Study on functional literacy programmes for agricultural and rural development in Ethiopia Zelleke W. Meskel October 2000 CTA Working Document Number 8020This study was commissioned by the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) in 1998. CTA’s working document series consists of material that, in view of its immediate relevance and practical utility to specific readerships, the Centre wishes to make available without the delays inherent in the formal publication process. These working documents have not yet undergone technical editing by CTA and should be cited accordingly. Comments on matters of substance are welcome, and should be addressed directly 10 CTA.Contents List of figures and tables ‘Summary 1 Introduction 11 Ethiopia —Counury profile 1.2 Features of the Ethiopian education system Research methodology 21 Case study requirements 22 Data collection 2.3 Organisation of the report Literature review 3 Functional literacy and development 3.2 The concept of development 33. The role of functional ineracy for development 34 Operational framework for functional adult literacy 3.5. Review of the current edvcation and training policy of Ethiopia 3.6 Review of the agricultural sector development policies and strategies of Ethiopia 3.7 Review of agricultural and rural development extension approaches in Ethiopia. 3.8 Appraisal of the extension programme 3.9 Review of farmers’ traning in Echiopia 3.10 Organisations operating functional literacy programmes 3.1L Review of farmer methods in developing countries Data analysis, 4.1 Organisations operating functional literacy programmes 4.2 Organisational mission statements Page vy u 4 14 6 15 15 16 18 2 2B 6 7 2 29 33. 33 343 44 45 46 47 48 49 410 4a 42 413 44 415 Training programmes managed by sample institutions Beneficiaries and level of operation Sources of resources ‘Human resources, Impact of training programmes Problems encountered Analysis of data: Beneficiaries Content and time allotment Medium of instruction Relevance Learners! participation Usefulness of the programme Impact of programme 5 Findings, recommendations and conclusions Ba 32 Annexes Summary of findings Recommendations for furure action Basie data on Ethiopia Basic data on four regions in Ethiopia Table showing the questions used to guide the interviewer during interviews Questionnaire 1 Questionnaire 2 Sampling Surveys in Ambaric Bibliography ‘Acronyms and abbreviations 35 38 38 38 39 40 40, 40 43 43 5 a7 st 51 52 7 58 a 75 7 102 105List of tables ‘Table 2.1: Number of responses received from the four regions ‘Table 3.1: Farmers’ training centres, location and capacity ‘Table 4.1: Sample institutions considered in the study Table 4.2: Training programmes offered by the institutions and their duration Table 4.3: Use of teaching aids by sample institutions Table 4.4: Programme content and time allotnent Table 4.5: Health education and time allocation Table 4.6 Number of respondents who got skis training Table 47: Language of instruction Table 4.8: Programme area and content relevancy Table 4.9: Paricipation of leamers ‘Table 4.10: Areas of importance ‘Table 4.11: Summary of the impact of the programme on participants Page 3 28 4 36 7 al 2 42 43 44 45 46 a7riod litera progres for arin arial deo Ethiopie Summary Ethiopia ranks as sub-Sahara’s second most populous country, with an estimated 58.4 milion inhabitants in mid-1998. Tr is a landlocked country in eastern Africa and has a Jong frontier with Somalia near the hom of Africa. Eritrea lies to the north, Sudan in the west, Djibouti to the northeast and Keaya in the south. Ethiopia is also home to many nationalities, with different cultures and languages. Currently, the country is divided inte 11 regions; nine regions along ethnic lines and two are urban regions (Addis Ababa City and Dire Dawa City Administration Councils) ‘The economy is dominated by agriculture, accounting for $7% of GDP in 1994. The agricultural sector also contributed 90% of the exports and employed almost 90% of the economically active population. Peasant farmers carry out most of the agricultural activity. Land degradation as a result of deforestation, soil erosion and recurrent drought conditions is a major environmental concem and poses a setious threat to agriculearal productivity. ‘The industrial sector is still in its infancy, although Ethiopia is rich in mineral deposits and precious metals, The mining sector is still small and underdeveloped. Basic infrastructure and social services are inadequate. The road transportation. network, which is used by the majority of the population and industry to transport more than 90% (1994) of the freight, isin a poor state, The country has the lowest road density in the world, Most of the population is vulnerable to rampant and fatal diseases as well as malnutrition. In 1994, the nation-wide health service coverage was below 46%, with wide differences between rural and urban areas. ‘The Bthiopian educational system can be viewed historically in terms of six time periods, each having distinct characteristics and challenges of its own. Hlowever, the impact of education in the area of agricultural and rural development has not been comprehensively assessed and documented. Recent research has shown that basic education is a key factor in a country’s development and that investment in basic education yields high economic and social gains in developing countries. It is within this context that the Technical Centre for Agriculeural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) initiated and facilitated this national study in Ethiopia and similar ones in other East and West African countries. This study examines the way in which functional literacy programmes in Ethiopia have influenced agricultural and rural development a5 well as changed the lives of Ethiopian farmers. A combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches was used to obtain data for the study. Guidelines for interviewing individuals and focus groups were developed. ‘There ‘was also a review of the relevant literature. Users and non-users of the functional literacy programmes which included, professionals and officials at central, regional, zonal, wereda (districts) and community levels, wereSwreney approached as potential sources of data. Four regions out of nine were considered in the stratified selection of study sample sites. These were Ambara, Oromia, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples (SNNPs) and Benishangul-Gumuz, Information from the beneficiaries and institutions was mainly obtained from questionnaires. In addition to this, formal and informal interviews guided by a set of well-structured and previously prepared questions were undertaken, These interviews/discussions proved useful in obtaining critical information that would otherwise not have been obtained through the collection of mere quantitative daca. Th data collected from the sample groups were then used to determine the relati between functional literacy programmes and the quality of life of the beneficiaries as well as the impact the training programmes had in promoting the development of rural areas, Findings of the study Both government and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) carty out functional literacy programmes in Ethiopia. Most of the beneficiaries tend to be farmers living in rural Ethiopia, ‘¢ The mandates for all institutions were similar in navure, that is, the provision of basic education and training aimed at: promoting agriculture and rural developments developing human resources; and capacity building in rural areas of Ethiopia. * The sources of resources for most of the sample institutions included the goverment budget, foreign aid, revenue from the organisation, and community contributions, * The duration of training programmes varied according to the needs of the participants. © The allocation of human resources needs to be improved in terms of the mix between administration and functional literacy project staff. For example, out of all the institutions which responded, 18% of their total staff worked on the promotion of the functional literacy programme. Many of the project professionals also lacked the relevant training and qualifications, © The impact of functional literacy programmes on agricultural and rural development was determined using established monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. The instinutes sampled showed that their programmes had a positive impact on the lives of the beneficiaries in general, evidenced by the manner in which they subsequently did business.Faxon fey for epyodd ane rraldenkprae Esha * Constraints faced by institutions included the shortage of financial resources and facilities. Consequently, local contributions and participation have been found to be very important. + Beneficiaries of functional literacy programmes indicated that they acquired reading, and computation skills better than writing skills + Another component of the fanctional Literacy programmes is the introduction of agriculture (raral) development extension techniques, however, there is little mention of the use of appropriate technology in the field of agriculture. ‘The programmes in the health sector have been quite successful especially in the area of basic hygiene and basic awareness of personal and environmental health There was less emphasis on skills training programmes in certain centres, when compared with the focus being given to agriculture and health. ‘+ The time allotment for programmes needs to be improved so that the beneficiaries can get the necessary time to acquire both the knowledge and che skills required. * The language of instruction used in most of the institutions is Ambaric. Local languages are, however, used in some cases. Programmes in agricultural and rural development and health were considered to be very useful and in-demand by most of the participants. © Leamers' patticipation in the selection of course content and involvement in the decisions-making process appears to be less than what it ought to be, whereas line ministries play a major role in the decision-making process. Recommendations for future action * Development programmes focusing on run community development should become more integrated into the community. Literacy programmes could be used as a platform to resolve local issues and differences whenever they arise. © Functional literacy programme should focus on basic learning needs and problem solving capacity building so as to foster the participation of the beneficiaries. © Agricultural and rural development extension packages should reinforce the role of functional literacy as an indispensable factor in promoting sustainable development. © The content of functional literacy programmes should be based on the practical needs of the rural community in terms of agriculture, animal husbandry, health environmental protection, skills training, reading, waiting, numeracy, handicrafts, hides and skins, fishery, wild life, etc. ‘+ There should be joint conferences, studies, budgeting, experience sharing and evaluation or assessment of the impact of literacy programmes by all of the development organisations.+ Strong partnerships should be established among the various development organisations so that their operations can become even more effective and have a wider impact. ¢ Functional literacy and skill training efforts of different development organisations should be strongly supported at the policy level. © Based on the findings outlined earlier, it is very importane that the national regional governments of Ethiopia develop an appropriate policy framework in which acceptable strategies can be put in place to further increase the scope and spread of functional adult literacy programmes in their zespective national regional states, given the positive impact they have in promoting rural development.Binal teary pregraree fer egrcasnd ad rr eclgrvonnEchipia Introduction 14 Ethiopia - Country profile Ethiopia is sub-Sahara's second most populous country, with some 584 million inhabitams in mid-1998 and a total area of 1,127,127 sq, km. As such, in terms of population size, Ethiopia ranks fifteenth with Fgypt, France, Italy, Thailand and the UK among the over 200 countries in the world. The country has a long and rich history, however, it is just about the poorest in the world, impoverished by recent civil wars and economic mismanagement, In 1994, its per capita GNP was US$100, not much more than one-fifth of the average per capita GNP of US$460 in sub-Sahara. Ethiopia's per capita GNP exceeded only two other countries, Rwanda and Mozambique (WDR, 1996). Ethiopia has some of the most acute social problems in the world, Some of these social problems are linked to deficiencies in the health and education systems. Ethiopia shares international boundaries with Djibouti and Somalia in the east, Kenya in the south, the Sudan in the west and Eritrea in the north. The climate is tropical monsoon with wide topographic-induced variation. ‘The Ethiopian terrain is characterised by high plateaux with a central mountain range divided by the Great Rift Valley. The elevation varies from -125 metres (m) in the eastern part of the country (Denakil) to Ras Dashen Mountain in the north which rises to a height of 4,620m. Ethiopia is said to be the home of many nationalities with different cultures and Tanguages. Currently, the country is divided into eleven regions based mostly along ethnic lines. ‘The total labour force of the country constitutes about 48% of the population. The country has an abundance of labour supply, arable land and natural resources. However, much of its potential is not yet exploited. To start with, out of 60% of its landmass, which is known to have a potential for agricultural development, only 15% is said to have been developed. Although the contribution of the livestoci sector to the national economy is very limited, Ethiopia has the largest livestock in Africa, There are considerable mineral resources, much of which have yet to be exploited. Some of these resources are: gold, platinum, marble, tantalum, copper, potash, soda ash, zinc, nickel, iron and natural gas. The dualistic nature the Ethiopian economy mirrors a sharp contrast between the indigenous subsistence rural economy and the modern exchange sector, Apart from the techtiological gap that exists between the two sectors, which has led to a significant productivity differential, the inter-sectoral linkage in terms of the transfer of resources remains weak. From the outset, the Ethiopian economy has been dominated by peasant agriculture, Ia fact, the agricultural sector contributes about 57% to the total gross domestic product (GDP) and accounts for approximately 90% of exports and total employment. ‘The country is largely dependent on a single crop, coffee, which generates nearly 60% of itsforeign exchange earings. The main environmental concern is land degradation, consequent on soil erosion, deforestation and recurrent drought conditions, ‘The manufacturing sector is still in is infancy, The country’s industrial base is very low and the share of the intermediate and capital goods industry is insignificant. ‘The industrial sector is heavily dependent on imports of semi-processed goods, raw materials, spare-parts and fuel. The sector also depends on the subsistence agricultural sectar for some raw materials, The manufacturing sector, which includes the small-scale and handicraft sub-sectors, contributes about 11% to GDP and accounts for 15% of total exports, Furthermore, the sector is responsible for 3% of total employment. Industries producing consumer goods account for more than half of the manufacturing sector's ouput. Ethiopia's export consists mainly of primary products, especially coffee, pulses, oilseeds, live animals, sugar and molasses, meat, fruits and vegetables and gold. Ethiopia's major imports constitute raw materials, semi-finished goods (mainly chemicals, fertilisers, textile materials and others), fuel, capital goods, as well durable and non-durable consumer goods. Although Ethiopia is rich in mineral deposits and precious metals, the mining sector is small and underdeveloped, contributing about 2% to GDP. The lack of capital investment in the production process has been the major constraint to the exploration and exploitation of many of the country’s mineral resources, The country is endowed with a variety of renewable and non-renewable energy resources. However, energy consumption in the country is amongst the lowest in the world, Per capita energy consumption is below average consumption in sub-Sahara. More than hall the rural energy requirement is derived from wood, and it is this demand for wood that has contributed significantly to deforestation. Modern transport in Ethiopia is dominated by road transport, accounting for more than 90% of freight and passenger transport in 1994, The coumzy has the lowest road density network in the world. Only about 20% of the highway network is paved, with few interconnecting links between adjacent regions. "The feeder-road network system is grossly insufficient. As a consequence, large parts of the country remain isolated and dependent entirely on packs of animals or human carriers for transport. Most of the limited and relatively large manufacturing industries, financial institutions, state farms, air transport and other strategic firms are owned and run by the public sector. Many sections of the Ethiopian population are exposed to rampant and fatal diseases as well as malnutrition. Nation-wide health service coverage in 1994 was below 46%, with wide disparities between rural and urban areas, varying from region to region. Twelve per cent of the population has access to safe drinking water and 26% of the population, has access to proper sanitation facilities. The under-five mortality rate is 159/1000, amongst the highest in the world. Family planning coverage reaches a mere 2% and only 16% of the pregnant women register for antenatal care while less than 2% of all deliveries are attended to by trained health professionals. Life expectancy is 49 years.Peociona litoacy pregame for ard ardrral dap in Eshop 1.2 Features of the Ethiopian education system Prior to the demise of the Socialist government in 1991, the Ethiopian educational system could be studied in terms of six distinct historical periods, each having its own unique characteristics and challenges. Since the introduction of Christianity to Ethiopia around 400 A.D, there has been long tradition of religious education in the nation that remained quite influential for quite a long period of time, up until the nineteenth century. In those days, the Church and the Mosque were the seats of learning. Furthermore, during the early part of the nineteenth cenmuty, there was a high demand by Empcror Menilik Il for individuals with a capacity vo manage the various institutions dealing with international affairs. ‘The emperor subsequently introduced a secular education system and opened a school and an education department in 1908 and 1909 respectively. Prior to this, in 1906, he issued a proclamation to encourage and assist the promotion of basic education using the non-formal approach. ‘This effort became more successful, particularly, when Emperor Haile Selassie I opened another modern school in the capital in 1925 and introduced the Education Tax Act in 1926. The efforts of Haile Selassie, however, were destroyed between 1936-1941, during the Italian occupation, which affected Ethiopian development in a qumber of ways. In the history of Ethiopian education, this particular period is known as ‘the Dark Age’ where no progress was made in terms of educational development. As has been noted above, while there has been a long tradition of education in Ethiopia, the real growth of modern education is considered to have begun in 1941; following the end of the Italian occupation and the retura of Emperor Hhaile Selassie to power. Starting from a small elite base, primary school enrolment increased from about 19,000 in 1943 to 90,000 in 1955. By 1962, the number of primary school students had grown to 125,000, 33% of whom were female. Middle school enrolment was 327,000 (20% female), secondary school enrolment was 9,400 (15% female) and tertiary "education enrolment was 968 (5% female). There were also efforts made towards the promotion of basic education in the non-formal approach, but with no significant result. Despite continued growth in enrolment rates, the actual number of children attending school represented a small fraction of the eligible population. In other words, the school system was unable to cope with the actual eligible school age student population, By 1973/74, the gross enrolment rate (GER) at the primary level was 16%, 4% at the secondary level, and less than 1% at the tertiary level. Furthermore, during this period, access to schooling was limited primarily to the more urban areas and the more densely populated provinces. Thus, in 1971, 35% of primary school age children in Addis Ababa were enrolled while the comparable figure in Hararge Region was only 6%. Participation rates of girls remained relatively low, ranging from 32% at the primary level to 8% at the tertiary level. Following the 1974 socialist revolution, mass education through formal schooling and national adult literacy campaigns became the priority concem of the Ethiopian government, This led to an immense growth in enrolment, almost 3 milion students were added to education system over the next 15 years. The literacy rate, which had a record of about 70%, was not without its problems and challenges. Expenditure onExpect: education as a percentage of the national budger fell from 17% wo 9.5%. Thus, overall enrolment rose by 376% in absolute terms while real expenditure increased by only 43% (USAID, 1992). During the latter half of the 1980s, the Socialist government's preoccupation with the civil war and economic crisis led to a drastic decline in enrolment, equity and quality at all levels of the education system. The Ministry of Education estimates that GER at the primary level fell from 35% in 1987/88 to 22% in 1991/92 (World Bank, 1993). Since the establishment of the Transitional Government of Ethiopia in 1991, investment in basic education has been considered as critical to the development of strong human resource base, necessary for economic growth, the efficient use of resources, and sustained economic development, During the last six to seven years, Bthiopia's education and training system has undergone fundamental changes. Cognisant of the fact that the Ethiopian education system has had serious problems in terms of decreased demand and low community support, due mainly to: © economic constraints such as the opportunity costs of child labour and school costs in relation to family income; *thelack of employment opportunities; © curriculum that is unresponsive to the needs of the mujority of children and their communities: * over-zealously applied school language policy; and * the overall poor quality of the school environment; the Government of Ethiopia has committed itself to addressing the situation. ‘There are now encouraging signs of positive change. National plans for overhauling the system which indude a bold move towards a genuine system of decentralising management, financial planning and other responsibilities as well as the development of regionally relevant instructional design reform, have been matched by a growing number of reports in the upsurge of primary enrolment. Community-level actions to foster initiatives and involvement in local-development issues in general and school-based issues in particular have also increased. Jn laying out its strategies for reforming the education sector in Ethiopia, the government issued its New Education and ‘Training Policy (NETP) in Apni 1994. Several key policy strategies have been pursued in an attempt to improve the conditions mentioned earlier. Although significant achievements have been made in the area of literacy during the last two decades, basic education is still out of the reach of the majority of Ethiopians. Enrolment of school-age children in primary, secondary and tertiary education is onlyuct liter progearars for grata andra coe nEcopia 39.3%, 45% and 15.9% respectively. The participation rate of gitls at primary and secondary levels is low compared with that of boys. indicates that one of the major factors responsible was the highly management system. In an effort to redress this, the decentralisation of educational management and administration away from the central to the regional levels has been underway. A careful study of the problems associated with the education system in Ethiopia centralised Recent research has shown that basic education is a key factor in a country’s development and that investment in basic education yields high social and economic gains in developing countries. As part of the government's effort to promote basic education, the non-formal education is being considered as an essential supplement and support to the formal education, Ethiopia has had considerable experience in managing a wide range of non-formal education and training programmes. ‘The present study has attempted to examine some of the achievements and records that the country has attained through its adult functional literacy programmes with particular emphasis on rural development. ‘This paper, therefore, examines the experience of Ethiopia in the area of adult functional lnteracy within the coutert of rural development, The decentralised management system is a new development in the Ethiopian setting, and although i is assumed that its implementation bas had a positive impact, there may also be challenges to be faced. Nevertheless, it is hoped that decentralising management will bring about favourable conditions so that the decision-making bodies can have deeper insights into the educational problems facing their locality and react accordingly. It is anticipated that both the participation of the community and professionals in the ‘management of Adult Functional Literacy programmes will create an environment where learning centres (schools) will be strongly linked to community life. In so doing, the learning centres and their curricula will be developed along lines responsive to the local needs and requirements. Purther, itis expected that the schools will act as centres for all of the educational activities of the commianity. Democratisation of education is mainly characterised by sttong participation of communities and the promotion of women's role in the development process. Thus, as. democracy is built into the deceatralisation process, a framework favouring the culture of democracy in the community should also develop. Moreover, participation of the community in planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating educational activities promotes the individual creative process, facilitates the internal coherence of the system and sustainability of the programme, The author strongly believes that the Ethiopian experience in implementing adult functional literacy programmes within the rural contest provides valuable lessons for other developing countries in similar situations.extn lie progr fir gral eel rd ded in Edi 2 Research methodology 2.1 Case study requirements “The very nature and scope of this country case study demanded that a combination of research techniques be used. As part of the research strategy, both qualitative and ‘quantitative methods were used so as to determine the impact of functional adult literacy programmes in agricultural and rural development in the lives of the Ethiopian farmers. Consequently, data were collected from users and non-users of the training programmes including: professionals and officials at central, regional, zonal, wereda (district) and community levels, Collecting information from the relevant sample groups at each level of the educational agricultural and societal system provides the advantage of being able to examine the relationship becween the programmes and the life of the beneficiaries as wel as. the impact of the training programmes in rural development. In addition to this, it also helps in the assessment of the Ethiopian experience in using functional literacy to empower people so that they can promote development and make a better life for themselves. Research instruments Qualitative and quantitative instruments were used to obtain the necessary data for the study. The type of instruments used were: © Questionnaires to survey institutions and individual beneficiaries; Interview guide (for individuals); Interview guide (for focus groups), and # Document analysis, Information from beneficiaries and training institutions A questionnaire was developed to collect data on how different functional literacy programmes were conducted to assist farmers to improve their productivity and increase environmental awareness. The questionnaire covered topics on training content, relevancy, type of training and duration, management issues and the impact of the taining received. To supplement the information collected, individual leamers, professionals and officials were asked to provide information through formal and Informal interviews/discussions guided by a set of pre-prepared relevant questions set out in the interview guides, This was an important strategy which helped to elicit critical information (.e. providing 2 better understanding of the contest of the training programms) that would not otherwise have been obtained through the questionnaire. In addition to this, institutions were requested to give a profile their programmes. ulResaovh nda) Focus group interviews Another strategy employed was to hold a set of group interviews that focused on a number of issues. Focus group interview is a method that clicits open discussion among, the participants on a particular topic with the possibility of exploring points of convergence and conflict in the participants’ opinions. ‘The interview also allowed for the flexibility to probe underlying reasons related to patticular opinions in a way that other surveys did not. Te also provides a means for participants to suggest solutions to problems encountered in the functional adult literacy programmes and at the training centres. In general, the methodology employed, enabled the investigator to take advantage of a number of complementary research techniques that were carried out sometimes concurrently, in a relatively short period of time, Approaching professionals and other resource persons, in several ways, enabled the investigator to analyse both the general trends and specific issues in a more holistic way. Selection of research sites This study looks at Ethiopia as a nation. Out of the nine regions, four (40%) were considered for the present case study. The regions were selected using the stratified sampling technique. The stratification was based on the size of population, stage of agriculture sector development and size of the regions, which would ultimately give the overall stage of development of the regions. Four regions are considered to be relatively better developed and four other regions are generally considered backward. The three other regions, Addis Ababa, Dire Dewa and Harari are considered to be urban regions. Since the study was more concerned with functional literacy in the rural context, urban regions were excluded from the survey. The so-called backward regions have limited non-formal training activities, therefore, a major part of this study was dependent on the data collected from three regions which are relatively better developed and from one of the backward regions. “The following were the sample regions: ‘© Amhara Region; ‘Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR); and © Benishangul-Gumuz. From each of the above sample regions, at least two weredas were used as sources of information, A total of 120 questionnaires were distributed to randomly selected functional literacy leamers in twelve weredas from eight zones of three randomby selected regions. One hundred and five questionnaires were collected; out of which eightFania Hira progaransfor eral nl ral deere Epa elicited no response and four others were incomplete. As a result, only 93 questionnaires could be used and 15 were lost, Another 30 questionnaires were distributed to institutions that provide functional literacy programmes. Only 19 completed questionnaires were received. Of the remaining dleven, four were incomplete and there was no response for the remaining seven. ‘The number of individual professionals and beneficiaries considered as sample respondents for this case study are shown in the following table. ‘Table 2.1 : Number of responses received from the four regions Region SNNP Oromia Benshangual Gumuz ‘Amhara 30/23 (3 2 y2fsye fi si y- Total 20793 [8 [4 [i ]aofao [7 [4 5 D- distributed, RC - received completed, NR - 20 response, I - incomplete, L - lost. ‘Wereda level research sites were determined by a random selection of two weredas in each zonal research site. The main criterion was that for the wereda to be considered, it has to be at least easily accessible and not more than 40 km away from main roads and/or a zonal town, Zonal sites were selected based on their proximity to Farmers ‘Training Centres and the availability of transportation for easy access to training centres. This limitation of the study was accepted for many reasons. There was very limited time given to the investigator to collect the data and to prepare the report. Further, there were also limited financial resources.Rescousmtdeley 2.2. Data collection ‘The research team comprised seven people, a principal investigator, three research assistants, and sixteen enumerators, Planning, implementation and overall supervision were undertaken by the principal investigator assisted by the thrve assistant investigators. Sixteen enumerators, four from each sample region, were hired for data collection. Each of the numerators was responsible for data collection in each wereda in their respective regions, The enumerators were trained and were advised to administer the questionnaire to beneficiaries and institutions as well as to conduct interviews with professionals and to hold one focus group interview in each sample wereds. Enumerators collected data from professionals and officials using a structured questionnaire. The whole data collection was completed in 15 days. 2.3 Organisation of the report This report is has five chapters. Chapter 1 is the Introduction. The second chapter presents the methodology used in gathering data for the study. This is followed by literature review in chapter 3. An analysis of the data is presented in chapter 4 and a summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations is given in chapter 5.Fees litera prgrarores for erin ad vara koran Eshop 3 Literature review ‘This chapter analyses and reviews various research documents in the field of functional literacy, particularly within the rural development context, 3.1 Functional literacy and development. So as to examine the role of functional literacy in terms of empowering adult learners in rural areas and promoting agricultural and rural development within communities, it is first necessary to define the concepts of development and functional literacy as they relate to this study. These concepts, depending on the social contexts, have their own dynamism. It may be observed that the main ideas and coacepts of each generation is a reflection of the main problem of that particular generation (VV, September 1989 No. 33-56), "Thus, it seems very important that the concepts of both development and functional literacy should be explained from the outset. Expounding on these concepts is expected to explain the philosophical origins, perspectives and the roles they can play in terms of achieving the intended objectives of the contributions of functional literacy in promoting agricultural and rural development. 3.2 The concept of development According to writers such as West Moser (1993: 75-76), Rogers (1992: 82-85), and Bhola (1990:299), development is a process of change for the betterment of life. This is however, a juxtaposed profile of the concept. When viewed analytically, Moser in the same writing explains development as an empowerment process, According to Sara Longue (1992-45), empowerment has five aspects of equality which are welfare, access, conscientiousness, participation and control. Empowerment, thus, is the cultivation of the mind of leamers which makes them conscious citizens who can enquire about things and can apply what they have leant. The empowering function equips learners with the necessary learning skills and awareness creation. 'This according to Bhola is the view of the process in the functional literacy system thinking (1990:55). Functional literacy system thinking is the cultivation of the mind, which can be analysed using four parameters — input, process, context and output. ‘The input tells us what the system is living on. The process explains the dynamics of the system, The context is the rotality of the situation where the teaching-learning processes take place to empower the leamer population. ‘The Gayanayakes define the concept of empowerment as going beyond participation. ‘They say that empowerment implies enabling people to understand the reality of their environment, and take steps to affect changes to improve the situation. That process involves people deciding where they are now, where they want to go and developing and implementing plans to reach their goals, based on self-reliance and the sharing of power.Litanturerecies ‘Most importantly, empowerment helps people to liberate themselves from mental and physical dependence. In essence, it is the ability to stand independently, think progressively, plan and implement changes systematically and accept the outcomes rationally (1993:6). The other aspect of the concept of development is change. Bhola (1990:299) states that development is a continuous process that leads to greater production of wealth in society. Bhola further elaborates that along with the attainment of greater production, the just and equitable distribution of such wealth followed by the consumption of education and culture programmes is part of the development process. Development then is expected to ‘cause’ change. Effecting change becomes healthy and acceptable if it is initiated from within, According to Slim (1955:143) in Kassahun Assefa, development cannot be imported and planted. He advocates that it should originate from the developmental needs of the beneficiasies and communities and such locally based development programmes can succeed and initiate all zound change in the learner as well as in the community system, Functional literacy skills, which are outputs of the functional literacy system, are used as inputs in the community system. These skills and changes in artrude are the elements the community system is living on. In the community system, the inputs interact in such a way (the process) as to facilitate the required development. In its totality, development is the production and distribution of knowledge and competence (1Z/DVV, July 1997:189), and the betterment of peoples’ living conditions through planned change, moving towards the intended goal (Kassahun Assefa, 1997:9). Hence, for the development of both human potential and economic growth, functional lkteracy plays a major facilitating role. 3.3 The role of functional literacy for development To promote development and effect change in the lives of people, various input elements are required. Many writers in the field of education claim that education is one of the instruments of change. Prior to the seventies, the general public, the civil society including scholars believed that knowledge obtained from the formal education system had the potential and capability to accelerate development. However, the ‘murky’ problems inherent in the formal education system lead to a change in general thought. The use of the non-formal educational system to promote functional literacy” in particular, bas received greater atention because of its flexibility in ime, place, curriculum and content, and methodology and seems to be better accepted as an instrument of development. Functional literacy is highly related to effectiveness at work. According to Messcle Delelegn (1997:2-3) functional adukt literacy (FAL) is a process of correlating development purposes with educational programmes and inputs. It is not merely a literacy programme. According to the UNESCO Conference of Tehran of 1965, functional literacy is strongly linked to the economic function. This is due mainly to the 16Bicol lay pregearmesfor srs nea deceprartn Eshopia psychology of adults at work. Where the teaching of specific skills as well as economic skills are integrated, the learners experience the two teachings as one learning (Bhola, 1994:32), This operational definition was later made to include awareness. Economic skills still remain central to the concept of functional adult literacy and the emphasis on economic functionality is important, because economic rewards are more motivating to aduks than other possible motivations. Thus adults will be more easily attracted to functional literacy classes than to literacy classes that do not teach economic skills. ‘The functional literacy concept according to Bhola is more than mere economic «kills. t hhas come to have three elements: literacy, functionality and awareness. The Eteracy component focuses on the skills of reading and writing. ‘The acceptable level is decided in each programme. The functionality component deals with economic skills. Economic skulls are taught within the context of income generation schemes so that the learners are able to eam some money. The awareness component creates a change of attitude and awareness among learners with respect to their social cultural and politcal life. Tt is a mixture of cultural and civic literacy. As a consequence, according to Meselle Delelegn, FAL is relevant, meaningful and has practical utliy. It is functional because it aims at: + internalising knowledge, * promoting understanding; + imparting agricultural know-how and farming skills; changing attitudes; and ‘* motivating one to find solutions for problems encountered, It is a means of developing the total personality of those who are illiterate, Hence, FAL is a method of training and educating illiterate adukts for development purposes, literacy skills come only asa part of developing their general skills by increasing their communication skills (Bhola, 1994). FAL is different from traditional literacy, which aims at imparting sufficient proficiency in reading, writing and arithmetic and creates access to the written word, The traditional literacy programme is generally standardised and laid down on a centralised basis (Melesse Delellegn, 1997:1-2). (On the contrary, FAL is planned at the local level, and has the following as its major goals: + tohelp the socio-economic and socio-cultural development of the community; © to prepare individuals and communities to pantcipate in development activities and in the life of the local environment;Literate rai: * to promote knowledge and change in attitude which will enable those who are ilterate to perform efficiently all the functions that they need. According to Paulo Freire, the methodology applied to empower the leamers to lear specific and economic skills, integrated, oral communication is preferred to written communication. Dialogue is the key methodology. Learners are encouraged to discuss in groups. To create the right mood, soliciting leamers is done through brainstorming. Learners are also encouraged to consolidate what they have learnt through questions and answers, exposing them to demonstrations, media, role-plays and through the participation ia the analysis of case studies. Learners are also encouraged to genuinely involve and participate in problem identification, the planning and implementation of tasks. Participation is central in the FAL programme area, According to Melesse Delelegn, participation is eritical. Hence through the vehicle of participation FAL empowers learners to help them develop new attitudes, values and practices towards education in particular and development in general (Melesse Delelega, 1997:11-12). In the course of its implementation, FAL not only increases the technical capacity for the new literate persons, but also their openness to innovation (IIZ/DVV/39:125-149). FAL often targets the most active and productive sections of the populations of communities who are outside of any kind of school system and aims at fulfilling thei improvement goals. Based on the learning needs, FAL also provides education and training in the diverse areas of muttition, family life education, skill training, agri extension, environmental protection, literacy, income generation, women's education. 3.4 Operational framework for functional adult literacy In the conventional method, literacy is related to being ‘literate’, the ability to read and write, FAL is related to effectiveness at work. With experience and lack of correlation of literacy to development, the desire for universal literacy has come into question (Head, and Negash, 1976:25). Lowe, in Head and Negash explains that developing countries then were forced to make hard choice ‘to decide just how many people to educate and for what purpose’. ‘The discussion according to Head, involved political, economic and human considerations. Politically, having a few literate persons in every community is more effective than their concentration in a few urban centres of agricultural districts. The human viewpoint of the disposal of a small cadre of literate persons among the population as a whole would make them more useful to their fellow citizens. Economic considerations suggest that the best value is to apply the leverage of literacy selectivity at points where it can have an immediate effect on productivity. ‘This describes the work-oriented approach to literacy adopted by UNESCO during the mid-1960s in the wake of disillusionment about the failure of more ambitious projects aimed at universal literacy. As a report on Ethiopia's UNESCO sponsored literacy Project put it, ‘the earlier approach of a social and humanitarian character...even though noble, had to be changed to meet more specific objectives' (WOALP, 1972:1), A wide- ranging review of Ethiopia's educational system undertaken with assistance from thears teeny progres for grr and eal dele in Ethiopi World Bank pointed out that literacy training invested in the very young, means delayed economic retums. At the other extreme, investment in mature people means short- range-returns. As a consequence, the review recommended concentrating literacy efforts on the 20 to 24 age group (MEFA, 1972:AP, IV-C-1,1). A report on Ethiopia's work- oriented project quotes with approval, a summary by a British Educator: ‘the new UNESCO is imensive rather than extensive, selective rather than diffusive, work-oriented rather than culturally oriented. It emphasises functional rather than rudimentary literacy, continuous adult education fusing into genuine vocational instruction rather than once and for all teaching the three R’s'. Blaug, in Head and Negash, regards literacy programmes as a first step in the creation of qualified ‘manpower, as investment rather than consumption. ‘The programme demands a great deal of horizontal integration of national resources which is always difficul in bureaucratic structures, but even more so in developing ones, ‘The programmes which concentrated more on adult participants and agricultural communities did not live up to their objectives, During the now defunct socialist regime, FAL programmes were initiated in 1974 through Rural Community Technology Centres, called Community Skills ‘Training Centres (CSTC3). ‘Though the need to provide focal points for adult education programmes to meet skill training needs had been recognised much earlier, the Community Training Programme in Ethiopia was initiated in 1975/76. Before the Derg Regime, there had been discussions about the possibilities of providing non-formal skills tuaining even for priests in the Orthodox Church’ (MOE, 1981:1). The Education Sector Review of 1971/72 came up with proposals for what was known as ‘Community Practices’. Later on, these plans were converted into what is known as the CSTCs Programme which was designed to reach rural people all over the country. By 1987, about 408 CSTCs were established. Out of these, only 121 CSTCs were active. Nevertheless, one should understand that CSTCs grew out of the experience of the ‘Work-Orienved Adult Literacy Project’ or what is generally known as ‘Functional Literacy’. CSTCs were established to serve as focal points for various development activities in the rural areas. Since they were closely located to the rural communities, the major beneficiaries, they were expected to gear their training programmes to the needs of the communities andl the peasant associations they were intended to serve, ‘The overall objective of the CSTC programme was to provide the rural population with knowledge, skills and attitudes needed for effective participation in the economic, social, political and cultural development of the country (MOE, 1982:2). The programme was thus part of the national effort being made to create a knowledgeable and skilled sociery whose members were motivated to continue learning as well as applying the new knowledge, skills and attitudes in their daily life and work. More specifically the CSTCs ‘were established to: * raise the level of indigenous skills and introduce new knowledge; and ‘© skills for the development of rural communities,Literapow review # help self-employment and community development work, * introduce basic technologies appropriate for peoples’ needs and conditions; and * provide community and family living knowledge and skills. The First World Bank Credit Funds for implementing the programme were provided under IDA 3 and 4, Later the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) and UNICEF also. provided funds. The magnitude of the problems encountered and the successes attained by these establishments, varied from one centre to another. The identification of the factors for such disparities still remains a strong research question. A number of evaluative research undertakings revealed that alongside the achievements, the CSTCs encountered several problems. A study team established by the Ministry of Education in 1982 made a critical assessment of the CSIC programme. The team considered such aspects as objectives, content, organisation, instructional language, teaching materials, and selection criteria. Another study by Albinson (1987), entitled ‘A survey of Community Skills Training Centres’, tried t0 identify some of the major problems faced by the CSICs, and suggested certain solutions. Albinson’s primary objective was to obtain correct information on the educational operation of the CSTCs, He assessed 35 CSTCS in the former four regions, Wello, Keffa, Hararghe, and Shewa, In collecting the data, field visits and interviews were used. ‘The following were some of the problems of CSTCs identified by Albinson (1987:48): ‘no means of transportation; poor employment conditions for instructors; shortage of tools; no assistant coordinator; shortage of raw materials; no drinking water on the compounds no in-service training for coordinators; shortage of teaching materials; no generator nor electric power supply of any sort; incomplete buildings. Similarly other studies have evaluated the status of the CSTCs in various “Weredas’ of Ethiopia (MOE, 1988, Albinson, 1988, Albinson et al, 1985, Yousuf, et al, 1988, Magnusson, 1990, Moges 1993, Gebremichael, 1994, Alemayehu, 1994). Having appreciated the efforts made by the CSTCs in rural development in general, all surveys indicated that a number of constraints necded to be solved so that the centres could realise their basic objectives. Almost all the reports recommend the improvement of training for coordinators, provision of adequate finance, provision of other resources like raw materials and better selection criteria for admitting trainees to the centres (Tassew, 1995:11-14) . 20util Hear progres for agra ra kegs Esp. In order to reactivate the CSTCs, therefore, along with the new social, economic and political philosophy of development, a fresh look is required and the regions and. localities are working towards this, At the lower level, close to farmer homestead, Basic Development Education Centres (BDECS) were established to actualise the objectives of improving the lives of farmers and community development through the implementation of FAL programmes. BDECs were multipurpose, grassroots level centres where the actual implementation of the various training activities could he realised, They were establishments where the rauliplier effect of the trainees from the CS1Cs were initiated. ‘They were established in some locality’s where farmer cooperatives were identified as strong. By the end of 1990, there were about 360 BDECs established all over the country. Training was the major way in which knowledge and information in the area of agriculture, skills and awareness creation was disseminated. Coupled with this empowering process, relevant tools with some seed-money was provided by SIDA and UNICEF. The centres have, however, become non-functional as most of the cooperatives no longer exist (Tassew, 1995:11-18). The top-down approach was used in planning, organising and implementing programmes, and this was a kind of at the most ‘with imposition. 3.5 Review of the current education and training policy of Ethiopia Since 1994, following the fall of the Derg Regime, a new education and training policy has been issued. The newly formulated policy emphasises the need to develop a problem-solving capacity culture. Ic is also important to maintain the integrity between education, training research and development through coordinated participation among the relevant organisations. In general, the new education and training, policy envisages raising citizens endowed with counuy-wide responsibilty, who are productive, creative and have the capacity to paticipate fruitfully in the development and utilisation of resources and. the environment. In the general objectives of the new education and training policy, are geared at raising : citizens who can take care of and utilise resources wisely, who are trained in various skills, by raising the private and social benefits of education; ¢ citizens who differentiate harmful practices from useful ones, who seek and stand for and show positive attitudes towards the development and dissemination of science and technology in society; and * citizens ho are cognitive, creative, productive and appreciative of the ongoing dynamics of their situation by relating education to their environment and their societal needs, a4Literoweravice Ik is believed that this will enable the society not only to become literate but also functionally iterate in the struggle for a better life. 3.6 Review of the agricultural sector's development policies and strategies of Ethiopi As Stephanos Qgbasellasie, (1995) explained, ‘policy’ is reflected as stare intervention in the economy, whereas ‘policies’ refer to the specific types of intervention further down the planning process. In the case of agriculture, typical objectives are faster growth of agricultural output, reduction of rural poverty, more efficient marketing, more stable prices of agricultural products, more equitable rural land distribution and more attractive land tenure system. Stephanos Qgbascllasie, (1995) in the ‘Agricultural sector development policies and strategies in Ethiopia’, specifically indicated that a faisly conventional approach to the formulation of agricultural policies in developing countries is that which focuses on the relationship of policy to the inputs and outputs of the farm systems; and thus aims at influencing the inpuss, ourputs and technology of farm house- hold production. The major constraints impeding sustainable agricultural growth and development as Stephanos Q. (1995) sees it, are: «Resource and environmental constraints including water resources management. * Socio-economic constraints, including risk and uncertainty. * Technological constraimts including: crop production; fish production; ete. + Institutional constraints e.g. one development agent serves 2,520 households or nine peasant associations, that is three times the number of what (he is supposed to handle, # Incentive and policy constraints. Stephanos Qgbasellasie (1995) in the ‘Review of Agricultural Sector Development Policies and strategies in Ethiopia’ during the period of 1975-1991 noted that the Ethiopian economy started to open its door to the rest of the world soon after the end of the World War II. This situation according to Stephanos, created an export-led development which grew considerably over the subsequent years. In the early 1960s, agriculture in Ethiopia contributed 65% of the GDP, while industrial and service sectors accounted for 12% and 23% of the GDP respectively. ‘The exportled economy gradually shifted its course towards, import-substiruting industries, thus, leading to fundamental changes in the economic development strategy. 22utd licray progerme er eprodoou nd nal depot Ethie “This required further control and restrictions on foreign trade, giving rise to reduction in foreign exchange earnings. ‘The review of agricultural sector development policies and strategies in Ethiopia for the period 1975-1991) indicated that the sharp drop in exports which occurred in the late 1970s continued well into the 1990s. ‘The import substitution strategy, which replaced the export-led development strategy proved to be incapable of bringing about any remarkable economic growth. It was on the basis of this assessment of the various factors and conditions of economic development and the various aspects that would affect the economic situation as a whole, that a new economic policy and strategy for Ethiopia, was formulated during the period of 1991-1993, The main thrust of the new economic development strategy was to bring about a structural transformation in the productivity of peasant agriculture and streamline and reconstruct the manufacturing sector to make extensive use of the country’s natural and human resources. This newly formulated economic development strategy was referred to as Agricultural. Developmentled Industrialisation, which was the core of the agricultural development policy and strategy. This policy does not however, currently exist independently as a document. According to Habtemariam (1997) the extension approach in Ethiopia in the new agricultural implied policy is based on participatory demonstration and training extension system. ‘The main objective of the new agricultural extension system is aitned at: * faster production and productivit © better crop and animal production in rural areas; * fostering participation in development; © the production of rawr materials for the industrial sector (for export); * environmental protection and development; * enable rural women to use improved technologies and eventually do away with traditional burdens; and take part in development programme activities. 3.7 Review of agricultural and rural development extension approaches in Ethiopia Ethiopia is well endowed with nawural resources that favour agricultural and rural development, however, this has not brought about continued economic development ot integrated rural development per se. Development interventions did not have an impact on the rural areas of Ethiopia until end of the fist half of this century. 23According to Habtemarim (1997) the use extension packages in Ethiopia as interventions to promote development in rural areas with the specific aim of improving the life of the people, was introduced after the first half of the 20th century. Since then, various intervention programmes have been implemented, however, they have not significantly changed the lives of the rural folk in general, farming methods and productivity, in particular. A few changes were observed when artificial fertiliser and the use of improved seeds and animals were introduced. Nevertheless, productivity per unit area did not significantly improve over the traditional production system. Only recently, promising results have been attained with the introduction of technology packages through the Sasakawa Global 2000 projects and its successor, the National Extension Intervention Programme (NEIP) of the Ethiopian government. Habtemariam (1997) comments, that although this programme was very successful from the outset, it hhas not yet been promoted in most parts of the country. Further, there ate some differences of understanding among the various actors involved in its implementation at the field level. However, a National Extension System Participatory Demonstration and ‘Training Extension System (PADETES) has been designed under this framework and is being implemented. Adapting a suitable approach for each target category such as varied ecological zones or various socio-economic groupings is the primary task of an extension organisation trying to promote agricultural technologies. The organisation needs to target local needs and focus on qualitative rather than quantitative objectives such as emphasis on the importance of empowering the society through organisation, instead of emphasis on achieving higher per capita income or GDP. During the last ten to fifteen years, promotional efforts were concentrated on human resource development (IRD) and gave emphasis to organising and strengthening peasant associations, service cooperatives and producer cooperatives. Presently, the extension package programme seems to focus more on the transfer of technology (TOT), and putting less emphasis on farmer otganisations. However, the advancement in technology promotion is hampered by the lack of farmer organisations in raral areas, further burdening the extension service. Case t The Sasakawa Global 2000 Extension Approach SG-2000 is based on a focused and systematic approach of interventions, which are central to the project. The major elements of SG-2000 extension model include: * realistic size demonstration plots (half a hectare); © information alone cannot provide a sufficient basis for adaptation. Provision of ‘menses (inputs) along with the required information and skills is necessary; © farmers being financially self-reliant; 24ct icy pogparens for apn aa an detent n Ena + participation to invegrate the best into the local system; + hands-on training - training grassroots level extension agents, supervisors, and Subject Matter Specialists (SMS) are some among many of the elements of the model. Training is conducted on practical and actual field operations supplemented by field days, travelling workshops and study tours, + research-extension linkage ~ joint definition of extension packages, joint evaluation of programmes, joint field visits and review meetings have all made the linkage between research and extension a reality rather than a theory as depicted by most of the literature that deal with the subject. Case 2: The National Extension Package Programme Elements of the National Extension Package include: ‘+ technical package - technological components of the package; © credit, method of communication - one of the strong clements of the extension package programme is its communication method. Farmer managed commercial size demonstration plots are indeed a very powerful communication medium; * the extension worker plays a facilitating role in the management of the plots; + the farmer is responsible for the establishment and management of the extension plots; © availability; + technology can be technically feasible, economically payable, and socially acceptable. In the former training and visiting programmes, availability was the missing element in the package and as a result, the extension effores were restricted only to transferring information and hence, was called ‘talk and vanish’ extension system. ‘The following is a practical case adopted from Habtemariam (1997; p17) to substantiate the explanation given with regard to the importance of availability as an element of any promotional effort. In 1994, the Southern Region Agricultural Bureau was running a field day around Awassa. An elder put forward the following remark after being invited to deliver a speech on the occasion, "When the development agent (DA) came to our village to nominate ten EMTP farmers for his plan of the season, we did not want to disappoint him by rejecting his invitation; there was no volunteer farmer and thus, we chose ten victims. We also promised to compensate them on what they may lose in trying the package. It was later that we realised who were the losers. We were - not them. And now 25Litter all of us wanted to join the programme. But, Iam afraid that the same story may happen to this village. It was the same along time ago when vaccinators visited our village; we hid our healthy cattle and gave them the sick ones, which we had already accepted would die, This was a test. When the vaccinators passed the test, we wanted all our eattle to be vaccinated; they did not come back. So now we are afraid that the DA might not be ready to satisfy the village as a whole. He may not have enough inputs for all of us, We beg you to be prepared in such respects. 3.8 Appraisal of the extension programme In 1997, a technical team from the Ministry of Agriculture, conducted an overall appraisal of the ongoing extension programme in Ethiopia. The team inchided in the sampling of the appraisal: a third of the zones in a region; 2 Weredas (districts) from selected zones; 2 Development centres from selected Weredas; and 4 beneficiary and also 4 non-beneficiary households from selected development centres. The appraisal focused on elements of the extension package such as technical package extension communication, farmer's awareness, about extension programme, and observed behavioural changes as well as required improvements, ete, With regard to extension communication, the appraisal report indicated that the following were idemtified as ways of information dissemination among farmers: * Copy-farmets —- a non-beneficiary farmer learns from the beneficiary farmer. © Farmers to farmers extension — Convinced farmers enlighten their fellow farmers or supplement the DAs efforts © Training ~ short-term, timely and programme related training at different levels, farmers perception (cognisance) of the extension programme, is encouraging. Ninety-five per cent of the farmers were convinced that extension was rmuch better than the traditional practice. Five per cent of the farmers interviewed stil believed the turnout would be less than the traditional practice. Seventy-eight per cent of the farmers have tried the extension programme once (in 1997) and 22% of them have tried twice since 1996, Forty-eight per cent of the interviewed farmers estimate that the productivity of demonstration block is better than the traditional and 42% of them estimate productivity to be more than two-fold, and 10% of them could not estimate Recommended extension communication ‘Demonstrate not too many but a few quality demonstration models. 26Panatnad lovey pregirores fr nln ard nel dedogmet in Ebiogin * The extension package should inchide environmental protection and natural resource development. © Land size to be improved so that about 29% of the farmers who were not beneficiaries as a result of their limited (less than 1/2 a hectare) land size can join the group of beneficiaries, * Training in media techniques. ‘+ Training in farm implements. © Training in selected or improved seeds, * Training in crop protection, etc. * Availability of technology packages. 3.9 Review of farmers' training in Ethiopia So as to cater to all the training needs of peasants, 12 farmers’ training centres with a total intake of about 800 farmers at any one time have been established, The farmers! training centres are located in different regions of the country. These farmers training centres have been centrally coordinated by the ‘Training Service Deparment of Ministry of Agriculture and ezch training centre was fairly well-scaffed with a head and instructors in specific areas of training. In view of the rural population and their needs in various rural development fields, it was obvious that these training centres and programmes were inadequate. In 1979/80 a total of about 5,000 farmers were able to participate in short-term training programmes conducted in these training centres. The duration of the training programmes ranged between 10-20 days. The areas covered in the training programmes ‘were dependent upon the major problems of the region: © plant production and provection; ‘animal disease control, + bookkeeping, principles and management of cooperatives, etc. Due to the ever-growing demands of farmers for training as well as the need to raise the agricultural output, large scale multi-disciplinary training programmes in well equipped training centres were recommend in the early 1980s. The firs: Farmers Multi-purpose Training Centre (FMPTC) was established at Agarfa Bale in Oromia Region. Its main objective was the quick transfer of technology to the rural population and raise the quality of agriculture production, the living conditions of the rural community as well as that of the country as a whole. This farmers training adLiterate raw centre is one among the anticipated five FMPTCs to be established in various Administrative Zones of the country. 'The FMPTC at Agarfa has the capacity to train 2,000 farmers at a time. ‘Table 3.1: Parmers' training centres, location and capacity Training centres Tocation Capacity Remak 1. Bako ‘Oromia’ Shewa i Z Aloe ‘Oramia/Shews e 3. Beko Oramia/ Ast @ % Asda7Anda Drama Ait 100 ‘Currendly not in place 3. Reaibolcha ‘Arahara/wello 36 © Shambo Gromia/walega % 7 Neo ‘Oromia Wellege Ey Sedo Wade SNNPAidamo % 9. Arba Minch SNNP/Gomogola % 15. Seleka Tent ug Ti, Wereta ‘Aukara/Goader 30 1 Bure ‘Anthara/Gojam 30 70 According to the programme and time allotment indicated in the project document of Agrafa FMPTC, (1980), literacy was given 19.6% of the total training time; and it was the maximum time allotment. ‘The Agarfa FMPTC was established to play a key role in disseminating modern technology to the rural Ethiopia, and improve the traditional system and farm implements; and change cultural, economic and political aspects in rural Ethiopia. Proposed areas of training included: © Basic education. ‘Agricultural and cooperative,Fol iy progres for erin ou red deers Eshirg © Building construction. ‘+ Handicraft and cottage industries, + Health and home economics. Since March 1983, all of the proposed areas of training, have been put into practice ‘except building construction and handicraft and coage industries. ‘The training courses were organised as:- + Agriculture and natural resource development. ‘+ Cooperative management and accounting. ‘Livestock development and dairy products. ‘+ Health and home economics. 3.10 Organisations operating functional literacy programmes + Action Aid, AA, © Adventist Development and Relief Agency, A.A. + Agtiservice Ethiopia, A.A. Christian Children’s Fund, A.A. * Canadian Physicians for Aid and Relief Ethiopia ¢ Joint Operation Ethiopia-Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus Lutheran * Ethiopian Environmental NGO + Environmental Development Action-Ethiopia + Environmental Protection Authority Government «| Farm Africa, and many others 3.11 Review of farmer training methods in developing countries It is obvious that all training methods are based on common principles. However, taining methods differ from one place to another and over time. Some methods may be theory-oriented and others may be practice-oriented. The classical methods of individual contact and the one-to-one relationship is still widely used. However, this method does 29Litratioe rie not reach the vast majority of small agricultural producers, and is thus less effective and efficient to meet the learning needs of the target group. It is on this basis that group approaches have been innovated and practically developed. ‘The following highlights some of the training approaches in agricukural and rural development programmes in developing countries. Correspondence ~ for adults who work in agriculture and for young people who are also preparing to work in agriculture, + Demonstration - On a demonstration plot which can be used for both methods and result demonstrations. + Residential - Serve small-scale farmers in areas of medium to high potential, with corresponding population densities. * Mobil units - More suitable method of training in low rainfall regions and semi-arid and arid areas where the population is scattered and there is poor communication and seasonal migration. © Farmer visits - More effectively involves the farmer in learning through exchange of experience. * Communication ~ The use of modern communication. * Technologies - Using various technologies in rural training is a recent development. For example, producing films which focused on local people and the content and use of the films approved by the people participating in them. © Farmer trainers ~ Farmer taining is undertaken by model farmers and group leaders. ‘Two basic assumptions are central to this method: Neither short courses nor increased extension, activities will suffice. The aim of the training is not just to impart knowledge and skills in one-shot intensive taining courses, but to involve rural people in the development activities through a contiauous process of learning week after week. Training farmer representatives facilitates the adoption of improved skills at the village level. Straight lines communication are established through weekly visits to farmer delegates who deal directly with the departmental experts and, in turn, carry instructions or supplies back to their groups. Farmer cooperatives serve as a vehicle for training and extension activities. + Research projects. «Extension centres. © Mass education campaigns. © Work-study teams.“uta tray prvi fer grinded ard mend elapre Eigia * Group farming, ‘+ Pilot villages and communes. 3artillery prams for sgrindoral ctrl declare in Ebi 4 Data analysis This chapter is concerned with the presentation and analysis of data. It is divided into two sections. The first section examines the way in which institutes and organisations conduct functional literacy and adult education programmes pertaining to rural and agricultural development. Section two is concerned with analysing’ data on the beneficiaries. 4.1 Organisations operating functional literacy programmes Jn Ethiopia, a number of government instinstions and NGOs have been involved in providing functional literacy and adult education programmes. Amongst the various government instiutions, the majority of the training centres are under the auspices of the “Ministry of Education followed by the Ministry of Agriculture. NGOs that provide adult education programmes are either development or religion based. For the purposes of this study, however, those training centres that fall under the Ministry of Agriculture are given more attention. Out of the 18 government institutions, 11 are agriculture related training centres (rgérto ‘Table 4.1. below). The 21 sample institutions were selected from three regions: 11 from Oromiya, 5 from Amhara and 5 from SNNPR. As depicted in Table 4.1, 21 instivutions and organisations were surveyed in terms of the missions of the organisations, their main organisational goals, programme packages, beneficiaries, resources allocation, problems encountered, and achievements. 4.2 Organisational mission statements The survey found that out of the 21 organisations surveyed, those training centres which fell under the Ministry of Agriculture, had training programmes specific to farming and other agriculture related education in addition to the general functional literacy programmes. On the other hand, training centres under the Ministry of Education provided training programmes in different areas, ranging from basic literacy to diversified skill training programmes, Moreover, organisations other than those under the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Education considered literacy and functional adult education just 2s one of their development programmes. 33Daca anabit Table 4.1: Sample institutions considered in the study SNo._| Instiuions “Type of insttions Locaton/region Government] NGO 1. __ | Dodola Wereds Agnouture Office x Crone 2 | Holeta Wereda Agioultare Office x Croniya 3. | Adiba Wereda— x Cromiva + | Baso and Wereda ° ¥ Snare 5. | Debre Birhan Zonal Agreulvure Office x “Arihara 6} Agyala Multipurpose Training Centre x ‘Cromiya 7.__| Agata Wereda Agreilvare Office x Cromiya | Baso & Wereda Eduestion Office x “Amhara 9. | Rembolcha Farmers” Training Centre ¥ “Amhara 10. | Holeca Agriculture Research Centre ¥ Oromia TL | Welmera Com. Sills Trng, Centre ¥ Oromia 12 | Chrisian Children Fond x ‘Amara 13, | Compassion Poor Children Education ¥ ‘Oromia 14,1 Adama Wereda Agriaihive Office x ‘Oromiva 15] Adama Weredh Bihcation Office ¥ ‘Oromiya 16. | Agata Wereda Adult Training Centre x Oromia T7__ | Chachi Community Skills Trg, Centre x SNAPR Ts | Varga Chee Sls Teng, Contre x SNNER 19,__| Wderanch Skills Teng, Comore * SNNPR 30 | BAL Basic Development Canire ¥ SNINPR Ti | Awasa Wereda Agrauliure Office x SANDER Total sample lasitutions 8 3 BT a4retinal tery prograrons for syindoas and ral degre n Ebi The responses obtained from the 21 organisations surveyed with respect to the mandate of their organisations were similar in nature and have been sunamarised below: + Facilitating and coordinating efforts of the rural community for better agricultural and rural development. * Provision of need-based training and agriculture extension services for rural community. ‘+ Supporting farmers through capacity building to enhance agricultural development. © Assisting farmers to realise self-sufficiency in food crops; through increased production and productivity. «Provision of basic education through a variety of non-formal programmes. © Conducting action research and training in agricultural development. © Skills training to foster production and productivity. In general, the mission statements of the sample institutes can be re-summarised as ‘Providing training to rural communities to improve the quality of life in the rural setting’. Most of the training programmes provide exposure to innovative farming technologies and better agricultural inputs, According to the institutions, the training programmes have targeted the following areas: + Provision of basic education skills-writing, reading and basic computation. © Greation of awareness among the rural community about basic health services, and techniques aimed at improving the means of production, ete. Training in improved farming. © Different skills training such as weaving, metal work, carpentry, and poetry. * Training in animal husbandry, home economics, natural resources conservation, ittigation, and proper land use and soil conservation. 4.3 Training programmes managed by sample institutions Table 4.2 shows some of the specific taining programmes offered by the sample institutions and the duration of the programmes. 35Table 4.2: Training programmes offered by the institutions and their duration Type of programme ‘Duration “Environmental provection ~ Every 6 months or 3 months, a required Fishery novation Every 3 months, as roqured, Tyear ~ Animal husbandey and hed Every3 months, as roquired. 1 year ~ Crop production and protection = Every 3 months, months, as required. yer ~ Facilitating setled rural ie ~ As required. Farmertraining ~8 days; 6 months + Trasning of trainers TB days + Homtialture ~Tmoaths; months T Beginners heeragy ~ Fmnonths “Post ireracy —F monks ~ Bee keeping for Farmers ~A months ~ Handicraft ~The ~ Health Education 7S months ~ Geneial agriodiure “3 months = Extension techniques ~ Every 3 months, as required, ~ Basic education (ueraqyy ~Fxonthi, J months - Child protection aad rekablleation TS years "Wocationdl raing = inonihs| ‘As shown in Table 4.2, the duration of the various training programmes ranges from 8 days to about 3 years. It has to be understood, however, that such kinds of non-formal taining programmes are conducted as and when they are required and for any acceptable lengeh of time. Hence, a training programme can even be for a shorter period than eight days. In addition to the training programmes depicted in Table 4.2, the sample institutions have been conducting short-term training for trainers, their staff and other relevant target groups. For the training programmes, the languages of instruction are 36Barta itevaryprorares for graded ada clots n Ethie either local or national working languages. While all the sample institutions raised the problem of shortage of instructional materials, the content and organisation of these materials were found to be very relevant to the nceds of the beneficiaries. The institutions claimed that the materials were relevant to local needs, because they: are related to agricultural and rural development programme activities, are based on adult earning needs; consider learning experiences and real life of participants, and ate based on uraining aveds assessment results, As a means and support to effective teaching and leaming processes, training centres guide their training programmes by using teachers? guides, lesson plans, and other relevant publications, Moreover, chalk and chalkboards, mobile letters, environmental conditions, various types of plants, slide films are used as teaching aids as required and when available. A survey of the use of materials by the sample institutions is summarised in Table 4.3 below. Table 4.3: Use of teaching aids by sample institutions Teaching aids No. of sample institutions out of21 | Total sample % Textbook uF % Posters z B Brochaes 3 7 Notice Boards z cy Cassctes z 76 Fins 2 16 Newspapers 7 3 Mobile Teters B oy Environmental condiions 8 & ‘Various types of plants icy ee Chak ie % Teacher’ guide 3 B Lt Po 7As can be seen from Table 4.3, most of the institution sampled (85%) use local conditions or materials to facilitate training. Cassettes, films and brochures are seldom used, Some training centres have also claimed that they have documentation centres ‘where their clients can read and study. The topics covered by materials available in those reading rooms include agriculture, human health, environmental conservation, handicraft, wildlife, navural resources and materials for reading, writing and simple computations. In general, most of the training programmes are conducted during weekends, evening times or early mornings. 4.4 Beneficiaries and level of operation As indicated earlier, the majority of the beneficiaries of the sample institutions are farmers living in rural Ethiopia. Nonetheless, some of the organisations cater also to urban dwellers. The majority of the beneficiary group is from 20 to 35 years old. Most of the sample institutions (13) operate at the Wereda level. Seven organisations operate at the local level and one organisation claims to have a national programme. 4.5 Sources of resources Most of the sample institutions use many sources to get their resources for operations and programme implementation. The following are the major sources of resources for the institutions. * Government budget; © Foreign aid; + Revenue from the organisations; * Participants’ contributions; and. © Community contribution. While the government institutions mainly depend on government budget and local contributions, NGOs rely on foreign aid and community participant contributions. In both cases, local contribution and participation have been found to be very important for resource generation as wel as for the sustainability of the development programmes. Most of the sample institutions indicated that out of the total budget, only 20 to 25% vwas used for overhead/administration and management whereas 75 to 80% of the annual budget was allocated for programme activities. 38oat literary progres oregano deka Eig 4.6 Human resources (manpower) A quick appraisal of the available human resource base of the sample institutions indicates that they have fairly adequate staff for their programmes. The mix between administrative and project staff however, needs to be improved. Among the groups of project staff many of the professionals lack appropriate training and qualification. Out of the total number of employees in the sample institutions only about 18% of the staff work in the functional literacy and adult education programmes. In view of the demand for an integrated approach for training in rural Ethiopia, institutions may want to put emphasis on the adult educnion component of their organisation through increased budget and human resource allocation. Alll institutions claimed that they made a strong effort to establish an. integrated programme involving literacy programmes and agricultural and rural development programmes, Collaboration among the different organisations with a similar organisational mandate is also being encouraged. 4.7 Impact of training programmes in the eyes of the training institutes Sample institutions were asked to report on the impact of their work on the life of their clients and how they tracked the results of their interventions, All of the sample institutions reported that they have established monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to track results of their activities. The mechanisms for collecting data, monitoring and evaluating their effect on programmes include field visits and observation; assessing attitudinal changes through discussions; comparing the performance of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of functional literacy programmes; frequent evaluation meetings using the participatory approach; identifying tangible farmers’ behavioural changes; focus group discussions; and the assessment of supplies of farm products at the market, Institutions reported that they strictly evaluated their training programmes both in terms of their internal and external validity. The focus of evaluation of programmes has been on: © General organisational setup ¢ Implementation strategy © Availability of facilities + Training methodologies © Leamers' participation rave © Cost-effectiveness 39Data anshsis © Relevance © Acceptability ‘+ Ecological maintenance and the like Generally, it was found that all the interventions of the sample institutes had a positive impact on the life of their clients in general, and on the way their clients did business, in particular. According to the sample institutions, those farmers who participated in any of the programmes put on by the training organisations showed a greater awareness of their environment and themselves than those who did not participate. This will be further claborated on in the section dealing with data gathered from beneficiaries. 4.8 Problems encountered by training institutes ‘A number of problems were reported by the sample institutes, which require serious attention if further intervention is to be a success. A major problem raised by all institutions, was the shortage of resources (both financial and actual facilities) "This was more serious in government organisations than in NGOs. It was also reported that coordination between different levels of management, for example, between regional, zonal, wereda and local levels was usually weak. Some training centres mentioned problems related to learning methods, evaluation methods, lack or shortage of teaching materials, duration of training, logistics, etc. They emphasised that those areas lacked adequate policy support, which directly affected decisions on resource allocation. 4.9 Analysis of data: Beneficiaries The functional literacy programmes in Ethiopia provide skills in reading, waiting and basic computation. Seventy per cent of the responses of the programme beneficiaries indicated that the time given to all three aspects was the same, however, the respondents were more comfortable with their skills in reading (68%) and basic computation (66%) than writing (63%). From the responses of the participants in the functional literacy programme, it can be concluded that the programme has increased the skills of the rural population in reading, ‘writing and basic arithmetic, skills that can be used in their daily activities. 4.10 Content and time allotment ‘The content of the programme seems to focus mainly on the economic and social development needs of the immediate beneficiaries. Since the country’s developmental strategy is to promote agricultural and industrial development, the focus is on rural 40Barca beac prone grr cond re deepen in Etopia development, with special emphasis on agriculture, health and basic skis. The functional literacy programme seems to be designed to foster this development strategy as well as provide basic skills, knowledge and attitudes required for better life and increased production. ‘Table 4.4: Programme content and time allotment S.No] Progamme Respondents Time Allorment content Toal % | High Tow No. % No. % 1 Better land use 79 85 74 79 4 a 2 ‘Better use of 76 82 61 65 7 35 improved seeds 3 ‘Animal farm 4 79 3 68 cc 32 Banwiseof | 4 a [o_o pe pao improved farm implements 3. Preparation of W a 5 ose oT improved farm implements As indicated in Table 4.4, the content of literacy classes on rural development or agticulture is classified into five major areas. According to the respondents the first three categories were strongly focused on the programme: * Better land use (85% of responses) ‘Better use of improved seeds (82% of responses) «Animal farm (79% of responses) Similarly the respondents indicated that the time allowed for these areas was higher, than the remaining two, Moreover, the table indicates that the time allowed to the preparation of improved farm implements was at least 9%, while the time allowed for the better use of improved farm implements stood at 20%. Jn both cases, time on task influenced the acquisition of the knowledge and skills provided in the functional literacy programme. 41Table 4.5: Health education and time allocation S.No. | Content areas Respondents Time dlotment ‘High Low ‘Total Cy No. of ‘% No. of % Range Range T Basic hygiene 0 71 | 56 oo | 40 z, Family planning [58 a |e 3 7 3. Basic health 63 68 61 66 2 B education 4. Child vaccinzion [59 63 Ese 33 62 66 Table 4.5 indicates that, out of the four areas treated under health education, basic hygiene (71%) and basic health education (68%) were rated the highest. Family planning (62%) and child vaccination (62%) were rated a bit lower. This corresponds with the lime allotted to each content area, except for family planning and basic health education, which respondents rated highly, thus reversing their position in the first case. Just like in agriculture, the time or task has an impact on the acquisition of the required knowledge and skills. Table 4.6: Number of respondents who got skills training S.No. Content areas No.of % respondents Campentry z Weaving 8 40% 3. Pottery % 38% 4 Tron smith 3 25% Table 4.6 shows skils training is not widely given as agriculture and health education, as roughly a little more than one third of the respondents (40%) indicated that they 42sir terry progres for gyn ard rare decor Echiogi received any skils training, Out of the four areas of skills training provided through the programme, ironsmith seems to be the area where the least attention was given. Here again the perception of respondents is that skills leamed corresponded with the allotted time given to the subject area, 4.11 Medium of instruction Table 4.7 indicates that the medium of instruction for the functional literacy programme is mainly given in Amharic (the national working language, 48%) while local languages are also used (27%). Table 47: Language of instruction S.No. Langage Respondents No. ]% ‘Amare B 48 ‘Nationality Tanguages 3B 7 3. Both 3 3.2 412 Relevance The areas covered by the programme were relevant to the daily lives of the respondents. Table 4.6 shows that agriculture was rated highly by 65 (70%) of the respondents, while 10 respondents (11%) rated it as low. Similarly, the respondents accordingly rated some programme arcas as follows: # Better land use methods ~ 775%; * Animal farm- 61%, and; Better use of improved seeds — 50%. 43Datei Table 4.8: Programme area and content relevancy S. | Programme | High “Average Low ] No Answer No. | area No.of No. of No.of Noo! 1% resp. resp. resp. responses % % P % po 1. Agneahure 65 70 | 14 15 | 10 qi |3 32 2. Health 41 44 [31 33,10 di fit 12 3 Skills training [22 23 | 19 20 | 27 29 [22 24 ‘Vhs agri courses tend to be considered as highly relevant to the daily ife of the respondents, with particular emphasis on better Land use methods, animal farm and berter use of improved seeds, ia that order. A similar look at the health sector responses also indicates that 41 (44%) of the respondents rated the programme content as highly relevant to their daily lives, while 31 (33%) said it was average. Ten 10 (11%) of the respondents rated it as low. However, on the whole the programme area seems to be relevant to the population. Moreover, 68% of the responses on basic hygiene, 55% of the responses on family: planning and 57 % of the responses on basic health education considered the course content to be very relevant to the daily life of the population. As indicated in Table 4.6, when it comes to skills training 24% of the respondents rated the progranume content highly, while 29% of the respondents rated it as having very little relevance in their daily lives, Similarly 19% of the respondents gave it ari average rating while 24% gave no response. In this case, it seems that the 20% who rated it as average used the skills in their daily lives, while the 24% who did not respond, did not. Out of the four skills covered in the skills training programme, weaving and pottery were rated as relevant by 45 or 48% of the respondents, From the above data, it can be seen that the skils training programme provided by the functional literacy programme is used by fewer people when compared with people with the agriculture and health programmes, 4.13 Learners’ participation. Table 4.9 shows that 44% of the respondents did not participate in the selection of course content, while 38% of the respondents took part in topic selection. Sixty-five per cent of those who did not participate thought that the topics were selected by the 44Foxton tou pogans fr sgrindd x nec desde in Eoin relevant line ministry, while 22% believed that selection of the topics was carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture. Five per cent of the respondents thought the Ministry of Education played a role in topic selection. ‘Table 4.9: Participation of learners S.No. | Areas of Yes No No. of rexponses Participation No. of ‘No. of resp. resp. % % | No. 1% 1 Selection of the topics | 37 38 AL 44 15 18 2. | Choosing of the date | 46 9 a3 46 4 5 and duration of lesson Similarly 48% of the respondents participated in deciding on which day of the week the sessions should be conducted and for how long, while 46% of the respondents did not. As the result of not participating in the decision, 38% of the respondents fele that the time and day selected was not a problem, while 12% of the respondents felt otherwise. Even though, the participation of the respondents in the programme designing was not significant, programme attendance was not affected, Twenty-nine per cent of the respondents attended the programme regularly and 38% of them attended most of the classes. Therefore, from the above data it follows that participants do take part in the decision- making process, with respect to course content, session time and duration. However, the main decision is taken by the relevant line ministries and the Ministry of Agriculture, in particular and this did not affect the attendance of the learners in any meaningful way. 4.14 Usefulness of the programme Responses to the question, "how do the respondents evaluate the usefulness of the programme’, were as follows: 92% of the respondents answered ~ very useful, and 3% of the respondents feel somewhat comforrable with the programs, while 3% felt that it was not useful at all, ‘Those 95% who felt that they benefited from the programme, indicated which areas they benefited most from: 45‘Table 4.19: Areas of importance SNe] Areas Yes No No.ofresp. | % No.ofrap. | % T Reading sells oS o 3 a z Basic computation @ S 2 2 3. ‘New knawledgein farming | #6 % é 7 4 Tncrease in licome % % B 3B 5. Tmiprovementin family | 67 7 D 2 health % Chillvaccnation w @ B ca As it is indicated in Table 4.10 all the areas of skill provided in the functional literacy programme were useful to the beneficiaries, as the percentage of those who responded that it useful ranged from 60% to 86%. The programme's contribution to new knowledge in agriculture (86%) was the highest, while the contribution to income (56%) and child vaccination (58%) received the lowest responses. Those 3% respondents who felt that the programme was not useful, gave the following reasons: * Those who tried to explain the ‘whys’, said thar some of the programmes were relevant but not organised in a way to empower the rural people, They contisued to say that topics of lessons are detailed, Some topics are difficult to apply since they are not supported and applied with appropriate equipment. © Learning texts are out-of-date and do not fit to the lessons learnt. Out of this very small number of beneficiaries, there are others that said some topics were inelevant to the theme of the usining, despite the fact that they did not mention the topics. Still there is an opinion that prevails which says that FAL has nor been well dissesninated well. On the whole however, the functional literacy programme was considered useful by she participantsPens lira pgraraes for arcs cox rl despre in Eig 4.15 Impact of the programme From the response in Table 4.11 it follows that the number of school age children among the families was 178, out of which 98 were boys and 80 were girls, Out of this school age population only 59 (39 boys and 20 girls) were going to school before the literacy programme. ‘Table 4.11: Summary of the impact of the programme on participants S.No. Wo. oFresponser | Artnude towards child 74 5 education. “Aninde owards wives B 7 VF ¥ Knowledge gained to change [75 a7 ¥ life style. ‘Agnealaual mapracices done | 75 a (8 3 away with ‘Alter the programme, 80% of the respondents claimed that they sent their children and other members of the family for education, Approximately 5% of the respondents had made no change, however, these were people without families or children. ‘Those who claimed to have benefited from the programme were asked if they had done away with any traditional agricultural malpractices as the result of the functional literacy classes. In answer to the question, 81% responded positively, while 9% responded negatively. They said that they had developed an awareness of the value of education and sent their children and other members of their family to school, There are about 10 respondents (14%) who have continued their learning; take members of the family vo health service centres when sick, vaccinate their infants, encourage and participate in environmental maintenance and family planning. Moreover the response they gave in relation to the importance of sending their wives to education, clearly indicates that, the respondents were aware of the importance of educating mothers, as 79% responded positively. a7In rationalising this view, they stated facts relating to effective house management, such as planning, administering and the supervision of activities. These mainly included family planning, the proper up-bringing of children, as well as conscious participation in agriculvural activities, applying newly learned farming techniques to increase production and productivity so as to generate better income for'a beter family ife and through the process of leaning and waining acquire the necessary skills of reading and communication. The response to the question, which asked the beneficiaries if functional literacy programmes helped in improving their livelihood, yielded a positive response from 81% of the respondents, while 2% responded negatively. Those who said that they benefited from the programme stated that what they learned has helped them put their work in a better context. The teaching helped them to be more organised, to start their work by designing a plan with respect to all the implementation stages and processes. What they learned contributed to change in their attitude and eventually lead them to abandon old farming methods and accept new better methods in their place. In the process of implementation, the respondents realised the importance of the dissemination of skills and information. The beneficiaries believed that there are advantages in working in groups and associations, They explained that as a result of the literacy programmes they have started to apply improved farm inputs. Another six (8%) learners explained that they managed to select beter breeds and improve their animal feed. ‘Three (4%) other beneficiaries also responded that they have stared to plant trees to improve the environment in their communities. Some other six (8%) respondents who obtained increases in crop yields and income have started to organise register books to balance the family cash flow. Out of the total beneficiaries, about 70 (79%) have attempted to give the list of smalpractices they have done away and what they have learnt in their place. This is what the study reflects in terms of the impact FAL has made on the lives of the beneficiaries. Out of the total of 70 responses, 44 (47%) explained that they avoided various kinds of undesirable and unacceptable traditional malpractices related to farming, health, and communities, environment. Twenty three (25%) of the beneficiaries explained that they have avoided farming using the old method which accelerated soil erosion; seeding haphazardly, burning pods of soil or ai” burning (gai burning in the traditional thinking. used to be taken to increase soil fertility). Eleven (12%) beneficiaries replied that they have also avoided improper land-use methods and animal rearing in the traditional way. In addition to this, beneficiaries explained that they have: stopped keeping sick animals at home; stopped cutting trees; stopped using unplanned income; stopped the application of farm inputs in the wrong way; and tried to promote environmental maintenance and protection. 48hei! leas progres foreland elope Four beneficiaries (4%) replied that they have changed their outlook, which was the root cause of their malpractices. ‘They also indicated that they have stopped mismanaging their ime. In place of the outmoded outlook and poor farming practices, farmers who participated in FAL developed a better awareness of the environment and changing perspectives. As a result, about 30 (52%) replied that they leamed many new things that could lead to a change for the better and promote development in farming and other activities related to rural development. Out of these thirty respondents, ten (118%) replied that they grasped the disadvantages of throwing seeds haphazardly and instead of sowing seeds in line. They also leamed techniques in animal rearing through artificial insemiation, Nine respondents (9.7%) explained that they leamed when and how to apply pesticides and apply certain principles of agricultural extension programmes, A small group of 7 beneficiaries (8%) mentioned that they leaned the importance of working side by side, earning how to use modern farming implements, how to imrgate and conserve soil and water. They also explained that they had started to give proper attention to the various problems of farming such as weeding timely, farm plots preparation and farming, seeding, harvesting, and winnowing. 9Fonsi literacy progrerenes for apr and nol devo in Echiogin 5 Findings, recommendations and conclusions The study was designed to examine FAL's contribution to agriculeure and rural development in Ethiopia. Tt was to generate relevant and valid information useful to those people at the policy formulating level to better make decisions and to provide a better context in which to promote FAL programmes, Mechanisms on how to promote functional literacy programmes were also to be developed. The respondents surveyed were randomly selected to represent the total population, The sample population included 9% learner beneficiaries and 19 institutions that provide FAL. To conduct the study various data generation methods were applied. Questionnaires, questionnaire type interviews and guiding questions for focus group discussions were employed to generate data. Based on the data generated and the findings, recommendations were forwarded and concluding remarks given. 5.1 Summary of findings * In the functional literacy programme, reading, writing and basic computation skills were given, The respondents felt that they had acquired these basic skills. However, they indicated that their reading and computational skills were better than thei writing skills, © In the agriculture and rural development sector, the programme provides effective sessions on better land-use methods, animal farm management and better use of improved seeds. ‘The respondents seemed less confident in the slils involving the preparation of improved farm implements and the better use of farm equipment, + The functional literacy programmes seem to have made little contribution in introducing appropriate technology in the field of agriculture and roral development. * In the health sector, the programme has been successful in the area of hygiene and basic health education and it also seems to be quite good in influencing people's attitudes towards family planning and child vaccination. ‘+ Skills training appears to be an area where less emphasis is given by functional literacy programmes and is Hmited to certain centres only. + The time alloted to the various areas of leaming directly corresponds with the degree of confidence the respondents felt they had with respect to the skills acquired. ‘Thus the more time they spent on the task (learning) the better they felt that they acquired the required skill, or knowledge. StFindings, nemmonttons coud canis © The main language of instruction was Amharic ~ this seems to be the countrywide working language, however, in some cases local languages were also used. * The topics covered in agricultural and rural development and the health sector seem to be significantly relevant, while skills training seems to be considered less relevant and inadequate. ‘* The learners’ participation in selecting programme content as well as involvement in the decision-making process, on the days and length of sessions seems less than what i ought to be, Rather, the role of the line ministries and the Ministry of Agriculeure in particular seems to be significant. However, this has not hindered participants from acquiring the required skills, knowledge or change of attitudes. * The functional literacy programme sessions seem to be attractive, as most of the respondents attended most of the classes. + The programme is considered to be very useful by the respondents, and they felt that they had benefited from the various programme areas. © The programme made a good impact in the areas of child and family education, improving life practices, at home and in family and child health as well as reducing the use of traditional malpractices in agriculture and health. 5.2 Recommendations for future action ‘Out of a total of 93 targeted respondents, 77 (82.8%) gave their perspectives on the future development of functional adult literacy programmes within Ethiopia, Forty-four respondents (47.3%) discussed the importance FAL in empowering the rural population in ing skills and techniques in the areas of farming, health, and community development. In their opinion FAL primarily helps learners to understand various issues involved in commmunity development. FAL also helps the participants to develop a sense of awareness as well as encourages the leamers to be creative. Some 19 respondents (20.4%) said that FAL plays an important role in promoting economic development. A recommendation was made that FAL should be strengthened and further promoted. Although the number was not significant, a few of the respondents suggested that development agents should be trained and placed in rural communities to consistently support and advise the beneficiaries on how to apply what the learners have learned. Six other respondents (6.4%) recommended that women train as development agents to facilitate the growth of the newly introduced agricultural extension programme, They said that women development agents can help better in the promotion of agriculeare and rural development. They also advised that FAL organise training programmes within communities so that the training would not require women trainees to travel long distances outside of their villages. About three respondents (3.2%) advised that there should be post FAL programmes to complement the training received, so that graduates did not relapse into functional iliteracy. For this purpose, about ten respondents (10.8%) advised that the programme organisers solicit and secure the necessary financial and 52hed leary preerars for graded sd ral delopmone in Epis non-financial support from concerned stakeholders, such as public officials, NGOs and relevant professionals. On the other hand, about seven respondents (7.5%) were dismayed that the FAL programmes dealt more with theory and lacked the practical element and relevance. A recommendation was tade to reorganise FAL along the development agendas of communities. They recommended that FAL should organise flexible programmes in terms of selecting the suitable season, appropriate time, relevant courses of action (curriculum), places (centres), resulting in the correct empowerment of targeted Teamers, beneficiaries and other stakeholders. The instinutions surveyed made the following recommendations, (based on their considerable experience) for the improvement of functional literacy geared towards agricultural and rural development. * Development programmes which promote rural development and target the rural community should be more integrated. The literacy programme can be used as a melting pot for all unnecessary differences. + Functional literacy programmes should focus on basic learning needs and problem solving capacity building to foster the participation of the beneficiaries. * Agricultural and rural development extension packages should reinforce and affirm the role of functional literacy as an indispensable factor in promoting sustainable development. © The content of functional literacy programmes should be based on the practical needs of the rural community, such as animal husbandry, health environmental protection, skills training, reading, writing, numeracy, handicrafts, hides and skins, fishery, wild life et. + There should be joint conferences, studies, budgeting, experience sharing and evaluation or assessment of the impact of literacy programmes by all development organisations. * Functional literacy and skills waining efforts of the different development organisations should be supported by strong policy inputs. * Strong partnerships should be established among vatious development organisations so that they may have a stronger impact and become more effective in promoting functional literacy programmes. Based on the findings outlined earlier, it vory important that the national regional governments of Ethiopia develop an appropriate policy framework in which acceptable strategies can be put in place to further increase the scope and spread of functional liveracy programmes in their respective states, given the positive impact they have in promoting agricultural and rural development. 53AnnexesPanel tery preva fr arian and roc ecloprc Eehiogi Basic data on Ethiopia Area: 1,127,127 kam? Population: 58,400,000 Inhabitants per sq. km: 50 Annual rate of increase of the population: 3.2% (1990-1994) Life expectancy (UN estimate): 4980-1985; 40 yrs (Males:38.4; Females 41.6) 1985-1990: 45.0 yrs (Males:43.4; Females 46.6) 1990-1995: 47.5 yrs (Males:47.5; Females 49.1) Infant mortality rate: 1980-1985: 165 per 1000 1990-1995: 119 per 1000 ‘UNICEF- 1996; 113 per 10000 under age 1 UNICEF- 1997: 177 per 10000 under age 5 Literacy rate (15+): In 1984: 13,533,624 (75%) Males: 67.3% and Females 83.6% In 1995: 19,052,000 (64%) Males $4.5% and Females 74.7% Religion: Chiistians: 85% Muslims:30% Animists: 11% Others: 1% Languages: Ambariniya (32.8%); Oromiya (31.6%); ‘Trgriniya (6.2%); Ghurayhe, Somaliniya; Aderiya; Afariya; and other major languages. A coral of 83 languages. 57Areres Basic data on four regions in Ethiopia 1 The Afar Regional National State Area: 270,000 sq. km Population: € 1,106,383 (626,83 males; 479,544 females) 92% live in the rural areas Urban population: 85,879 Adm. Division: 5 zones, 28 weredas plus 1 special wereda 2 Amhara Regional National State Area: 170,752 sq, kn Population: 13,834,297 Adm, Division: 11 Zones plus special Zone Weredas 106; - 76 KebeUes - 337 city Dwellers Association Kebelles; - 4,980 Farmers Associations, - 85% of the population depends on agriculture. 3 The Benshangul -Gumuz Regional National State Area: 80,000 sq. km Population: 460,459 (230,030 males 227, 446 females) Urban population: 36,027 58uci tery progiar for grinded alr lpr Ethiopia Rural population: 424,432 Adm, Division: 3 zones, 17 weredas plus 2 special weredes (districts) General: -Elevation 500-2500 m-a-s-1; -75% of the region is hot and lowland , WO A. AAR AAR Od. 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CONF PIKT Tor? vy. aa ACT 4, 44 hat acas a, MA eT Aen om, fA AnD end oooo0 oo00AA ate a o CAF hte 21K 3.2.10 PRUCTE LIF e PIS aH a 78 a a A KaeG Q Qa ah, At o a 8, Att hie LIAR 4 POPP FI 41 Par Leh ee £7 SUA 10? | oFk [AF [Pc FRALOF out HISC 42 FORMAT Fash taP LPF ATE FTO? 43 44 45 OCA PE tmPLPF FONT POEL NAA Pt o- tar? ¥ als arR a, 25-30 9 4, 15-20 ao ™, 30-35 9 +. 20-25 a &. 13S Geet nae TOPUPED PUSS A IF AH APO cage PADP “AP” hr LIKATO5. PME cowet-TFPUCTE WMCTT PimC AI 5.1 5.3 5.4 5.5 Newer Tt PUCh oaCt-7CF hing ATMS TACT OC ANder Lvrdters ar oO rar a tMléo- $7Hs. hur PPG? HT ohh MIRAI PAN HAA AFT NLU MARAT: INCEST FAME AIF PRUCT FLAME ATA NCE hur o877 roec tAdLS ATR AAT hurr MPCH LF AL LE% MF hot AT? APIAT U. POH? IFIP A, OF FFT camer? ch, PLAN CBT Amror? oe, NP CT AL ALITae PLEATED FCF eit or... AP [ rare WMICT OLIP PIMc ATE KIS PFE FHAMT TELAT LAF VY PTACTY MES COLE *NVTANLS PAA yor O22 AP rae [J FACT OLIF Faml AT AIS eeThtre1eF Cor hu? Meo PCH AL CFP howe KAT? AP Ol seas FOAdow NMN2o- AL footer? hor AowipP91y AAT hAPTID AP rar « DAAPY MPAA 1A GAD 1.11 tt5.6 PILE cerct->TPUCt AMICTS AIMG ATE T+ Geel AIAV? PF? COLA AANT LAtr SS ee —. $e 6 tha ees WPT 6.1 89999 (265) DATE PPO sa? AP fap vw, PFA Te o QD A, PXdee OPE o a a EMER a o 6.2 FOIMeHT NIRD Lee tee FA? vd. ane a a oasre a Q hy RI? a o 6.30 ITIP FIT FeTHA YO? VB AMPAL ARCHED a a a PhEeC AAT Q g hy PAT OVE PT o 9 oe, CEPUCH HUNTS? a G ~, Peer t? truct Arana OT Q 4 SMe a a A, AF hte £7A%. 7. SCERF £2m0~ FFE LA PhImeet haFrk FIC KILO? Uf SUePeIC? Atoewht? o rage = Poere He % a - PTead ne Q a - Mtavdar ¢-bon a Qo PINES! HCE~ PFC%Mce $23 a Q - PREA the #22 a 5 = ANF Aw L1Ak A, ACAD (THATET) Ntowaht? at AACS PAF LIF FARTC cone? Aah hate Lmdie ooo a A, NPAC S or FRE CLA TTR YEE + Th to G Q + PE YO Qo a + AA hATONTS a o 7.2 TGF MAR NTLET FIC ee TMERT ALTLLE TYREE 0677. —_—— Se 8. owranci 81 ANePt Pee enneP ts PTH APO Page O Poul STI | PTC EAS AteF hae LIS LIS | ros LIK LAK: — a 82 bennerte oc eradt 9c AAPt? AP fap 83 AAP “APT hwy PPE STO? eSArncnes Longue,S. 1992. A Framework for Understanding Women's Empowerment, Gaborones, Botswana, Paul V. ‘Taylor,P.V. 1993, The Text of Paulo Freire. Open University Press, Buckingham. Philadelphia. Gajanayake, Stanley and Gajanayake, Jaya. 1993. Cammaanty Empoonment: A Participatory Tring Mado Carmoty Projet Deckert. Norther Ilinois University: Dekalb Illiniois P.6. Quane, A. et al. 1984, Leaming Strategies for Post Literacy and Continuing Education in Mali, Niger, Senegal and Upper Volta. UIE, Hamburgs. Bhola, H.S. 1994. A Source Book for Literacy Work: Perspective from the Grassroots. UNESCO Publishing, Mélesse Delelegn (1997). Psychological Freirian Approach to Functional Literacy (FAL). IZ/DVV Project Office, MOE, Ethiopia. Kassahun Assefa. 1997. Managing Nonformal Adult Education by NGOs in Eshiopia. TIZ/DVV Project Office, MOE, Ethiopia. Levinger, B, 1996, Critical Transition, Human Capacky Development Across the Lifespan. Education Development Centre, UNDP, New York. Boud, D, et. Al, 1993, Using Experience for Leaning, St Edmundsburg Press Led, Great Britain, Barnett, T. 1988. Sociolegy aad Decelamont. London and New York, Freire, P. 1972. Pedaggy of the Oppressed. Great Britain, Penguin Books Ltd. Suded, S.H. 1979. Major Constraints in Farmers Training at the Field Level - Case Studies. Rome, FAO. Lisa, A.. et al. 1992. Agriaidnoal Extension In East Afric. World Bank Technical Paper. No, 164, the World Bank Washington D.C. Stephanos Qgbasellesle. 1995. Agricultural Sector Development Policy and Strategies ia Ethiopia. TGG, MOE. Habtemariam Abate, 1994. Acrizdamal Extension stem of Exhlopla. Ministry of Agriculture, Addis Ababa. Ministry of Agriculture, FPDRE. 1996. Field Visit Report on the Implementation Programme. Addis Ababa. UNICEF. 1998. The State of the Worlds’ Children, Focus on Nutrition. Oxford University Press.Feiler prayer for gyre rll in Etbnge Acronyms ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific Countries BDEC Basic Development Education Centre src Community Skill Training Centre CTA ‘Technical Centre for Agricultural Cooperation, DA Development Agency EMIP Extension Method in Training Programme EU European Union FAL Functional Adult Literacy FMPTC Farmers Multipurpose ‘Training Centre GDP gross domestic product GER ‘Gross Enroilment Rate GNP ‘gross national product HRD Human Resource Development HZ Institute for International Cooperation DW German Aduit Education Association MOE Ministry of Education NEIP National Extension Intervention Programme NET? New Education and Training Policy of Ethiopia NGO non-governmental organisation PADETES Participatory Demonstration & Training Extension Systems REB Regional Education Bureau $G-2000 Sasakawa Global 2000 sIDA Swedish International Development AgencyOther Working Documents available from CTA / Autres Documents de travail disponibles auprés du CTA Guide sélectif de revues scientifiques dans le domaine du développement agricole et rural / Selective guide to scientific journals in the field of agricultural and rural develo Préparé par le CIRAD & CABI pour le CTA / Prepared by CIRAD and CAB] for CTA. 1999 CYAN. 8004. 0 umité de erédit / 0 credit point Resource guide on urban agriculture Prepared by ETC for CTA. 1999. CTA No. 8002. 0 credit point ‘The role of international organisations and non-governmental organisations in information support for ageicultural policy formulation in Kenya Study repor prepared by Frederick Ovino for CTA. 1999 CTA No. 8053, 0 credit poin Taformation support for agricultural policy formulation in Africa: Role of non-governmental isations and research institutes Suuly repor: prepared by David Heydon for CTA. 1999 CTAN0. 8004, 0 credit point Information support for agricultural policy formulation Africa : Role of international organisations Study repor: prepared by David Heydon for CTA, 1999 CTA No, $005.0 credit point ‘The role of international and non-governmental organisations in information support for agricultural policy formulation in Ghana Study repor. prepared by John Vilars for CTA. 1999 CTANo, 8006. 6 credit point Review of the impact of globalisation on the agricultural sectors and rural communities of ACP countries : Saudy report prepared by Peter Robbins for CTA. 1999 CTANo, $007. 0 credit point Effets de la mondialisation sur le secteur agricole et Tes communautés rurales des pays ACP Préparé par Peter Robbins par le CTA, 1999 CTA No, 8008.0 unité de orbit Etude documentaire sur la gestion de Peau en Aftique sub-saharienne et région Caraibes Préparé par Jean-Louis Couture pour le CTA, 1999 CTA No, 8009, 5 unites de erédit Desk study on water management in sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean Prepared by Jean-Louis Couture for CTA, 1999 CTA No, 8010. § credit points Etude documentaire sur la gestion des terrvirs en Aftique sub-saharienne eéparé pa Maina van de Send pour le CTA. 1999. CTANo, $011. 5 uniés de exédiz Desk study on land-use management in sub-Saharan Africa Prepared by Martina vaa de Sand. 1999 CTA No. 8012.5 credit points Small-scale food processing sector in Mozambique Prepared by Imani development (pvt) limited in collaboration with MJ. Cardoso, Austral for CTA. 2000 CTANo. 8013. 5 credit pointsOther Working Documents available from CTA / Autres Documents de travail disponibles auprés du CTA ‘Small-scale food processing sector in South Africa Prepared by Imani development (pvt) limited in collaboration with N. Fill ICAP for CEA. 2000 CTANo. 8014. 5 credit points ‘Small-scale food processing in Zambia Prepared by Imani development (pv) limited in collaboration with O. Saasa for CTA. 2000 CTANo. 8015. 5 credit points Soutien informationnel aux politiques de gestion des ressources naturelles & Madagascar Préparé par Bruno Salomon Ramamonijisoa pour le CTA. 2000 CTANo, 8016.5 uaités de exécit De usage de information & Fappui aux politiques de gestion des ressources naturelles au Cameroun Préparé par Jean-Claude Nguinguiri pourle CTA. 2000 CTA No, 8017. 5 unites de exécit ‘Case study on information support to natural resource management policy in Namibia Prepared by Brian Jones for CTA, 2000 CTA No. 8018.5 credit points Design of a market information system for small scale producers and traders in three districts of Uganda Stacy repor prepared by Peter Robbins, CMIS and Shaun Feeris, ITA/Foodnet Project for CTA. 2000 CTANo. 8019. 5 credit poims