERCHANT’S FORCE DIAGRAM

 Equations can be derived to relate the forces FORCE DIAGRAM

that cannot be measured to the forces that
can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
 Based on these calculated force, shear stress
and coefficient of friction can be determined

Shear stress acting along the shear plane:

to w
 Fs where As = area of the shear plane As 
As sin 
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during
cutting
 THE MERCHANT EQUATION

 Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation

could occur, the work material will select a shear plane
angle  which minimizes energy, given by

 
  45  
2 2
 Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to 3-D
machining
 WHAT THE MERCHANT EQUATION TELLS US

   To increase shear plane angle

  45    Increase the rake angle
2 2  Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of friction)
 Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane which means
lower shear force
 Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature, all of which mean
easier machining

Figure - Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher  with a resulting lower shear
plane area; (b) smaller  with a corresponding larger shear plane area. Note
that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase shear angle
according to the Merchant equation
POWER AND ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS

A machining operation requires power

The power to perform machining can be
computed from:
Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force;
and v = cutting speed
POWER AND ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS

In U.S. customary units, power is traditional expressed as

horsepower (dividing ft-lb/min by 33,000)

Fcv
HPc 
33,000
where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp
POWER AND ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS

Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg

or HPg is given by
Pc HPc
Pg  HPg 
E or E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
• Typical E for machine tools =  90%
 ISE 316 - Manufacturing
Processes Engineering

UNIT POWER IN MACHINING

 Useful to convert power into power per unit

volume rate of metal cut
 Called the unit power, Pu or unit horsepower,
HPu
Pc HPc
Pu  HP u 
MRR or MRR
where MRR = material removal rate
SPECIFIC ENERGY IN MACHINING

Unit power is also known as the specific energy U

Pc Fcv Fc
U  Pu   
MRR vtow tow

Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in-lb/in3)

CUTTING TEMPERATURE
 Approximately 98% of the energy in machining
is converted into heat
 This can cause temperatures to be very high at
the tool-chip
 The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained
as elastic energy in the chip
 CUTTING TEMPERATURE
 Several analytical methods to calculate cutting
temperature
 Method by N. Cook derived from dimensional
analysis using experimental data for various work
materials
0.333
0.4U  vt o 
T  
C  K 
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U = specific energy; v
= cutting speed; to = chip thickness before cut; C = volumetric specific
heat of work material; K = thermal diffusivity of the work material
CUTTING TEMPERATURE

 Experimental methods can be used to measure

temperatures in machining
 Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip
thermocouple
 Using this method, K. Trigger determined the
speed-temperature relationship to be of the
form:
T = K vm
where T = measured tool-chip interface temperature
METAL CUTTING THEORY

 Plastically deform a material using a hard

tool in order to obtain desired physical shape
and properties
 Very complex phenomena

 Essential for high precision; high

performance products
TOOL FAILURE
The life of a cutting tool can be terminated by a number of means, although
they fall broadly into three different modes:
 Fracture failure
 Cutting force becomes excessive and/or dynamic, leading to brittle fracture
 Temperature failure
 Cutting temperature is too high for the tool material
 Gradual wear
 Gradual wearing of the cutting tool

When the tool wear reaches an initially accepted amount, there are
two options:
 to re-sharpen the tool on a tool grinder, or
 to replace the tool with a new one. This second possibility applies in
two cases:
 when the resource for tool re-sharpening is exhausted. Or
 the tool does not allow for re-sharpening, e.g. in case of the indexable
carbide inserts
PREFERRED MODE OF TOOL FAILURE: GRADUAL
WEAR
 Fracture and temperature failures are
premature failures
 Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to
the longest possible use of the tool
 Gradual wear occurs at three principal
location on a cutting tool , namely:
 Crater wear – occurs on top rake face
 Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool)
 corner wear – occurs on at the nose
Figure -
(a) Crater wear, and
(b) flank wear on a
cemented carbide tool, Figure - Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the
as seen through a principal locations and types of wear that occur
toolmaker's microscope
Figure -

(a) Crater wear, and

(b) flank wear on a cemented

carbide tool, as seen
through a toolmaker's
microscope
 CRATER WEAR: consists of a concave section on the tool face formed by the
action of the chip sliding on the surface. Crater wear affects the mechanics of the
process increasing the actual rake angle of the cutting tool and consequently,
making cutting easier. At the same time, the crater wear weakens the tool wedge
and increases the possibility for tool breakage. In general, crater wear is of a
relatively small concern.

 FLANK WEAR: occurs on the tool flank as a result of friction between the
machined surface of the work-piece and the tool flank. Flank wear appears in the
form of so-called wear land and is measured by the width of this wear land, VB,
Flank wear affects to the great extend the mechanics of cutting. Cutting forces
increase significantly with flank wear. If the amount of flank wear exceeds some
critical value (VB > 0.5~0.6 mm), the excessive cutting force may cause tool
failure.

 CORNER WEAR: occurs on the tool corner. Can be considered as a part of the
wear land and respectively flank wear since there is no distinguished boundary
between the corner wear and flank wear land. We consider corner wear as a
separate wear type because of its importance for the precision of machining.
Corner wear actually shortens the cutting tool thus increasing gradually the
dimension of machined surface and introducing a significant dimensional error in
machining, which can reach values of about 0.03~0.05 mm.
MECHANISMS OF TOOL WEAR

The general
mechanisms that
cause tool wear:
(1) abrasion,
(2) Diffusion
(3) Oxidation
(4) fatigue and
(5) adhesion.
TAYLOR TOOL LIFE EQUATION

This relationship is credited to F. W. Taylor

(~1900) vT  C
n

where v = cutting speed; T = tool life; and n and C are parameters that
depend on feed, depth of cut, work material, tooling material, and the
tool life criterion used. These constants are well tabulated and easily
available
CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
 Carbon Steel Tools
 Contains upto 2% of carbon
 High Speed Steels
 Contains 1.2 to 2.5% carbon, 6 to 10% tungsten and 1.2 to 2%
manganese and, later, 0.5% chromium
 Cemented Carbides
 Tungsten Carbide-Cobalt Alloys (WC-Co)
 Tungsten-Titanium-Tantalum Carbide Bonded with Cobalt
(WC+TiC+TaC) -Co
 Ceramics
 Alumina (Ceramic) Tools (Al2 O3 )
 Alumina-Based Composites (Al2 O3 + TiC)
 Sialon (Si-Al-O-N): silicon nitride-based materials with aluminium and
oxygen additions
 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
 Diamond, Synthetic Diamond, and Diamond Coated Cutting Tools
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF TOOL MATERIALS

 Tool failure modes identify the important

properties that a tool material should
possess:
 Toughness - to avoid fracture failure
 Hot hardness - ability to retain hardness at high
temperatures
 Wear resistance - hardness is the most important
property to resist abrasive wear
OPERATIONS RELATED TO TURNING
a) Facing. The tool is fed radially into the rotating work on one end to create a flat surface on the end.
b) Taper turning. Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis of rotation of the work, the tool is fed at an
angle, thus creating a tapered cylinder or conical shape.
c) Contour turning. Instead of feeding the tool along a straight line parallel to the axis of rotation as in
turning, the tool follows a contour that is other than straight, thus creating a contoured form in the turned
part.
d) Form turning. In this operation, sometimes called forming, the tool has a shape that is imparted to the
work by plunging the tool radially into the work.
e) Chamfering. The cutting edge of the tool is used to cut an angle on the corner of the cylinder, forming
what is called a ‘‘chamfer.’’
f) Cutoff. The tool is fed radially into the rotating work at some location along its length to cut off the end of
the part. This operation is sometimes referred to as parting.
g) Threading. A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside surface of the rotating workpart in a direction
parallel to the axis of rotation at a large effective feed rate, thus creating threads in the cylinder.
h) Boring. A single-point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the axis of rotation, on the inside diameter of an
existing hole in the part.
i) Drilling. Drilling can be performed on a lathe by feeding the drill into the rotating work along its axis.
Reaming can be performed in a similar way.
j) Knurling. This is not a machining operation because it does not involve cutting of material. Instead, it is a
metal forming operation used to produce a regular crosshatched pattern in the work surface.