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1.1 Discuss the effect on the magnitude of the force on a current carrying conductor of variations in certain
properties:
Length of Conductor:
o The longer the section of conductor in a magnetic field, the more moving electrons simultaneously
experience a force
o Force is proportional to the length within the magnetic field
o Shorter length, smaller force on conductor
2.1 Describe qualitatively the force between long parallel current carrying conductors:
Force between parallel conductors exists because magnetic fields due to current flowing through the
conductors interact with each other.
Magnitude of Force:
Depends on magnitude of current within wire
Increases or decreases with the product of the two currents
Also depends on distance of separation between the conductors
Increasing as the conductors are moved closer together
Relation to Length:
Force between conductors depends on length of parallel conductors
Larger for longer conductors
"Force per unit length" - varies only with magnitude of the two currents and the distance between them.
F = Force (N)
Formula: l = Length of parallel conductors (m)
I1 & I2 = Currents in the conductors (A)
F I1I2
k d = Distance between the conductors (m)
l d k = constant (2.0x10-7)
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Define torque as the turning moment of a force:
3.2 Describe the forces experienced by a current-carrying loop in a magnetic field and describe the net result of
the forces:
Net torque:
Maximum when the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field (i.e. as above)
Direction alternates through a complete rotation
Current-carrying loop orientated in a plane at right angles to a magnetic field will experience no net force
τ = Torque (Nm)
n = number of turns/loops of the coil
Formula:
B = Magnetic field strength (T)
I = Current flowing through the loop (A)
A = Area of the loop (m2)
τ = nBIAcosθ
θ = Angle between the plane of the loop and the field
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3.3 Identify that the motor effect is due to the force acting on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field:
4.1 Describe the application of the motor effect in the galvanometer and the loudspeaker:
The Galvanometer:
Device used to measure magnitude and direction of small DC
currents
The Loudspeaker:
Device that transforms electrical energy into sound energy.
They consist of a circular magnet that has one pole on the
outside and one on the inside.
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5.1 Describe the main features of a DC electric motor and the role of each feature & identify that the required
magnetic fields can be produced either by current-carrying coils or permanent magnets:
An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy to useful mechanical energy (usually rotation)
Part Description Role of part
Pair of magnets Two permanent magnets on The magnets supply the magnetic
opposite sides of the motor, field which interacts with the current
with opposite poles facing each in the armature to produce the
other. motor effect. The shape of the pole
The pole faces are curved to fit faces makes the magnetic field
around the armature. almost uniformly radial where the
coil passes.
Pair of electromagnetic Each stator coil (or “field” coil) Each opposed pair of stator coils
coils is wound on a soft iron core produces a magnetic field similar to
attached to the casing of the that provided by a pair of permanent
motor. magnets. The iron core concentrates
The coils are shaped to fit the field.
around the armature.
Armature The armature consists of a The armature carries the rotor coils.
cylinder of laminated iron The iron core greatly concentrates
mounted on an axle. the external magnetic field,
Often there are longitudinal increasing the torque on the
grooves into which the coils are armature. The laminations reduce
wound. eddy currents which might
otherwise overheat the armature.
Rotor coils These are several turns of provide torque, as the current
insulated wire, wound onto the passing through the coils interacts
armature. with the magnetic field.
The ends of the coils are
connected to bars on the
commutator.
Split ring commentator The commutator is a broad ring The commutator provides points of
of metal mounted on the axle at contact between the rotor coils and
one end of the armature, and the external electric circuit.
cut into an even number of It serves to reverse the direction of
separate bars (two in a simple current flow in each coil every half-
motor). revolution of the motor. This
Each opposite pair of bars is ensures that the torque on each coil
connected to one coil. is always in the same direction.
Brushes Compressed carbon blocks, Their position brings them into
connected to the external contact with both ends of each coil
circuit, the brushes are the fixed simultaneously, as each coil is
position electrical contacts positioned at right angles to the
between the external circuit field, to maximise torque.
and the rotor coils. This maximises torque.
They are mounted on opposite
sides of the commutator and
spring-loaded to make close
contact with the commutator
bars.
Axle A cylindrical bar of hardened provides a centre of rotation for the
steel passing through the centre moving parts of the motor.
of the armature and the Useful work can be extracted from
commutator. the motor via a pulley or cog
mounted on the axle.
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6.1 Outline Michael Faraday's discovery of the generation of an electric current by a moving magnet:
After discovering that an electric current produces a magnetic field, in 1820, Faraday’s ideas about
conservation of energy led him to believe that since an electric current could cause a magnetic field, a moving
magnetic field should be able to produce an electric current.
In 1831, Faraday attached two wires through a sliding contact to touch a rotating copper disk located between
the poles of a horseshoe magnet. This induced a direct current and was the basis to an electric generator.
Faradays explanation was that an electric current can be induced by moving a conductor within the 2 poles of
a magnet as it cuts a number of lines of magnetic force coming from the magnet (the magnetic field). The
wires allowed the current to flow in an external circuit where it could be detected.
7.2 Describe the concept of magnetic flux in terms of magnetic flux density and area:
Magnetic Flux:
Magnetic flux- Amount of magnetic field lines passing through a given area
Represented diagrammatically as number of flux lines passing through the area
The relationship of the magnetic flux is given by (Note: This formula is not required):
7.3 Describe generated potential difference as the rate of change of magnetic flux through a circuit:
The size of an induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of change in magnetic flux
In order to induce an EMF, a changing magnetic flux is essential
The change in flux can be changed in an conductor by:
o moving the conductor or the magnetic field
o Changing the strength of the magnetic field.
o The speed of the relative motion between the magnetic field and the conductor
o The number of turns of coil or conductors
o The change in area that the magnetic field passes through
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8.1 Account for Lenz's Law in terms of conservation of energy and relate it to the production of back EMF in
motors & explain that in electric motors, back EMF opposes the supply EMF:
Lenz’s Law:
“The direction of any induced EMF will always be such that it opposes the change that caused it”
To find the direction of an induced emf (or induced current) we apply the RHPR to the given situation and then
reverse the direction of the current flow
Conservation of Energy:
The law of conservation of energy states: Energy
cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be
transformed or transferred
Back EMF:
When an electric motor is first switched on, the
applied voltage produces a large current in the coils. When the coils begin to rotate, changing flux within coils
induces an emf; by Lenz's law, the induced emf is opposite to the emf applied to the motor and this is known as
the back emf.
Eddy currents – the current produced by the back emf opposing current in the coil from a external source.
By Lenz's Law, eddy currents oppose the changing magnetic field producing them.
Eddy currents produce its own magnetic field which opposes the relative motion of the magnetic field which
created it.
9.1 Identify how eddy currents have been utilised in electromagnetic braking:
Eddy currents have been utilised in the electromagnetic braking of free fall recreational rides.
A copper plate is attached to the bottom of a ride. Near the bottom of the ride, there are permanent magnets.
When the copper plate passes the magnets, eddy currents are induced due to magnetic poles in the copper
plate. The eddy currents oppose the direction of the magnet causing the ride to slow down. It slows down
slowly as the eddy currents are proportional to the speed of the plate.
Eddy currents can be minimised by using a lamented soft iron core. This is made up of thin slices of the iron
separated by an insulating layer of oxide coating or paper. This disrupts the eddy currents and stops them
building up.
On each cooking area on the cooktops, there are copper coils wrapped around magnetic materials. An
alternating current is produced and run through the coils producing a magnetic field.
This magnetic field induces an eddy current in the metal pan above.
The resistance in the pan to the current causes heat to be produced at the base of the pan cooking the food.
When more current is run through the coils, there are more eddy currents, making the pan hotter.
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An electric generator is one that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy using the principle of electromagnetic
induction.
Part Description
Rotor Usually consists of several coils wound on an armature which is made to rotate within a
magnetic field.
Armature: Cylinder of laminated iron mounted on an axle which is carried in bearings mounted in
the external structure. Torque applied to axle to make the rotor spin.
Coil Each coil consists of many turns of copper wire wound on the armature. The two ends of
each coil are connected either to two slip rings (AC Generator) or two opposite bars of a
split-ring commutator (DC Generator).
Brushes The brushes are carbon blocks that maintain contact with the ends of the coils via the
slip rings (AC) or the split-ring commutator (DC), and conduct electric current from the
coils to the external circuit.
Stator Fixed part of the generator which supplies the magnetic field in which the coils rotate.
Structure:
Similarities:
Both have a stator providing the magnetic field, both have a rotor which rotates in this field
In both, the magnetic field is supplied by either permanent magnets or electromagnets
In both, rotor consists of coils wound on armature connected to brushes.
In both, their rotor coils are connected to the external circuit through a split ring commutator.
Differences:
DC Generators and electric motors – use a split-ring commutator to connect external circuit
AC Generators – use slip rings to connect external circuit
Function:
The function of an electric motor is the reverse function of a generator
Electric motors:
Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
Rotates when current is supplied
Generators:
Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
Supplies current when rotor rotates
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11.1 Describe the differences between AC and DC generators & discuss advantages / disadvantages of AC and DC
generators related to their use:
AC generator DC generator
Description Brushes run on slip rings, constant Brushes run on split-ring commutator,
connection between coil and external which work by reversing the connection
circuit. between the coil and the external
Induced EMF changes polarity with circuit each half-turn
every half-turn of the coil Induced emf does not change polarity
Voltage in the external circuit varies Voltage in external circuit fluctuates
like a sine wave between zero and maximum
Current alternates direction Current flows in one constant direction
Advantages Brushes in AC generator last longer, DC output can be used for devices
increasing efficiency. which rely solely on DC current to
Less maintenance and more reliable, function
Uses slip rings which cost less to DC current is generally more powerful
manufacture and requires less than AC (for a given voltage)
maintenance Its output can be made smoother by
AC voltage can be easily arranging many coils in a regular
increased/decreased using pattern around the armature. This
transformers means that the more coils, the more
Can be used for power distribution. smoother it is.
They can be easily designed to
produce 3 phase electricity, meaning
it can be generated over a wide area.
Disadvantages Cannot be used to power some Brushes in DC generator do not last as
devices which rely solely on DC long because they wear quicker
current to function Chance of creating electrical short
AC output in different regions around circuit between segments due to pieces
the country must be synchronised for of metal worn from commutator bars
correct integration of electricity – i.e. Cannot supply power over long
have the same frequency and are in- distance.
phase The larger the current, the heavier the
AC output is much more dangerous rotor coils causing high demands on
than the equivalent DC output structures.
Voltage output
Diagram
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Analyse the competition between Westinghouse and Edison to supply electricity to cities:
Westinghouse was the overall winner, as the AC system was more efficient.
Thomas Edison:
Direct Current System
DC Generators use commutators, which were a problem – i.e. maintenance, cost, performs poorly at high
speed rotations
Could only supply power to areas a few kilometres away.
Relied on thick copper cables to carry electric current
George Westinghouse:
Alternating Current System
Westinghouse saw the advantages of AC, and so he purchased the rights to Tesla's AC motors and generators
AC transmissions through the action of transformers were much more energy efficient.
Electricity could be transmitted over longer distances with only a small energy loss.
The motors needed no brushes or commutator.
Identify how transmission lines are insulated from supporting structures and protected from lightning strikes:
14.1 Discuss the energy losses that occur as energy is fed through transmission lines from the generator to the
consumer:
(This equation can be derived by combining the power equation P = IV and Ohm’s law V = IR)
Minimisation:
Transmission at highest possible voltage, lowest possible current
Careful choice of materials – i.e. using good conductors (e.g. copper), thicker wires = less resistance
Minimisation:
Transformer core made of laminated iron - thin layers of iron, separated by thin insulating layers
Limiting eddy currents and reducing corresponding heat loss by utilising cooling fins on the outside of the
transformer and cooling oil circulating on the inside
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Assess the effects of the development of AC generators on society and the environment:
Effects on society: Effects on Environment:
More efficient transmission of electricity – power loss during transmission is dramatically reduced
Allows the development of devices which run at different voltages
Access to high-voltage electricity in remote areas, stepped-down by transformers in order for use in devices
Raised living standards in rural communities (e.g. electrical lighting, refrigeration, air-con.)
Industry no longer clustered around power stations and can be developed away from residential areas
Power stations in remote locations, relocated pollution away from homes
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Discuss the need for transformers in the transfer of electrical energy from a power station to its point of use &
explain the role of transformers in electricity sub-stations:
Without transformers electricity would be generated at voltage typically used, resulting in very large energy
losses and costly transmission losses.
In large cities, many power stations would be required every few kilometres and each different voltages
require separate power stations and distribution systems
Transformers:
More efficient to use very high voltages for long distance transmission
Transformers step-up voltage for transmission, progressively step-down voltage along transmission lines until it
reaches consumer.
The voltage change during the transmission from the power plant to consumers:
Electricity is usually generated by a three-phase AC generator; generally the voltage generated is as big
as 23000V and current output from each set of the coil is almost 10000A
For long distance transmissions, the electricity is then fed into a step-up transformer that increases the
voltage to 330000V and correspondingly decreases the size of the current (P=VI)
After this electricity has been transmitted over a long distance, the voltage is stepped down at different
regional sub-stations, mainly for safety reasons. Correspondingly, the current increases.
Eventually, the voltage is stepped-down to 240V at the local telegraph pole transformers for domestic
uses; industries may use slightly higher voltages
Transformers are devices that increase or decrease the size of the AC voltage as it passes through them via
electromagnetic induction
Step-down transformers are used for appliances containing components requiring lower voltages – e.g. clock
radios, hair dryers, CD players, etc.
Step-up transformers are used for appliances which require higher voltages to function – e.g. televisions, air
conditioners, etc.
Many appliances contain both step-up and step-down transformers supplying different voltages for different
components
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Compare step-up and step-down transformers:
Consists of two inductively coupled coils Consists of two inductively coupled coils wound
wound on a laminated iron core on a laminated iron core
More turns in the secondary coil than the Fewer turns in the secondary coil than the primary
primary coil coil
Higher output voltage than input voltage Lower output voltage than input voltage
Lower output current than input current Higher output current than input current
Used at power stations to increase voltage Used at substations and in towns to reduce
and reduce current for long-distance transmission line voltage for domestic and
transmission industrial use
Used in cathode ray television sets to Used in computers, radios, and CD players to
increase voltage to operate the picture tube reduce household electricity to very low voltages
for electronic components
Identify the relationship between the ratio of the number of coils in the primary and secondary coils and the ratio of
primary to secondary voltage:
Conservation of Energy:
Amount of electrical energy entering must equal total energy in all forms leaving
Power in = power out
Pp = IpVp = IsVs = Ps
where subscript ‘p’ indicates primary coil and subscript ‘s’ indicates secondary coil
No power loss – if voltage increases, current correspondingly decreases, and vice versa
Real transformers:
Heat due to eddy currents acting in the resistance of iron core
Energy is lost from the system in the form of heat – escaping into the air
Power output cannot exceed power input, power output is less than power input;
Pinitial > Pfinal due to loss of heat energy
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Discuss why some electrical appliances in the home that are connected to the mains domestic power supply use a
transformer:
Many household appliances function at voltages other than the standard domestic voltage of 240V
Discuss how difficulties of heating caused by eddy currents in transformers may be overcome:
filling the which circulates inside the case; transports heat produced in core to outside where
transformer with a heat can be dissipated to environment
non-conducting oil
Heat-sink fins added to metal transformer case, heat dissipation can occur more quickly over
larger surface area
located in well- E.g. up in the air
ventilated areas to maximise air flow around them for cooling
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Describe the main features of an AC electric motor:
Same features as DC electric motor, except slip rings used instead of split-ring commutator
Slip rings – conducts electricity from the power source without interfering with the rotation of the coil
The motor spins at 50 revolutions per second, as it is the same frequency as the oscillation of AC current (50Hz)
AC Induction Motors:
Stator:
The stationary component of the motor, it contains the electromagnet coils which create the magnetic field
and it surrounds the rotor.
o Electromagnet coils: When current flows through the coils, it produces a magnetic field. There are 3
pairs of coils in the stator, which when turned on one after the other, creates a rotating magnetic
field.
Rotor:
The rotating component of the motor. Induced eddy currents flow in the rotor in such a way that it will rotate
in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field created by the stator.
o Squirrel cage: The squirrel cage is made up of parallel aluminium bars that have their ends embedded
in a metal ring at each terminal. It is covered by laminated soft iron and embedded in the stator.
Gather, process and analyse information to identify some of the energy transfers and transformations involving the
conversion of electrical energy into more useful forms in the home and industry
In the home:
o Ovens and kettles create heat energy from electrical energy
o Stereo systems create sound energy from electrical energy
o Light globes and TVs create light energy from electrical energy
o Washing machines create kinetic energy from electrical energy
In the industry:
o Mainly turning electrical energy into kinetic energy for drills and other machinery
o Light energy in large industrial lights from electrical energy
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