Applied Thermal Engineering 23 (2003) 1301–1317

www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Development of a zero-dimensional Diesel combustion model.

Part 1: Analysis of the quasi-steady
diffusion combustion phase q
J. Arr
egle *, J.J. Lo
pez, J.M. Garcıa, C. Fenollosa
CMT Departamento de M
aquinas y Motores T
ermicos, Universidad Polit
ecnica de Valencia, II Edificio de Investigaci
on,
Campus de Vera, Av. Los Naranjos s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
Received 14 December 2002; accepted 15 March 2003

Abstract
The aim of this work is to identify and quantify the influence of injection parameters and running
conditions on Diesel combustion. This theoretical–experimental analysis is the basis for the development of
a zero-dimensional Diesel combustion model. The objective of this first part is to analyze the physical
variables and processes that control the central phase of the quasi-steady Diesel diffusion combustion. For
that purpose, a parameter as the apparent combustion time (ACT) characteristic of a diffusion combustion
process has been used. This parameter allows to obtain explicit relations between, on the one hand, the
injection rate law and in-cylinder conditions (air density, oxygen concentration. . .), and on the other hand,
the rate of heat release. Results show a good correlation between the ACT and the instantaneous values of
in-cylinder gas density, injection velocity, oxygen concentration and the nozzle diameter.

2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Diesel engines; Combustion analysis; Zero-dimensional model

1. Introduction

The use of flexible injection, boost pressure and EGR management systems is a key element to
achieve the objectives of performance features, efficiency, noise and pollutant emissions in Diesel

q
A preliminary version of this study has been presented at 2001 SAE Automotive and Transportation Technology
Congress and Exhibition as SAE 2001-01-3185 at Barcelona, October 1–3.
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34-96-387-76-51; fax: +34-96-387-76-59.
E-mail address: arregle@mot.upv.es (J. Arr
egle).

1359-4311/03/$ - see front matter
2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S1359-4311(03)00079-6
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Nomenclature

ACT apparent combustion time [s]

BP inlet manifold pressure [bar]
Ce entrainment coefficient [–]
EGR EGR rate [%]
EOC end of combustion [s]
EOI end of injection [s]
f fuel concentration
FL flame length [m]
IP injection pressure [bar]
K ACT constant [–]
m mass [kg]
m_ mass flow rate [kg/s]
[O2 ] O2 concentration [–]
P pressure [bar]
POC point of combustion [s]
POI point of injection [s]
ROHR rate of heat release [W]
SN swirl number [–]
SOC start of combustion [s]
SOI start of injection [s]
T temperature [C]
t time [s]
u axial velocity [m/s]
x axial coordinate of the spray [m]
/ nozzle diameter [m]
q density [kg/m3 ]
h spray cone angle []
Subscripts
0 conditions in the nozzle
a air, gas
atm atmospheric conditions
eq equivalent
f fuel
mix mixing
ST stoichiometric conditions
Superscripts
a constant
b constant
c constant
d constant
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engines. However, the infinity of possible configurations for each running point, as well as the
necessity of shorter engine set up definition times, require the use of predictive calculation
methods that allow to speed-up the search of the optimum configurations.
A key element of these calculation methods is the prediction of the effect of the different engine
set-up parameters on the rate of heat release (ROHR).
The injection–combustion process that control the ROHR in a Diesel engine is extremely
complex. Current 3D calculation methods have, a priori, the potential of reproducing the physical
and chemical phenomena that take place during the injection–combustion process in a Diesel
engine, but with a considerable calculation time and with the important shortcoming that these
calculation methods are still conditioned by the lack of precise knowledge of the physics of some
processes.
A different approach on analysis and prediction of combustion laws is based on the description
of the ROHR shape by a mathematical function without any direct relation to the physics of the
injection–combustion process. To the most known of these mathematical laws, the Vibe function
used since the 70s [1], other proposals have been added that seem to have a better adaptation to
the combustion laws of current engines equipped with flexible injection systems [2,3]. However,
the capability of these models when applied to other engine types or, above all, to running
conditions far from usual engine set-up parameters does not seem to be guaranteed.
An intermediate approach to the problem is the use of zero-dimensional or one-dimensional
models. In these models, the prediction of the ROHR is based on a simplified description of the
physical and chemical processes that control the Diesel injection–combustion process. This phe-
nomenological approach used in a great amount of cases and based, more or less directly, on the
conceptual injection and combustion models proposed from experimental works by Dec [4] and
Hiroyasu et al. [5], has the shortcoming of needing a great amount of constants to adapt the model.
The empirical fitting of these constants can not be always made from engine experimental results.
To palliate the limitations of the previously described phenomenological approaches, another
methodology [6] is based on two principles: ‘‘to start upon reality, i.e. upon measurements on real
engine’’ and ‘‘to start with a simple approach’’ in order to obtain a global and simplified physical
description of the combustion process.
The proposed model is inspired in the philosophy described in the paragraph above, but it tries
to describe as directly as possible the relations between the running conditions of the engine and
the ROHR in the diffusion combustion phase. For that purpose, a parameter known as the ap-
parent combustion time (ACT), characteristic of a diffusion combustion process, has been used.
This parameter allows to establish, in an explicit way, the relation between the ROHR and the
instantaneous variables that control the combustion process: injection rate law, in-cylinder air
density. . .
The development of the model was divided into various steps. In each step the combustion
process in one of the phases defined in Fig. 1 was analyzed.
The work presented in this first part consisted of finding a simple and global description of the
physics that control the central phase of the quasi-steady Diesel combustion. For that purpose, a
study separated into three steps was performed:

• Theoretical analysis based on the ACT, in order to identify the main variables that control the
process.
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Fig. 1. Defined phases of the combustion process.

• Experimental validation on single cylinder engine of the relations between the ACT and the
variables that control the process.
• Complementary analysis on the effect of the variation of the intensity of the air movement in
the combustion chamber.

Once the main physical mechanisms that control the quasi-steady phase have been identified
and described, the work of generalization for the initial and final transient phases of the diffusion
combustion will be presented in part 2.
Following the same philosophy, a premixed combustion model has been developed in order to
complete the zero-dimensional Diesel combustion model. This work will be presented in part 3.

2. Difficulty associated with injection rate–ROHR relation

One of the main difficulties when trying to relate the ROHR to the running conditions of the
engine, specially with the injection rate, is that the injection–combustion process is strongly time
dependant. The consequence of this is that the instantaneous ROHR is not a function of in-
cylinder and injection conditions at the instant considered, but depends on the complete ‘‘history’’
of these conditions from the beginning of the fuel injection process. In Fig. 2 the evolution of the
ROHR and in-cylinder conditions can be observed. The value of the ROHR at time instant B is
not a function of in-cylinder conditions and the injection rate at that instant. In order to know the
value of the ROHR at time instant B, it is necessary to take into account the evolution of in-
cylinder conditions and the injection rate from time instant A to B. Therefore, it is very complex
 J. Arr
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Fig. 2. Dependence of the instantaneous ROHR on the history of the in-cylinder conditions.

to define a simple and easily interpretable and controllable physical relation that allows relating
the rate of injection with the ROHR, considering the variation of in-cylinder conditions during
the process.

3. ACT definition

A way to face the problems related to ROHR analysis, is to find a link between the rates of
injection and combustion through a parameter whose instantaneous value depends directly on in-
cylinder instantaneous conditions. This parameter could be the ACT that is defined as follows.
The total injected fuel mass is divided, for example, into 100 chronological elements, all of them
with the same mass of fuel, between the start of injection (SOI) and the end of injection (EOI).
1306 J. Arr
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Fig. 3. Injected and burned mass accumulated curves. Parameters definition.

Fig. 3 shows a plot of the accumulated injected mass form SOI to EOI and the accumulated heat
released during the combustion process between SOC and EOC. Each fuel mass element ‘‘i’’ is
injected at time ‘‘point of injection (POI(i))’’. Proportionality is implicitly assumed between the
amount of heat released and the amount of fuel burnt. The mathematical definition of the ACT is
the time interval between the instant at which the i% of the mass is injected and the instant at
which the i% of fuel mass is burned. In a diffusion combustion process it is evident that if a fuel
element i is considered as a physically defined package, this package will not burn instantaneously
at the instant POC(i), but it will probably begin to burn before the POC(i) and will end to burn
after the POC(i). However, the ACT of the ith fuel element (ACT(i)) defined as ACT(i) ¼
POC(i))POI(i) seems to be a correct approximation to the average time interval elapsed between
the injection and the combustion of a given fuel element.
Fig. 4 shows the ACT(i) versus fuel mass element number (i). In this curve, three zones can be
distinguished:

• Zone I (premixed combustion phase). This zone begins after the ignition delay and finishes at
the end of the premixed combustion. End of premixed combustion is defined at the local mini-
mum in the ROHR curve after the first spike. Mechanisms controlling the premixed combus-
tion phase are different from those controlling the diffusion combustion phase and their analysis
is out of the scope of this paper.
• Zone II (diffusion combustion phase). This zone begins when premixed combustion ends and
finishes at the end of the injection process. After this zone, air/fuel mixing process will therefore
be different from that occurring during the injection process. Since in this diffusion combustion
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Fig. 4. ACT versus fuel mass element number curve, zones distribution.

phase the injection rate shapes provided by the injection systems used throughout this work re-
main fairly constant, a constant ACT could be expected. However, in-cylinder air density and
oxygen concentration variations, due to the piston movement and to the combustion process,
bring about a gradual ACT increase as discussed later.
• Zone III (late combustion phase). This phase begins when the quasi-steady diffusion phase
ends, and finishes at the end of the combustion process. A sharp increase of the ACT is ob-
served in this phase. The end of the injection process, that is an efficient mechanism to generate
turbulence and to enhance air/fuel mixing, motivates this sharp increase.

These three defined zones are also plotted in Fig. 3 versus time instead of fuel mass element.

4. ACT theoretical analysis: analogy with steady gas jet

To identify the parameters that have a larger influence on the ACT during the diffusion
combustion phase, a theoretical analysis of the air/fuel mixture process will be made, taking into
account the following main hypotheses:

• The diffusion combustion phase is controlled by the in-cylinder gas/fuel mixing process. This
hypothesis can be considered for half and high load test cases. For low load test cases the com-
bustion process becomes evaporation controlled and this hypothesis can not be considered [7].
• The diffusion combustion process is produced in oxygen/fuel stoichiometric conditions [8].
• The theory of turbulent gas jets is representative of nowadays Diesel sprays injected at high in-
jection pressure, against a high-density environment and through small injection nozzles. This
1308 J. Arr
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similitude allows the analysis of the Diesel spray behavior with scaling functions obtained from
the turbulent gas jet theory.

From the theory of turbulent gas jets, the inverse of the fuel concentration (1=f ) on the jet axis
at a large enough axial distance downstream the nozzle can be expressed as
1 mf þ ma x
¼ / ð1Þ
f mf /eq
Being /eq the nozzle equivalent diameter defined by
rffiffiffiffiffi
qf
/eq ¼ /0  ð2Þ
qa
The characteristic flame length, assuming that combustion takes place in oxygen/fuel stoi-
chiometric conditions should then scale with
  
ma ½O2 atm
FL /  þ 1  /eq ð3Þ
mf ST ½O2 
Taking into account that the stoichiometric relationship of a typical Diesel fuel is of the order
of 15 kg of atmospheric air to 1 kg of fuel, and that the ratio between pure atmospheric air oxygen
concentration to actual oxygen concentration is always >1, the second term of the sum in the
brackets can be neglected.
According to the characteristic flame length, a characteristic time to arrive from the nozzle exit
to the flame position can be obtained from
Z FL
dx
tmix ¼ ð4Þ
0 u
Being tmix the time required for a fuel particle to reach stoichiometric conditions. The velocity
profile in the axial direction in a steady gas jet has the form
u /eq
/ ð5Þ
u0 x
Substitution in (4) and integration leads to
  2 rffiffiffiffiffi
FL2 ma ½O2 atm /0 qf
tmix / /    ð6Þ
u0  /eq mf ST ½O2  u0 qa
This equation can be rewritten in a simplified form, for constant fuel properties:
2 1 1
tmix / ½q0:5
a  u0  ½O2   /0  ð7Þ
This characteristic mixing time is conceptually very similar to the ACT in the quasi-steady
diffusion combustion phase, under the assumption of a mixing-controlled diffusion combustion
process.
Therefore, an experimental validation of this theoretical relation between the ACT and the
variables that have been theoretically identified as important has been performed and is presented
in the following experimental study.
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5. Experimental study

5.1. Test facilities and parametrical study

In order to validate the study for a wide range of engines, two very different engines were used.
The engines tested were a heavy duty single cylinder engine (1854 cm3 ) and a high speed single
cylinder engine (350 cm3 ). Both engines were equipped with a common-rail injection system ca-
pable of operating at an injection pressure up to 130 MPa. The cylinder head was a 4-valve one
with a central injector. To simulate the turbocharger, a screw compressor supplied the compressed
air, whose temperature at the engine intake was controlled by an external cooler. Air pressure and
temperature were regulated in a settling chamber at the intake port. Airflow rate was measured by
a hot wire flow meter. The restriction due to the exhaust turbine was fixed by a back pressure
valve located at the exhaust system. Injection rate was measured by using the Bosch anechoic tube
principle, while in-cylinder pressure was recorded by means of a piezoelectric transducer to obtain
the experimental ROHR.
A parametric study was performed in each engine, in order to assess the effect of some oper-
ating and in-cylinder conditions on the combustion law during the diffusion combustion phase.
The modified engine set-up parameters were: inlet manifold pressure, SOI, injection pressure,
EGR, load, engine speed and nozzle diameter. To do this, a sequence of 50 tests was performed.

5.2. Statistical analysis

Assuming a function of the type (qaa  ub0  ½O2 c  /d ÞðtÞ that could be representative of the in-
stantaneous air/fuel mixing intensity in the spray, the experimental ACT(i) for each fuel element
has been related with this function as expressed in Eq. (8).
h i 1
ACTðiÞ ¼ K  qaa  ub0  ½O2 c  /d0 ð8Þ
POIðiÞ!POCðiÞ

For each time instant the function  ub0  ½O2 c ) is calculated and next averaged from POI(i) to
(qaa
POC(i). The instantaneous in-cylinder air density is obtained from a thermodynamic model [9].
The injection velocity is obtained directly from the rate of injection and assuming a constant
discharge coefficient at the nozzle throughout all the injection process. Finally, the instantaneous
oxygen concentration is obtained from the EGR rate and the combustion reaction stochiometry,
assuming an instantaneous and homogeneous mixture of the burned gases with the fresh charge.
The statistical analyses show a good correlation between ACT experimental results and in-
cylinder air density, injection velocity, oxygen concentration and the nozzle diameter with the
form
h i 1
0:5 0:5 1
ACTðiÞ ¼ K  qa  u0  ½O2   /0 ð9Þ
POIðiÞ!POCðiÞ

In Fig. 5 it can be observed the statistical adjustment with r2 ¼ 99:8% for the heavy duty single
cylinder engine, and in Fig. 6 for the high speed single cylinder engine with r2 ¼ 99:2%.
This means that, for the tested cases in both engines, modifying relevant engine set-up pa-
rameters, the ACT and thus the ROHR for a given injection rate, depends directly and mainly on
1310 J. Arr
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Fig. 5. ACT statistical analysis for the quasi-steady main phase for the heavy duty single cylinder engine.

Fig. 6. ACT statistical analysis for the quasi-steady main phase for the high speed single cylinder engine.

the instantaneous values of in-cylinder gas density, injection velocity and oxygen concentration
and on the nozzle diameter according to Eq. (9).
Other parameters such as combustion chamber geometry, etc. that were not considered in this
parametric study but relevant for the combustion process are included in the constant K.

5.3. Discussion

The exponents that represent the effect of in-cylinder air density (qa ), injection velocity (u0 ) and
nozzle diameter (/) fitted to the experimental data, correspond exactly to those obtained from the
theoretical analysis of the steady turbulent jet air/fuel mixture process, (compare Eqs. (7) and (9)).
From this point of view, the semi-empirical expression of Eq. (9) is coherent with the assumptions
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formulated in the theoretical analysis that should be representative of the main processes that
control the quasi-steady diffusion combustion phase in the Diesel engine.

5.3.1. Effect of [O2 ]

Looking at the oxygen concentration ([O2 ]) effect, the experimental results do not coincide with
the theoretical analysis that overestimates its influence compared with the experimental finding
(compare Eqs. (7) and (9)).
The theoretical analysis performed above was made for a non-reacting turbulent gas jet. Ricou
and Spalding [10] made experimental entrainment measurements for non-reacting turbulent gas
jets, and formulated the well-known expression:
 1=2
m_ a þ m_ f x qa
¼ Ce   ð10Þ
mf / qf

where Ce ¼ 0:32 is the entrainment coefficient. Han and Mungal [11] observed that in the mo-
mentum dominated regime, flames have an entrainment coefficient Ce ¼ 0:13, compared to the
Ce ¼ 0:32 for non-reacting jets. It seems clear by comparing reacting and non-reacting turbu-
lent jets that there is an effect of reduction in air entrainment due to the heat release. This re-
duction of mass entrainment due to heat release has been shown for other authors in previous
works [12–16]. The findings of Han and Mungal [11] mean that there is a reduction factor of 2.5 in
entrainment for reacting jets compared to non-reacting jets. They found that this reduction is
close to ðqu =qb Þ1=2 , which can be approximated by ðTb =Tu Þ1=2 for a constant pressure condition
(where qu , Tu are the density and temperature of unburned gas and where qb , Tb are the density
and temperature of burned gas). Therefore, there is an effect of reduction of entrainment due to
the heat release that is proportional to the relation between the burned and unburned tempera-
tures.
Comparing Eqs. (7) and (9), the thermal effect of the heat release on the entrainment process
can be obtained rewriting Eq. (9) as follows:
h i 1
2 3=2 1
ACTðiÞ ¼ K  q0:5
a  u0  ½O 2   ½O 2   / ð11Þ
POIðiÞ!POCðiÞ

Assuming that the burned temperature is a direct function of the [O2 ], from Eq. (11), the
thermal effect of reduction in entrainment can be observed in the term of [O2 ] 3=2 . This means that
an increment in burned temperature, which is directly dependant on [O2 ], implies an increment in
the ACT which is the same as a reduction in entrainment.
On the other hand, Whitehouse and Way [17] developed a combustion model, with a different
approach that the one presented in this paper, that linked the injection and the combustion rates
through a parameter known as the preparation rate. They found experimentally that this prep-
aration rate was proportional to P0:4 O2 , being PO2 the partial pressure of oxygen. This preparation
rate is conceptually similar to the inverse of the ACT. From Eq. (9), the inverse of the ACT is
proportional to [O2 ]0:5 . Therefore, the effect of the oxygen concentration on the inverse of the ACT
(exponent of 0.5) is very similar to the effect of the partial pressure of oxygen on the preparation
rate (exponent of 0.4) proposed by Whitehouse and Way. This means that the experimental
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adjustment performed by the authors regarding to the oxygen effect is quite similar to that shown
by Whitehouse and Way in their model.

5.3.2. Swirl influence on the ROHR

High speed direct injection Diesel engines for automotive applications employ a high degree of
air swirl. Compared with quiescent combustion systems, emissions of smoke, CO, and HC can be
significantly reduced. In this work, we are going to evaluate the swirl influence on the mixing
process and so on the ROHR. This analysis will be performed in a global way and not on the
possible local effects of the swirl on the combustion process, in order to apply the understanding
of this effect to the ROHR modeling in the diffusion combustion phase.
The effects of swirl on the ROHR remain still unclear. Looking at literature, one can find
contradictory conclusions.
Some works show that swirl has a large effect on the air/fuel mixing process and so on the
ROHR. Uludogan et al. [18] with a multi-dimensional code, predicted the effect of the engine
speed (from 2000 to 12000 rpm) on the combustion process. The conclusion was that the high
flow angular velocities produced by the high speed piston motion enhance the air/fuel mix-
ing. McCracken and Abraham [19] performed 3D calculations with variations of swirl number
from 0 to 5. Relatively small changes in the mixing of a non-combusting jet prior to the EOI
were found, and for combusting jets the conclusion was that there was an enhancement of
the mixing with swirl. Espey [20] studied the effect of swirl on the mixing of the fuel by ob-
serving the area fraction containing fuel by means of shadowgraph cinematography. A com-
parison of the swirl and quiescent conditions showed that the area of the region containing fuel
was increased by 25% by the swirl. The authors concluded that the increase in fuel mixing
observed in the swirl case was due to the swirl induced convection, and not by an increase in the
turbulent mixing. Balles and Heywood [21] observed a significant influence of variations in
values of swirl and turbulence levels on fuel air mixing and ROHR in a rapid compression
machine.
Nevertheless, other works show that swirl has a considerable effect on pollutant emissions but
has no significant effect on the ROHR. Werlberger and Cartellieri [22] made a study of the
combustion process by means of endoscopic high speed photography, concluding that for vari-
ations in the swirl number from 0.5 to 2.9 with high load test points, the jet remains relatively
unaffected by the swirl due to the high injection pressure. Nevertheless, the authors concluded that
there was a strong effect of swirl on the fuel film deposited on the combustion chamber wall. Miles
[23] studied the effect of varying the swirl number from 1.5 to 3.5 on the combustion process, by
means of analyzing the ROHR and luminosity in an optically accessible engine. One of the
conclusions of this work is that there is not a significant effect on the ROHR when the swirl
number is changed in the ‘‘early mixing-controlled burn’’. In this phase the mixing process is
supposed to be dominated by the jet energy coming from the injection process. These observations
were confirmed by the luminosity results. In the images from the experimental tests, no differences
in luminosity were observed in this phase of the combustion when the swirl was varied. Chmela
and Orthaber [6] have developed a zero-dimensional combustion model. One of the conclusions of
this work is that swirl does not play an important role on the energy that the fuel needs for mixing
with fresh air. The main source of energy for air/fuel mixing comes from the fuel injection, and the
jet is the only important source of in-cylinder turbulence. Similar conclusions arise from the work
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Table 1
Swirl experimental parametric study test conditions
500_low 500_ high 800_low 800_high 1300_low 1300_ high
Speed (rpm) 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
IP (bar) 500 500 800 800 1300 1300
m Fuel (mg/cc) 26.64 26.34 27.00 27.66 27.36 27.00
m Air (g/cc) 0.722 0.727 0.719 0.722 0.724 0.724
Swirl level low high low high low high

of Schihl et al. [24]. They observed a minimum impact on the ROHR with variations of swirl
number from 1 to 2.4.
On the one hand it is clear that swirl affects the smoke emissions (in part by changing the jet–
wall interaction). On the other hand, it is not evident if it modifies in a significant way the ROHR.
As a first approximation to the problem, a CFD calculation with FLUENT code has been
performed by the authors. Assuming that variations in swirl level might cause variations in the in-
cylinder turbulence, two CFD calculations varying the levels of turbulence were performed.
Results showed that the effective turbulent viscosity inside the jet has the same value indepen-
dently of the air turbulence level selected. Under the same conditions than before, the evolution of
the mixing process of a fuel element was followed. The temporal evolution of the portion of this
fuel element that mixes in stoichiometric air/fuel ratio was observed, and no differences appeared
between the mixing times of this fuel element when the turbulence levels were varied. It can be
concluded from this study that the initial levels of in-cylinder turbulence have no significant effect
on the mixing of a fuel element, and therefore, on the ROHR. Similar results were found by
Varnavas and Assanis [25].
In order to confirm those CFD results, an experimental parametric study was carried out. The
engine used for these tests was the high speed direct injection single cylinder Diesel engine de-
scribed before, capable of operating with two swirl levels, with a ratio of 1.63 between the high
and the low swirl levels. Six operation points with variations of injection pressure and swirl level
were performed (Table 1). When the swirl level was changed, the inlet manifold pressure was
modified with the objective of maintaining the same in-cylinder air mass, and so the same in-
cylinder air density.
As can be observed in Fig. 7, comparing tests with the same injection pressure, there is no
significant effect of the swirl level on the ROHR.
This conclusion is independent of the injection pressure which was varied in a wide range from
500 to 1300 bar.
From those results, it seems that there is not a significant effect of variations of swirl on the
ROHR. Therefore, this effect will not affect the mixing intensity and will not be taken into account
for ROHR modeling in the diffusion combustion phase.

6. Validation

In order to validate the proposed model for the quasi-steady diffusion combustion phase, the
experimental and predicted cumulative heat release for the two above considered engines were
compared.
1314 J. Arr
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Fig. 7. Influence of injection pressure and swirl level on the rate of heat release.

From the injection rate law and the instantaneous in-cylinder conditions, the cumulative heat
release can be predicted by calculating the POC of each fuel element (see Eq. (12)).
h i 1
0:5 1
POCðiÞ ¼ POIðiÞ þ ACTðiÞ ¼ POIðiÞ þ K  q0:5
a  u 0  ½O 2   / ð12Þ
POIðiÞ!POCðiÞ

The model is identical for the two engines tested, with the exception of the constant K, that is
adapted for each engine.
Results for the two engines and for different test points are shown. Figs. 8 and 9 show examples
of experimental and predicted cumulative heat release for the heavy duty single cylinder engine,
and Fig. 10 for the high speed single cylinder engine.
The comparison extends only to the quasi-steady diffusion combustion phase. The results in
each figure show the variation of only one set-up parameter of the engine, keeping constant all the
other parameters.
Fig. 8 shows the experimental and predicted cumulative heat release when the nozzle diame-
ter is varied from 0.188 to 0.178 mm, for a high load 1500 rpm test point. For the same
engine, in Fig. 9 it can be observed the effect of the EGR variations from 0% to 20%, for a
high load 1800 rpm test point. The EGR technique consists in the recirculation of part of
the exhaust gases to the admission gases. Therefore, an increment in the EGR rate will provoke
a diminution on the oxygen concentration of the gases inside the combustion chamber of the
engine.
Variations of injection pressure from 800 to 1300 bar, for the high speed single cylinder engine,
are shown in Fig. 10.
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Fig. 8. Experimental and predicted cumulative heat release for the heavy duty single cylinder engine. Effect of nozzle
diameter.

Fig. 9. Experimental and predicted cumulative heat release for the heavy duty single cylinder engine. Effect of EGR.

Those examples show that the model is capable of predicting with a relatively good precision
the combustion development in the central phase of the quasi-steady Diesel combustion.
1316 J. Arr
egle et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 23 (2003) 1301–1317

Fig. 10. Experimental and predicted cumulative heat release for the high speed single cylinder engine. Effect of injection
pressure.

7. Conclusions

The ACT analysis of the quasi-steady diffusion ROHR in D.I. Diesel engines has allowed to
show, in a theoretical and experimental way, the effect of the injection rate, the instantaneous
values of the in-cylinder air density and oxygen concentration and the nozzle diameter on the
ROHR.
No significant effect of the swirl intensity on the ROHR has been observed.
With this analysis, a simple physical model has been obtained. The interest of the presented
model of the quasi-steady diffusion combustion process can be summarized as follows:

• It allows to follow in a very explicit way the effect of the different instantaneous parameters that
control the diffusion ROHR in the quasi-steady phase.
• The model is adapted to each engine with the adjustment of a unique constant K.

In order to develop the presented model, the followed procedure will be:

• Generalization of the results obtained in the present work to the transient initial and late dif-
fusion combustion phases.
• Characterization and modeling of the ROHR in the premixed combustion phase.
• Exploration of the parameters that control the constant K corresponding to each engine: effect
of the nozzle technology, fuel characteristics, etc.
• Confirmation of the model behavior for other D.I. Diesel engines.
 J. Arr
egle et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 23 (2003) 1301–1317 1317

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