13.1 In a process in which it is used as a solvent, benzene is evaporated
9 Water is to be cooled from 328 to 293 K by means of a
into dry nitrogen. At 297 K and 101.3 kN/m2, the resulting mixture has
a percentage relative humidity of 60. It is required to recover 80 per cent
of the benzene present by cooling to 283 K and compressing to a suitable
pressure. What should this pressure be? The vapour pressure of
benzene is 12.2 kN/m2 at 297 K and 6.0 kN/m2 at 283 K.
13.2 In a vessel at 101.3 kN/m2 and 300 K, the percentage relative
humidity of the water vapour in the air is 25. If the partial pressure of
water vapour when air is saturated with vapour at 300 K is 3.6 kN/m2,
calculate:
(a) the partial pressure of the water vapour in the vessel;
(b) the specific volumes of the air and water vapour;
(c) the humidity of the air and humid volume; and
(d) the percentage humidity.
13.3 Moist air at 310 K has a wet-bulb temperature of 300 K. If the latent
heat of vaporisation of water at 300 K is 2440 kJ/kg, estimate the
humidity of the air and the percentage relative humidity. The total
pressure is 105 kN/m2 and the vapour pressure of water vapour at 300
K is 3.60 kN/m2 and 6.33 kN/m2 at 310 K.
13.5 In an air-conditioning system, 1 kg/s air at 350 K and 10 per cent
humidity is mixed with 5 kg/s air at 300 K and 30 per cent humidity. What
is the enthalpy, humidity, and temperature of the resultant stream?
13.6 0.15 kg/s steam at atmospheric pressure and superheated to 400 K
is bled into an air stream at 320 K and 20 per cent relative humidity.
What is the temperature, enthalpy, and relative humidity of the mixed
stream if the air is flowing at 5 kg/s? How much steam would be required
to provide an exit temperature of 330 K and what would be the humidity
of this mixture?
13.7 Air at 300 K and 20 per cent humidity is to be heated in two stages
with intermediate saturation with water to 90 per cent humidity so that
the final stream is at 320 K and 20 per cent humidity. What is the
humidity of the exit stream and the conditions at the end of each stage?
13.
countercurrent air stream entering at 293 K with a relative humidity of
20 per cent. The flow of air is 0.68 m3/m2s and the water throughput is
0.26 kg/m2s. The whole of the resistance to heat and mass transfer may
be assumed to be in the gas phase and the product, (hDa), may be taken
as 0.2 (m/s){m2/m3), that is 0.2 s-1. What is the required height of
packing and the condition of the exit air stream?
12.3 Calculate the rise in temperature of water which is passed at 3.5
m/s through a smooth 25 mm diameter pipe, 6 m long. The water enters
at 300 K and the tube wall may be assumed constant at 330 K. The
following methods may be used:
(a) the simple Reynolds analogy (equation 12.139);
(b) the Taylor-Prandtl modification (equation 12.140);
(c) the universal velocity profile (equation 12.141);
(d) Nu = 0.023/Re0.8Pr0.33 (equation 9.64).
12.2 Air at 330 K, flowing at 10 m/s, enters a pipe of inner diameter 25
mm, maintained at 415 K. The drop of static pressure along the pipe is
80 N/m2 per metre length. Using the Reynolds analogy between heat
transfer and fluid friction, estimate the air temperature 0.6 m along the
pipe.
11.1 Water flows at a velocity of 1 m/s over a plane surface 0.6 m wide
and 1 m long. Calculate the total drag force acting on the surface if the
transition from streamline to turbulent flow in the boundary layer
occurs when the Reynolds group ReXc = 105.
11.2 Calculate the thickness of the boundary layer at a distance of 150
mm from the leading edge of a surface over which oil, of viscosity 0.05
N s/m2 and density 1000 kg/m3 flows with a velocity of 0.3 m/s. What
is the placement thickness of the boundary layer?
11.3 Calculate the thickness of the laminar sub-layer when benzene
flows through a pipe 50 mm in diameter at 2 1/s. What is the velocity of
the benzene at the edge of the laminar sub-layer? Assume that fully
developed flow exists within the pipe and that for benzene, p — 870
kg/m3 and /z = 0.7 mN s/m2.
10.6 A deep pool of ethanol is suddenly exposed to an atmosphere of
pure carbon dioxide and unsteady state mass transfer, governed by
Fick's Law, takes place for 100 s. What proportion of the absorbed
carbon dioxide will have accumulated in the 1 mm layer closest to the
surface in this period?
Diffusivity of carbon dioxide in ethanol = 4 x 10 -9m2/s.
10.10 In a steady-state process, a gas is absorbed in a liquid with which
it undergoes an irreversible reaction. The mass transfer process is
governed by Fick's law, and the liquid is sufficiently deep for it to be
regarded as effectively infinite in depth. On increasing the temperature,
the concentration of reactant at the liquid surface CAI falls to 0.8 times
its original value. The diffusivity is unchanged, but the reaction constant
increases by a factor of 1.35. It is found that the mass transfer rate at
the liquid surface falls to 0.83 times its original value. What is the order
of the chemical reaction?
10.11 A pure gas is absorbed into a liquid with which it reacts. The
concentration in the liquid is sufficiently low for the mass transfer to be
covered by Fick's Law and the reaction is first-order with respect to the
solute gas. It may be assumed that the film theory may be applied to the
liquid and that the concentration of solute gas falls from the saturation
value to zero across the film. The reaction is initially carried out at 293
K. By what factor will the mass transfer rate across the interface change,
if the temperature is raised to 313 K?
12.1 Air flows through a smooth circular duct of internal diameter 250
mm at an average velocity of 15 m/s. Calculate the fluid velocity at points
50 mm and 5 mm from the wall. What will be the thickness of the
laminar sub-layer if this extends to u+ = y'+ = 5? The density and viscosity
of air may be taken as 1.10 kg/m3 and 20 x 10~6 N s/m2 respectively.
10.1 Ammonia gas is diffusing at a constant rate through a layer of
stagnant air 1 mm thick. Conditions are such the gas contains 50 per cent
by volume ammonia at one boundary of the stagnant layer. The
ammonia diffusing to the other boundary is quickly absorbed and the
concentration is negligible at that plane. The temperature is 295 K and
the pressure atmospheric, and under these conditions the diffusivity of
ammonia in air is 1.8 x 10~5 m2/s. Estimate the rate of diffusion of
ammonia through the layer.
10.3 Ammonia is absorbed in water from a mixture with air using a
column operating at 1 bar and 295 K. The resistance to transfer may be
regarded as lying entirely within the gas phase. At a point in the column,
the partial pressure of the ammonia is 7.0 kN/m2. The back pressure at
the water interface is negligible and the resistance to transfer may be
regarded as lying in a stationary gas film 1 mm thick. If the diffusivity of
ammonia in air is 236 x 10" 5 m2/s, what is the transfer rate per unit
area at that point in the column? How would the rate of transfer be
affected if the ammonia air mixture were compressed to double the
pressure?
10.4 In an experimental wetted wall column, pure carbon dioxide is
absorbed in water. The mass transfer rate is calculated using the
penetration theory, application of which is limited by the fact that the
concentration should not reach more than 1 per cent of the saturation
value at a depth below the surface at which the velocity is 95 per cent
of the surface velocity. What is the maximum length of column to which
the theory can be applied if the flowrate of water is 3 cm3/s per cm of
perimeter? Viscosity of water = 10~3 N s/m2. Diffusivity of carbon
dioxide in water = 1.5 x 10 -9 m2/s
13.8 What are the diameter and height of a hyperbolic natural-draught
cooling tower handling 4810 kg/s of water with the following
temperature conditions:
water entering the tower = 301 K
water leaving the tower = 294 K.
air: dry bulb = 287 K
wet bulb = 284 K
10.12 Estimate the Thiele modulus and the effectiveness factor for a 9.6 A 25 mm diameter copper sphere and a 25 mm copper cube are both
reactor in which the catalyst particles are: heated in a furnace to 650 °C (923 K). They are then annealed in air at
(i) Thin rectangular platelets, the ends of which are sealed so that mass 95 °C (368 K). If the external heat transfer coefficient h is 75 W/m2K in
transfer is unidirectional and perpendicular to the surface of the both cases, what is temperature of the sphere and of the cube at the
particle. The total thickness of the particles is 8 mm. end of 5 minutes?
(ii) Spherical particles, 10 mm in diameter. The physical properties at the mean temperature for copper are:
The first-order rate constant is 5 x 10~4 s-1 and the effective diffusivity p = 8950 kg/m3 Cp = 0.38 kJ/kg K kp = 385 W/mK
of the reactants in the pores of the particles is 2 x 10~9 m2/s
10.14 A hydrocarbon is cracked using a silica-alumina catalyst in the 10.8 Ammonia is absorbed at 1 bar from an ammonia-air stream by
form of spherical pellets of mean diameter 2.0 mm. When the reactant passing it up a vertical tube, down which dilute sulphuric acid is flowing.
concentration is 0.01 1 kmol/m3, the reaction rate is 8.2 x 10~ 2 The following laboratory data are available:
kmol/(m3 catalyst) s, If the reaction is of first-order and the effective Length of tube = 825 mm
diffusivity De is 7.5 x 10~~8 m2/s, calculate the value of the effectiveness Diameter of tube =15 mm
factor 17. It may be assumed that the effect of mass transfer resistance Partial pressures of NH3: at inlet = 7.5 kN/m2; at outlet = 2.0 kN/m2
in the fluid external to the particles may be neglected. Air rate = 2 x 10-5 kmol/s
What is the overall transfer coefficient KG based on the gas phase?
10.13 A first-order chemical reaction takes place in a reactor in which 10.5 In a gas-liquid contactor, a pure gas is absorbed in a solvent and the
the catalyst pellets are platelets of thickness 5 mm. The effective Penetration Theory provides a reasonable model by which to describe
diffusivity De for the reactants in the catalyst particle is 10~5 m2/s and the transfer mechanism. As fresh solvent is exposed to the gas, the
the first-order rate constant k is 14.4 s-1. transfer rate is initially limited by the rate at which the gas molecules
Calculate: can reach the surface. If at 293 K and a pressure of I bar the maximum
(i) the effectiveness factor n. possible rate of transfer of gas is 50 m3/m2s, express this as an
(ii) the concentration of reactant at a position half-way between the equivalent resistance, when the gas solubility is 0.04 kmol/m3.
centre and the outside of the pellet
(i.e. at a position one quarter of the way across the particle from the If the diffusivity in the liquid phase is 1.8 x 10~9 m2/s, at what time after
outside). the initial exposure will the resistance attributable to access of gas be
equal to about 10 per cent of the total resistance to transfer?
9.13 Electrically-heated carbide elements, 10 mm in diameter and 0.5 m 9.19 A flat-bottomed cylindrical vessel, 2 m in diameter, containing
long, radiating essentially as black bodies, are to be used in the boiling water at 373 K, is mounted on a cylindrical section of insulating
construction of a heater in which thermal radiation from the material, 1 m deep and 2 m ID at the base of which is a radiant heater,
surroundings is negligible. If the surface temperature of the carbide is also 2 m in diameter, with a surface temperature of 1500 K. If the vessel
limited to 1750 K, how many elements are required to provide a radiated base and the heater surfaces may be regarded as black bodies and
thermal output of 500 kW? conduction though the insulation is negligible, what is the rate of radiant
heat transfer to the vessel? How would this be affected if the insulation
were removed so that the system was open to the surroundings at 290
K?
9.1 A heat exchanger is required to cool 20 kg/s of water from 360 K to
340 K by means of 25 kg/s water entering at 300 K. If the overall
coefficient of heat transfer is constant at 2 kW/m2K, calculate the
surface area required in (a) a countercurrent concentric tube exchanger,
and (b) a co-current flow concentric tube exchanger.
9.2 Estimate the heat loss per square metre of surface through a brick
wall 0.5 m thick when the inner surface is at 400 K and the outside
surface is at 300 K. The thermal conductivity of the brick may be taken
as 0.7 W/mK.
9.22 The walls of a combustion chamber, 0.5 m in diameter and 2 m long,
have an emissivity of 0.5 and are maintained at 750 K, If the combustion
products containing 10 per cent carbon dioxide and 10 per cent water
vapour are at 150 kN/m2 and 1250 K, what is the net rate of radiation to
the walls?
9.15 Calculate the view factor, F21 and the net radiation transfer
between two black surfaces, a rectangle 2 m by 1 m (area A1) at 1500 K
and a disc 1 m in diameter (area A2) at 750 K, if the view factor, F12 —
0.25.
9.4 Calculate the time taken for the distant face of a brick wall, of
thermal diffusivity DH= 0.0043 cm2/s and thickness l = 0.45 m, to rise
from 295 to 375 K, if the whole wall is initially at a constant temperature
of 295 K and the near face is suddenly raised to 900 K and maintained at
this temperature. Assume that ali the flow of heat is perpendicular to
the faces of the wall and that the distant face is perfectly insulated.
9.7 A large thermoplastic sheet, 10 mm thick, at an initial temperature
of 20 °C (293 K), is to be heated in an oven in order to enable it to be
moulded. The oven temperature is maintained at 100°C (373 K), the
maximum temperature to which the plastic may be subjected, and it is
necessary to ensure that the temperature throu0067hout the whole of
the sheet reaches a minimum of 80 °C (353 K). Calculate the minimum
length of time for which the sheet must be heated.
Thermal conductivity kp, of the plastic =2.5 W/mK
Thermal diffusivity of the surrounding fluid DH =2 x 10-7m2/s
External heat transfer coefficient h = 100 W/m2K
9.8 A fuel channel in a natural uranium reactor is 5 m long and has a heat
release of 0.25 MW. If the thermal conductivity of the uranium is 33
W/mK, what is the temperature difference between the surface and the
centre of the uranium element, assuming that the heat release is
uniform along the rod?
9.9 14.4 tonne/h (4.0 kg/s) of nitrobenzene is to be cooled from 400 to
315 K by heating a stream of benzene from 305 to 345 K. Two tubular
heat exchangers are available each with a 0.44 m i.d. shell fitted with
166 tubes, 19.0 mm o.d. and 15.0 mm i.d., each 5.0 m long. The tubes
are arranged in two passes on 25 mm square pitch with a baffle spacing
of 150 mm. There are two passes on the shell side and operation is to be
countercurrent. With benzene passing through the tubes, the
anticipated film coefficient on the tube side is 1000 W/m2K.
Assuming true cross-flow prevails in the shell, what value of scale
resistance could be allowed if these units were used?
For nitrobenzene: Cp = 2380 J/kg K, k = 0.15 W/m K, // = 0,70 mN s/m2
9.10 54 tonne/h (15 kg/s) of benzene is cooled by passing the stream
through the shell side of a tubular heat exchanger, 1 m i.d., fitted with 5
m tubes, 19 mm o.d. arranged on a 25 mm square pitch with 6 mm
clearance. If the baffle spacing is 0.25 m (19 baffles), what will be the
pressure drop over the tube bundle? (viscosity, = 0.5 inN s/m2).
9.34 A pipeline of 100 mm outside diameter, carrying steam at 420 K, is
to be insulated with a lagging material which costs £10/m3 and which
has a thermal conductivity of 0.1 W/m K. The ambient temperature may
be taken as 285 K, and the coefficient of heat transfer from the outside
of the lagging to the surroundings as 10 W/m2 K. If the value of heat
energy is 7.5 x 10~4 £/MJ and the capital cost of the lagging is to be
depreciated over 5 years with an effective simple interest rate of 10 per
cent per annum based on the initial investment, what is the economic
thickness of the lagging?
Is there any possibility that the heat loss could actually be increased by
the application of too thin a layer of lagging?
9.20 Radiation arrives at a grey surface of emissivity 0.75 at a constant
temperature of 400 K, at the rate of 3 kW/m2. What is the radiosity and
the net rate of radiation transfer to the surface? What coefficient of heat
transfer is required to maintain the surface temperature at 300 K if the
rear of the surface is perfectly insulated and the front surface is cooled
by convective heat transfer to air at 295 K?
9.31 In order to measure the temperature of a gas flowing through a
copper pipe, a thermometer pocket is fitted perpendicularly through the
pipe wall, the open end making very good contact with the pipe wall.
The pocket is made of copper tube, 10 mm o.d. and 0.9 mm wall, and it
projects 75 mm into the pipe. A thermocouple is welded to the bottom
of the tube and this gives a reading of 475 K when the wall temperature
is at 365 K. If the coefficient of heat transfer between the gas and the
copper tube is 140 W/m2 K, calculate the gas temperature. The thermal
conductivity of copper may be taken as 350 W/m K.
9.25 A vessel contains 1 tonne (1 Mg) of a liquid of specific heat capacity
4.0 kJ/kg K. The vessel is heated by steam at 393 K which is fed to a cod
immersed in the agitated liquid and heat is lost to the surroundings at
293 K from the outside of the vessel. How long does it take to heat the
liquid from 293 to 353 K and what is the maximum temperature to which
the liquid can be heated? When the liquid temperature has reached 353
K, the steam supply is turned off for 2 hours (7.2 ks) and the vessel cools.
How long will it take to reheat the material to 353 K? The surface area
of the coil is 0.5 m2 and the overall coefficient of heat transfer to the
liquid may be taken as 600 W/m2 K. The outside area of tiic vessel is 6
m2 and the coefficient of heat transfer to the surroundings may be taken
as 10 W/m2 K.
9.21 A horizontal circular plate, 1.0 m in diameter, is to be maintained
at 500 K by placing it 0.20 m directly beneath a horizontal electrically
heated plate, also 1.0 m in diameter, maintained at 1000 K. The
assembly is exposed to black surroundings at 300 K, and convection heat
transfer is negligible. Estimate the electrical input to the heater and the
net rate of heat transfer to the plate if the emissivity of the heater is 0.75
and the emissivity of the plate 0.5.
9.24 Toluene is continuously nitrated to mononitrotoluene in a cast-iron
vessel, 1 m diameter, fitted with a propeller agitator 0.3 m diameter
rotating at 2.5 Hz. The temperature is maintained at 310 K by circulating
0.5'kg/s cooling water through a stainless steel coil 25 mm o.d. and 22
mm i.d. wound in the form of a helix, 0.80 m in diameter. The conditions
are such that the reacting material may be considered to have the same
physical properties as 75 per cent sulphuric acid. If the mean water
temperature is 290 K, what is the overall coefficient of heat transfer?
9.29 A flow of 1 kg/s of an organic liquid of heat capacity 2.0 kJ/kg K is
cooled from 350 to 330 K by a stream of water flowing countercurrently
through a double-pipe heat exchanger. Estimate the effectiveness of the
unit if the water enters the exchanger at 290 K and leaves at 320 K.
9.16 What are the view factors, F12 and F21, for (a) a vertical plate, 3 m
high by 4 m long, positioned at right angles to one edge of a second,
horizontal plate, 4 m wide and 6 m long, and (b) a 1m diameter sphere
positioned within a 2 m diameter sphere?
9.14 What is the emissivity of a grey surface, 10 m2 in area, which
radiates 1000 kW at 1500 K? What would be the effect of increasing the
temperature to 1600 K?
9.11 Estimate the heat transfer coefficient for natural convection from
a horizontal pipe 0.15 m diameter, with a surface temperature of 400 K
to air at 294 K