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Rocks can deform through three main components: rotation, displacement, and distortion. Deformation occurs due to stress, which is a force acting on an object. There are two main types of deformation - ductile and brittle. Ductile deformation causes rocks to fold or bend in a non-permanent way, while brittle deformation causes rocks to fracture in a permanent way. Folds, faults, joints, and other landforms result from rock deformation due to compressional and tensional stresses.
Rocks can deform through three main components: rotation, displacement, and distortion. Deformation occurs due to stress, which is a force acting on an object. There are two main types of deformation - ductile and brittle. Ductile deformation causes rocks to fold or bend in a non-permanent way, while brittle deformation causes rocks to fracture in a permanent way. Folds, faults, joints, and other landforms result from rock deformation due to compressional and tensional stresses.
Rocks can deform through three main components: rotation, displacement, and distortion. Deformation occurs due to stress, which is a force acting on an object. There are two main types of deformation - ductile and brittle. Ductile deformation causes rocks to fold or bend in a non-permanent way, while brittle deformation causes rocks to fracture in a permanent way. Folds, faults, joints, and other landforms result from rock deformation due to compressional and tensional stresses.
Components of Deformation: folds (from few inches to hundreds of 1. Rotation kilometers across) 2. Displacement 3. Distortion Parts of a Fold • Axial plane STRESS vs STRAIN • the imaginary surface that divides a fold as symmetrically Stress = Force acting on an object as possible, one limb on each 1. Uniform stress (Confining Stress) – side. equal in all directions • Fold axis 2. Differential stress – has dominant stress direction/s • the line made by the length- a. Compressional wise intersection of the axial b. Tensional plane with beds in the fold c. Shear • Limbs • correspond to the two sides of Strain = Measure of deformation as a result an anticline or syncline of stress Landforms Elastic deformation = non-permanent • Anticline – oldest at center, upfolding change in volume or shape. • Syncline – downfolding, youngest at Elastic Limit = point beyond which the center solid suffers permanent deformation. • Recumbent Fold – has horizontal fold Ductile/Plastic deformation = axis irreversible, permanent change in volume or shape; beyond the elastic • Dome – center uplift, youngest at limit; the rock will bend or fold side and oldest at center Fracture/Brittle deformation = • Basin - center sinking; youngest at permanent strain where the rock center and oldest at sides. breaks or fractures BRITTLE DEFORMATION Factors that affect the deformational break in rock mass in which sections on behavior of rocks: each side of the break DO NOT move 1. Temperature relative to each other. May be site of fluid 2. Pressure migration or ore deposition (and veining). 3. Deformation Rate Results into FRACTURES 4. Composition Two types of Fractures Measuring deformation in rocks: Joint – no discernable movement • Strike is the azimuth (degrees east of Fault – with discernable movement north) of the line formed by the intersection of a layer interface or Types of Joints bedding plane with the horizontal • Primary joint- A joint that forms as a • Dip is the angle between the layer result of non-tectonic stresses interface or bedding plane and the • Columnar jointing horizontal measured perpendicular • Unloading jointing to the strike direction • Bedding joint • Tectonic joint- A joint that forms by tectonic stresses. DUCTILE DEFORMATION • Foliation joint Compressional stress may cause rocks to be deformed into a series of wrinkles or Types of Faults • Strike-slip o Left-lateral (Sinistral) – when looking at the a block while standing on the other, apparent sense of movement is to the left. o Right-lateral (Dextral) - when looking at the a block while standing on the other, apparent sense of movement is to the right • Dip-slip o Normal Fault – Hanging wall moves down, footwall moves up § Listric Faults – fault surface flattens downward. Downward- steeping are known as antilistric. o Reverse Fault – Hanging wall moves up, footwall moves down § Thrust Fault – same sense of movement as revese fault, but with relatively lower angles (<30 degrees) Horst and Graben – Upthrown and downthrown block, respectively, found in a spreading system • Oblique-slip o Combination of strike-slip and dip-slip movement in one fault
BLIND FAULTS - Do not break the
surface of the earth (rocks above the fault have behaved in ductile fashion and folded over the tip of the fault)
How to recognize a fault:
1. Displaced linear features 2. Fault Scarps 3. Fault Breccia 4. Striations on surface of Fault plane