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 In classical mathematics, analytic geometry, also known as coordinate geometry,
or Cartesian geometry, is the study of geometry using a coordinate system. This contrasts
with synthetic geometry.

Analytic geometry is widely used in physics and engineering, and is the foundation of most
modern fields of geometry, including algebraic, differential, discrete and computational geometry.

Usually the Cartesian coordinate system is applied to manipulate equations for planes, straight
lines, and squares, often in two and sometimes in three dimensions. Geometrically, one studies
the Euclidean plane (two dimensions) and Euclidean space (three dimensions). As taught in
school books, analytic geometry can be explained more simply: it is concerned with defining and
representing geometrical shapes in a numerical way and extracting numerical information from
shapes' numerical definitions and representations. The numerical output, however, might also be
a vector or a shape. That the algebra of the real numbers can be employed to yield results about
the linear continuum of geometry relies on the Cantor–Dedekind axiom.

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Ancient Greece
o 1.2Persia
o 1.3Western Europe
 2Coordinates
o 2.1Cartesian coordinates
o 2.2Polar coordinates
o 2.3Cylindrical coordinates
o 2.4Spherical coordinates
 3Equations and curves
o 3.1Lines and planes
o 3.2Conic sections
o 3.3Quadric surfaces
 4Distance and angle
 5Transformations
 6Finding intersections of geometric objects
o 6.1Finding intercepts
 7Tangents and normal
o 7.1Tangent lines and planes
o 7.2Normal line and vector
 8See also
 9Notes
 10References
o 10.1Books
o 10.2Articles
 11External links

History [edit]
Ancient Greece [edit]
The Greek mathematician Menachem’s solved problems and proved theorems by using a
method that had a strong resemblance to the use of coordinates and it has sometimes been
maintained that he had introduced analytic geometry.[1]

Apollonius of Pergo, in On Determinate Section, dealt with problems in a manner that may be
called an analytic geometry of one dimension; with the question of finding points on a line that
were in a ratio to the others.[2]Apollonius in the Conics further developed a method that is so
similar to analytic geometry that his work is sometimes thought to have anticipated the work
of Descartes by some 1800 years. His application of reference lines, a diameter and a tangent is
essentially no different from our modern use of a coordinate frame, where the distances
measured along the diameter from the point of tangency are the abscissas, and the segments
parallel to the tangent and intercepted between the axis and the curve are the ordinates. He
further developed relations between the abscissas and the corresponding ordinates that are
equivalent to rhetorical equations of curves. However, although Apollonius came close to
developing analytic geometry, he did not manage to do so since he did not take into account
negative magnitudes and in every case the coordinate system was superimposed upon a given
curve a posteriori instead of a priori. That is, equations were determined by curves, but curves
were not determined by equations. Coordinates, variables, and equations were subsidiary
notions applied to a specific geometric situation.[3]

Persia [edit]
The eleventh century Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam saw a strong relationship between
geometry and algebra, and was moving in the right direction when he helped to close the gap
between numerical and geometric algebra[4] with his geometric solution of the general cubic
equations,[5] but the decisive step came later with Descartes.[4]

Western Europe [edit]

Analytic geometry was independently invented by René Descartes and Pierre de
Fermat,[6][7] although Descartes is sometimes given sole credit.[8] [9] Cartesian geometry, the
alternative term used for analytic geometry, is named after Descartes.

Descartes made significant progress with the methods in an essay titled La

Geometries (Geometry), one of the three accompanying essays (appendices) published in 1637
together with his Discourse on the Method for Rightly Directing One's Reason and Searching for
Truth in the Sciences, commonly referred to as Discourse on Method. This work, written in his
native French tongue, and its philosophical principles, provided a foundation for calculus in
Europe. Initially the work was not well received, due, in part, to the many gaps in arguments and
complicated equations. Only after the translation into Latin and the addition of commentary by
van Scooted in 1649 (and further work thereafter) did Descartes's masterpiece receive due
recognition.[10]

Pierre de Fermat also pioneered the development of analytic geometry. Although not published
in his lifetime, a manuscript form of Ad locos planes ET solidus isagogic (Introduction to Plane
and Solid Loci) was circulating in Paris in 1637, just prior to the publication of
Descartes' Discourse.[11] [12] [13] clearly written and well received, the Introduction also laid the
groundwork for analytical geometry. The key difference between Fermat's and Descartes'
treatments is a matter of viewpoint: Fermat always started with an algebraic equation and then
described the geometric curve which satisfied it, whereas Descartes started with geometric
curves and produced their equations as one of several properties of the curves.[10] As a
consequence of this approach, Descartes had to deal with more complicated equations and he
had to develop the methods to work with polynomial equations of higher degree. It was Leonard
Euler who first applied the coordinate method in a systematic study of space curves and
surfaces.

Coordinates [edit]
Main article: Coordinate systems

Illustration of a Cartesian coordinate plane. Four points are marked and labelled with their coordinates: (2,
3) in green, (−3, 1) in red, (−1.5, −2.5) in blue, and the origin (0,0) in purple.

In analytic geometry, the plane is given a coordinate system, by which every point has a pair
of real number coordinates. Similarly, Euclidean space is given coordinates where every point
has three coordinates. The value of the coordinates depends on the choice of the initial point of
origin. There are a variety of coordinate systems used, but the most common are the following:[14]

Cartesian coordinates[edit]
Main article: Cartesian coordinate system

The most common coordinate system to use is the Cartesian coordinate system, where each
point has an x-coordinate representing its horizontal position, and a y-coordinate representing its
vertical position. These are typically written as an ordered pair (x, y). This system can also be
used for three-dimensional geometry, where every point in Euclidean space is represented by
an ordered triple of coordinates (x, y, z).

Polar coordinates[edit]
Main article: Polar coordinates
In polar coordinates, every point of the plane is represented by its distance r from the origin and
its angle θ from the polar axis.

Cylindrical coordinates[edit]
Main article: Cylindrical coordinates

In cylindrical coordinates, every point of space is represented by its height z, its radius r from
the z-axis and the angle θ it makes with respect to its projection on the my-plane.

Spherical coordinates[edit]
Main article: Spherical coordinates

In spherical coordinates, every point in space is represented by its distance ρ from the origin,
the angle θ it makes with respect to its projection on the my-plane, and the angle φ that it makes
with respect to the z-axis. The names of the angles are often reversed in physics.[14]

Equations and curves[edit]

Main articles: Solution set and Locus (mathematics)

In analytic geometry, any equation involving the coordinates specifies a subset of the plane,
namely the solution set for the equation, or locus. For example, the equation y = x corresponds
to the set of all the points on the plane whose x-coordinate and y-coordinate are equal. These
points form a line, and y = x is said to be the equation for this line. In general, linear equations
involving x and y specify lines, quadratic equations specify conic sections, and more complicated
equations describe more complicated figures.[15]

Usually, a single equation corresponds to a curve on the plane. This is not always the case: the
trivial equation x = x specifies the entire plane, and the equation x2 + y2 = 0 specifies only the
single point (0, 0). In three dimensions, a single equation usually gives asurface, and a curve
must be specified as the intersection of two surfaces (see below), or as a system of parametric
equations.[16] The equation x2 + y2 = r2 is the equation for any circle centered at the origin (0, 0)
with a radius of r.

Lines and planes[edit]

Main articles: Line (geometry) and Plane (geometry)

Lines in a Cartesian plane or, more generally, in affine coordinates, can be described
algebraically by linear equations. In two dimensions, the equation for non-vertical lines is often
given in the slope-intercept form:

where:

m is the slope or gradient of the line.

b is the y-intercept of the line.
x is the independent variable of the function y = f(x).
In a manner analogous to the way lines in a two-dimensional space are
described using a point-slope form for their equations, planes in a three
dimensional space have a natural description using a point in the plane and a
vector orthogonal to it (the normal vector) to indicate its "inclination".

Specifically, let be the position vector of some point , and let be

a nonzero vector. The plane determined by this point and vector consists of

those points , with position vector , such that the vector drawn

from to is perpendicular to . Recalling that two vectors are

perpendicular if and only if their dot product is zero, it follows that the desired

plane can be described as the set of all points such that

(The dot here means a dot product, not scalar multiplication.) Expanded this
becomes

which is the point-normal form of the equation of a plane.[17] This is just

a linear equation:

Conversely, it is easily shown that if a, b, c and d are constants

and a, b, and c are not all zero, then the graph of the equation

is a plane having the vector as a normal.[18] This familiar

equation for a plane is called the general form of the equation of
the plane.[19]

In three dimensions, lines can not be described by a single

linear equation, so they are frequently described by parametric
equations:

where:
x, y, and z are all functions of the independent variable t which ranges over the real
numbers.
(x0, y0, z0) is any point on the line.
a, b, and c are related to the slope of the line, such that the vector (a, b, c) is parallel to
the line.
Conic sections[edit]
Main article: Conic section

In the Cartesian coordinate system,

the graph of a quadratic equation in
two variables is always a conic section
– though it may be degenerate, and all
conic sections arise in this way. The
equation will be of the form

As scaling all six constants yields

the same locus of zeros, one can
consider conics as points in the
five-dimensional projective

space

The conic sections described by

this equation can be classified with
the discriminant[20]

If the conic is non-degenerate,

then:

 if , the equation
represents an ellipse;

 if and , the
equation represents
a circle, which is a
special case of an
ellipse;

 if , the equation
represents a parabola;
 if , the equation
represents a hyperbola;

 if we also have ,
the equation
represents
a rectangular
hyperbola.
Quadric
surfaces[edit]
Main article: Quadric surface

A quadric, or quadric
surface, is a 2-
dimensional surface in 3-
dimensional space defined as
the locus of zeros of
a quadratic polynomial. In
coordinates x1, x2,x3, the
general quadric is defined by
the algebraic equation[21]

Quadric surfaces
include ellipsoids (includin
g
the sphere), paraboloids,
hyperboloids, cylinders, co
nes, and planes.

Distance and
angle[edit]
Main
articles: Distance and Angl
e
 The distance formula on
the plane follows from
the Pythagorean
theorem.

In analytic geometry,
geometric notions such
as distance and angle me
asure are defined
using formulas. These
definitions are designed to
be consistent with the
underlying Euclidean
geometry. For example,
usingCartesian
coordinates on the plane,
the distance between two
points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
defined by the formula

which can be viewed

as a version of
the Pythagorean
theorem. Similarly, the
angle that a line
makes with the
horizontal can be
defined by the formula
 where m is
the slope of the
line.

In three
dimensions,
distance is given
by the
generalization of
the Pythagorean
theorem:

while the
angle
between two
vectors is
given by
the dot
product. The
dot product of
two Euclidean
vectors A and
B is defined
by[22]

where θ is
the angle
between
A and B.

Trans
forma
tions[
edit]
 a) y =
f(x) =
|x|
b) y =
f(x+3)
c) y
= f(x)-
3 d
)y=
1/2 f(x)

Transform
ations are
applied to
a parent
function
to turn it
into a new
function
with
similar
characteri
stics.
The graph

of is
changed
by
standard
transform
ations as
follows:

 Chan
ging

to

move
s the
graph
to the
right

units.
 Chan
ging

to

move
s the
graph
up

units.
 Chan
ging

to
 stretc
hes
the
graph
horizo
ntally
by a
factor
of

.
(think
of
the

as
being
dilate
d)
 Chan
ging

to

stretc
hes
the
graph
vertic
ally.
 Chan
ging

to

and
chang
 ing

to

rotate
s the
graph
by an
angle

There are
other
standard
transform
ation not
typically
studied in
elementar
y analytic
geometry
because
the
transform
ations
change
the shape
of objects
in ways
not
usually
considere
d.
Skewing
is an
example
of a
transform
ation not
usually
considere
d. For
more
informatio
n, consult
the
Wikipedia
article
on affine
transform
ations.

For
example,
the parent
function

has
a
horizontal
and a
vertical
asymptot
e, and
occupies
the first
and third
quadrant,
and all of
its
transform
ed forms
have one
horizontal
and
vertical
asymptot
e,and
occupies
either the
1st and
3rd or 2nd
and 4th
quadrant.
In
general,

if ,
then it
can be
transform
ed

into .
In the
new
transform
ed
function,

is
the factor
that
vertically
stretches
the
function if
it is
greater
than 1 or
vertically
compress
es the
function if
it is less
than 1,
and for
negative

valu
es, the
function is
reflected
in
the -
axis.

The
value
compress
es the
graph of
the
function
horizontall
y if
greater
than 1
and
stretches
the
function
horizontall
y if less
than 1,
and

like ,
reflects
the
function in

the -
axis when
it is
negative.

The

and
values
introduce
translatio

ns, ,
vertical,
and
horizontal
.
Positive

and

valu
es mean
the
function is
translated
to the
positive
end of its
axis and
negative
meaning
translatio
n towards
the
negative
end.

Transform
ations can
be
applied to
any
geometric
equation
whether
or not the
equation
represent
sa
function.
Transform
ations can
be
considere
d as
 individual
transactio
ns or in
combinati
ons.

Suppose

that
is a
relation in

the
plane. For
example,

is the
relation
that
describes
the unit
circle.

n has two
points.

René Descartes
 Portrait after Frans Hals, 1648[1]

Born 31 March 1596

La Haye en Touraine, Kingdom of France

Died 11 February 1650 (aged 53)

Stockholm, Sweden

Nationality French

Education Collège Royal Henry-Le-Grand

(1607–1614)

Alma mater University of Poitiers

(LL.B., 1616)

University of Franeker

(no degree)

Leiden University

(no degree)

Religion Roman Catholic[2][3][4]

Era 17th-century philosophy

Region Western Philosophy

School Rationalism

Founder of Cartesianism

Main Metaphysics, epistemology,mathematics, physics, cosmology

interests

Notable Cogito ergo sum, method of doubt, method of normals,Cartesian coordinate

ideas
system,Cartesian dualism,foundationalism, ontological argument for the existence of
God, mathesis universalis, folium of Descartes

Influences[show]

Influenced[show]

Signature

Part of a series on

René Descartes

Cartesianism · Rationalism
Foundationalism
Doubt and certainty
Dream argument
Cogito ergo sum
 Trademark argument
Causal adequacy principle
Mind–body dichotomy
Analytic geometry
Coordinate system
Cartesian circle · Folium
Rule of signs · Cartesian diver
Balloonist theory
Wax argument
Res cogitans · Res extensa

Works

The World
Discourse on the Method
La Géométrie
Meditations on First Philosophy
Principles of Philosophy
Passions of the Soul

People

Christina, Queen of Sweden

Baruch Spinoza
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
Francine Descartes

 v
 t
 e

René Descartes (/ˈdeɪˌkɑːrt/;[8] French: [ʁəne dekaʁt]; Latinized: Renatus Cartesius; adjectival
form: "Cartesian";[9] 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650) was a
French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. Dubbed the father of modern western
philosophy, much of subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings,[10][11] which are
studied closely to this day. He spent about 20 years of his life in the Dutch Republic.

Descartes's Meditations on First Philosophy continues to be a standard text at most university

philosophy departments. Descartes's influence in mathematics is equally apparent; the Cartesian
coordinate system—allowing reference to a point in space as a set of numbers, and allowing
algebraic equations to be expressed as geometric shapes in a two- or three-dimensional
 coordinate system (and conversely, shapes to be described as equations)—was named after
him. He is credited as the father of analytical geometry, the bridge between algebra and
geometry, used in the discovery of infinitesimal calculus and analysis. Descartes was also one of
the key figures in the scientific revolution.

Descartes refused to accept the authority of previous philosophers, and refused to trust his own
senses. He frequently set his views apart from those of his predecessors. In the opening section
of the Passions of the Soul, a treatise on the early modern version of what are now commonly
called emotions, Descartes goes so far as to assert that he will write on this topic "as if no one
had written on these matters before". Many elements of his philosophy have precedents in
late Aristotelianism, the revived Stoicism of the 16th century, or in earlier philosophers
like Augustine. In his natural philosophy, he differs from the schools on two major points: First, he
rejects the splitting of corporeal substance into matter and form; second, he rejects any appeal
to final ends—divine or natural—in explaining natural phenomena.[12] In his theology, he insists on
the absolute freedom of God's act of creation.

Descartes laid the foundation for 17th-century continental rationalism, later advocated by Baruch
Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz, and opposed by the empiricist school of thought consisting
of Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, andHume. Leibniz, Spinoza[13] and Descartes were all well-versed in
mathematics as well as philosophy, and Descartes and Leibniz contributed greatly to science as
well.

His best known philosophical statement is "Cogito ergo sum" (French: Je pense, donc je suis; I
think, therefore I am), found in part IV of Discourse on the Method (1637; written in French but
with inclusion of "Cogito ergo sum") and §7 of part I of Principles of Philosophy (1644; written in
Latin)

Contents
[hide]

 1Life
o 1.1Early life
o 1.2Visions
o 1.3France
o 1.4Netherlands
o 1.5Sweden
o 1.6Death
 2Philosophical work
o 2.1Dualism
o 2.2Descartes' moral philosophy
o 2.3Religious beliefs
 3Historical impact
o 3.1Emancipation from Church doctrine
o 3.2Mathematical legacy
o 3.3Influence on Newton's mathematics
o 3.4Contemporary reception
 4Writings
 5See also
 6Notes
 7References
o 7.1Collected works
o 7.2Specific works
o 7.3Collected English translations
o 7.4Translation of single works
o 7.5Secondary literature
 8External links

Life[edit]
Early life[edit]

The house where he was born in La Haye en Touraine

Graduation registry for Descartes at the University of Poitiers, 1616.

Descartes was born in La Haye en Touraine (now Descartes, Indre-et-Loire), France, on 31

March 1596. When he was one year old, his mother Jeanne Brochard died after trying to give
birth to another child who also died. His father Joachim was a member of the Parlement of
Brittany at Rennes.[15] René lived with his grandmother and with his great-uncle. Although the
Descartes family was Roman Catholic, the Poitou region was controlled by the Protestant
Huguenots.[16] In 1607, late because of his fragile health, he entered the Jesuit Collège Royal
Henry-Le-Grand at La Flèche[17] where he was introduced to mathematics and physics, including
Galileo's work.[18] After graduation in 1614, he studied two years (1615–16) at the University of
Poitiers, earning aBaccalauréat and Licence in Canon and Civil Law, in accordance with his
father's wishes that he should become a lawyer.[19] From there he moved to Paris.

In his book Discourse on the Method, Descartes recalls,

I entirely abandoned the study of letters. Resolving to seek no knowledge other than that of
which could be found in myself or else in the great book of the world, I spent the rest of my youth
traveling, visiting courts and armies, mixing with people of diverse temperaments and ranks,
gathering various experiences, testing myself in the situations which fortune offered me, and at
all times reflecting upon whatever came my way so as to derive some profit from it.

Given his ambition to become a professional military officer, in 1618, Descartes joined the Dutch
States Army in Breda under the command of Maurice of Nassau, and undertook a formal study
ofmilitary engineering, as established by Simon Stevin. Descartes therefore received much
encouragement in Breda to advance his knowledge of mathematics. In this way he became
acquainted with Isaac Beeckman, principal of a Dordrecht school, for whom he wrote the
Compendium of Music (written 1618, published 1650). Together they worked on free
fall, catenary, conic section andfluid statics. Both believed that it was necessary to create a
method that thoroughly linked mathematics and physics.[20]

While in the service of the duke Maximilian of Bavaria since 1619,[21] Descartes was present at
the Battle of the White Mountain outside Prague, in November 1620.[22] He visited the labs
ofTycho Brahe in Prague and Johannes Kepler in Regensburg.[further explanation needed]

Visions[edit]
According to Adrien Baillet, on the night of 10–11 November 1619 (St. Martin's Day), while
stationed in Neuburg an der Donau, Descartes shut himself in a room with an "oven" (probably
aKachelofen or masonry heater) to escape the cold. While within, he had three visions and
believed that a divine spirit revealed to him a new philosophy. Upon exiting he had
formulated analytical geometry and the idea of applying the mathematical method to philosophy.
He concluded from these visions that the pursuit of science would prove to be, for him, the
pursuit of true wisdom and a central part of his life's work.[23][24] Descartes also saw very clearly
that all truths were linked with one another, so that finding a fundamental truth and proceeding
with logic would open the way to all science. This basic truth, Descartes found quite soon: his
famous "I think therefore I am".[20]

France[edit]
In 1620 Descartes left the army. He visited Basilica della Santa Casa in Loreto, then visited
various countries before returning to France, and during the next few years spent time in Paris. It
was there that he composed his first essay on method: Regulae ad Directionem Ingenii (Rules
for the Direction of the Mind).[20] He arrived in La Haye in 1623, selling all of his property to invest
in bonds, which provided a comfortable income for the rest of his life.[citation needed]Descartes was
present at the siege of La Rochelle by Cardinal Richelieu in 1627.[citation needed] In the fall of the same
year, in the residence of the papal nuncio Guidi di Bagno, where he came with Mersenne and
many other scholars to listen to a lecture given by the alchemist Monsieur de Chandoux on the
principles of a supposed new philosophy.[25] Cardinal Bérulle urged him to write an exposition of
his own new philosophy.[citation needed]
Netherlands[edit]

In Amsterdam, Descartes lived on Westermarkt 6 (Descarteshuis, on the left).

Descartes returned to the Dutch Republic in 1628. In April 1629 he joined the University of
Franeker, studying under Metius, living either with a Catholic family, or renting
the Sjaerdemaslot, where he invited in vain a French cook and an optician.[citation needed] The next
year, under the name "Poitevin", he enrolled at the Leiden University to study mathematics
with Jacob Golius, who confronted him with Pappus's hexagon theorem,
and astronomywith Martin Hortensius.[26] In October 1630 he had a falling-out with Beeckman,
whom he accused of plagiarizing some of his ideas. In Amsterdam, he had a relationship with a
servant girl, Helena Jans van der Strom, with whom he had a daughter, Francine, who was born
in 1635 in Deventer, at which time Descartes taught at the Utrecht University.

Unlike many moralists of the time, Descartes was not devoid of passions but rather defended
them; he wept upon Francine's death in 1640.[27] "Descartes said that he did not believe that one
must refrain from tears to prove oneself a man." Russell Shorto postulated that the experience of
fatherhood and losing a child formed a turning point in Descartes' work, changing its focus from
medicine to a quest for universal answers.[28]

Despite frequent moves[29] he wrote all his major work during his 20+ years in the Netherlands,
where he managed to revolutionize mathematics and philosophy.[30] In 1633, Galileo was
condemned by the Catholic Church, and Descartes abandoned plans to publish Treatise on the
World, his work of the previous four years. Nevertheless, in 1637 he published part of this work in
three essays: Les Météores (The Meteors), La Dioptrique (Dioptrics) andLa
Géométrie (Geometry), preceded by an introduction, his famous Discours de la
méthode (Discourse on the Method). In it Descartes lays out four rules of thought, meant to
ensure that our knowledge rests upon a firm foundation.
The first was never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such; that is to
say, carefully to avoid precipitancy and prejudice, and to comprise nothing more in my judgment
than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly as to exclude all ground of doubt.

René Descartes (right) with Queen Christina of Sweden (left).

Principia philosophiae, 1644

Descartes continued to publish works concerning both mathematics and philosophy for the rest
of his life. In 1641 he published a metaphysics work, Meditationes de Prima
Philosophia (Meditations on First Philosophy), written in Latin and thus addressed to the learned.
It was followed, in 1644, by Principia Philosophiæ (Principles of Philosophy), a kind of synthesis
of the Discourse on the Method and Meditations on First Philosophy. In 1643, Cartesian
philosophy was condemned at the University of Utrecht, and Descartes was obliged to flee to
The Hague.

Descartes began (through Alfonso Polloti, an Italian general in Dutch service) a long
correspondence with Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia, devoted mainly to moral and psychological
subjects. Connected with this correspondence, in 1649 he published Les Passions de
l'âme (Passions of the Soul), that he dedicated to the Princess. In 1647, he was awarded a
pension by the Louis XIV, though it was never paid.[31] A French translation ofPrincipia
Philosophiæ, prepared by Abbot Claude Picot, was published in 1647. This edition Descartes
also dedicated to Princess Elisabeth. In the preface to the French edition, Descartes praised true
philosophy as a means to attain wisdom. He identifies four ordinary sources to reach wisdom,
and finally says that there is a fifth, better and more secure, consisting in the search for first
causes.[32]

Sweden[edit]

The rear of the "von der Lindeska huset" on Västerlånggatan 68.

Queen Christina of Sweden invited Descartes to her court in 1649 to organize a new scientific
academy and tutor her in his ideas about love. She was interested in and stimulated Descartes to
publish the "Passions of the Soul", a work based on his correspondence with Princess
Elisabeth.[33]

He was a guest at the house of Pierre Chanut, living on Västerlånggatan, less than 500 meters
from Tre Kronor in Stockholm. There, Chanut and Descartes made observations with
a Torricellian barometer, a tube withmercury. Challenging Blaise Pascal, Descartes took the first
set of barometric readings in Stockholm to see if atmospheric pressure could be used in
forecasting the weather.[34][35]

Death[edit]
Descartes apparently started giving lessons to Queen Christina after her birthday, three times a
week, at 5 a.m, in her cold and draughty castle. Soon it became clear they did not like each
other; she did not like his mechanical philosophy, nor did he appreciate her interest in Ancient
Greek. By 15 January 1650, Descartes had seen Christina only four or five times. On 1 February
he caught a cold which quickly turned into a serious respiratory infection, and he died on 11
February. The cause of death was pneumonia according to Chanut,
but peripneumonia according to the doctor Van Wullen who was not allowed to bleed him.[36] (The
winter seems to have been mild,[37] except for the second half of January) which was harsh as
described by Descartes himself. "This remark was probably intended to be as much Descartes'
take on the intellectual climate as it was about the weather."[33]
In 1996 E. Pies, a German scholar, published a book questioning this account, based on a letter
by Johann van Wullen, who had been sent by Christina to treat him, something Descartes
refused, and more arguments against its veracity have been raised since.[38] Descartes might
have been assassinated[39][40] as he asked for an emetic: wine mixed with tobacco.[41]

The tomb of Descartes (middle, with detail of the inscription), in the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés,
Paris

His memorial, erected in the 1720s, in the Adolf Fredriks kyrka.

As a Catholic in a Protestant nation, he was interred in a graveyard used mainly for orphans
in Adolf Fredriks kyrka in Stockholm. His manuscripts came into the possession of Claude
Clerselier, Chanut's brother-in-law, and "a devout Catholic who has begun the process of turning
Descartes into a saint by cutting, adding and publishing his letters selectively."[42] In 1663,
the Pope placed his works on the Index of Prohibited Books. In 1666 his remains were taken to
France and buried in the Saint-Étienne-du-Mont. In 1671 Louis XIV prohibited all the lectures
in Cartesianism. Although the National Convention in 1792 had planned to transfer his remains to
the Panthéon, he was reburied in the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés in 1819, missing a finger
and the skull.[43]

Philosophical work[edit]
Further information: Cartesianism

Descartes is often regarded as the first thinker to emphasize the use of reason to develop
the natural sciences.[44] For him the philosophy was a thinking system that embodied all
knowledge, and expressed it in this way:[45]

Thus, all Philosophy is like a tree, of which Metaphysics is the root, Physics the trunk, and all the
other sciences the branches that grow out of this trunk, which are reduced to three principals,
namely, Medicine, Mechanics, and Ethics. By the science of Morals, I understand the highest
and most perfect which, presupposing an entire knowledge of the other sciences, is the last
degree of wisdom.

In his Discourse on the Method, he attempts to arrive at a fundamental set of principles that one
can know as true without any doubt. To achieve this, he employs a method called
hyperbolical/metaphysical doubt, also sometimes referred to as methodological skepticism: he
rejects any ideas that can be doubted, and then reestablishes them in order to acquire a firm
foundation for genuine knowledge.[46]

Initially, Descartes arrives at only a single principle: thought exists. Thought cannot be separated
from me, therefore, I exist (Discourse on the Method and Principles of Philosophy). Most
famously, this is known as cogito ergo sum (English: "I think, therefore I am"). Therefore,
Descartes concluded, if he doubted, then something or someone must be doing the doubting,
therefore the very fact that he doubted proved his existence. "The simple meaning of the phrase
is that if one is skeptical of existence, that is in and of itself proof that he does exist."[47]

René Descartes at work

Descartes concludes that he can be certain that he exists because he thinks. But in what form?
He perceives his body through the use of the senses; however, these have previously been
unreliable. So Descartes determines that the only indubitable knowledge is that he is a thinking
thing. Thinking is what he does, and his power must come from his essence. Descartes defines
"thought" (cogitatio) as "what happens in me such that I am immediately conscious of it, insofar
as I am conscious of it". Thinking is thus every activity of a person of which the person is
immediately conscious.[48]

To further demonstrate the limitations of these senses, Descartes proceeds with what is known
as the Wax Argument. He considers a piece of wax; his senses inform him that it has certain
characteristics, such as shape, texture, size, color, smell, and so forth. When he brings the wax
towards a flame, these characteristics change completely. However, it seems that it is still the
same thing: it is still the same piece of wax, even though the data of the senses inform him that
all of its characteristics are different. Therefore, in order to properly grasp the nature of the wax,
he should put aside the senses. He must use his mind. Descartes concludes:

And so something that I thought I was seeing with my eyes is in fact grasped solely by the faculty
of judgment which is in my mind.

In this manner, Descartes proceeds to construct a system of knowledge,

discarding perception as unreliable and instead admitting only deduction as a method. In the
third and fifth Meditation, he offers an ontological proof of a benevolent God (through both
the ontological argument and trademark argument). Because God is benevolent, he can have
some faith in the account of reality his senses provide him, for God has provided him with a
working mind and sensory system and does not desire to deceive him. From this supposition,
however, he finally establishes the possibility of acquiring knowledge about the world based on
deduction and perception. In terms ofepistemology therefore, he can be said to have contributed
such ideas as a rigorous conception of foundationalism and the possibility that reason is the only
reliable method of attaining knowledge. He, nevertheless, was very much aware that
experimentation was necessary in order to verify and validate theories.[45]

Descartes also wrote a response to External world scepticism. He argues that sensory
perceptions come to him involuntarily, and are not willed by him. They are external to his senses,
and according to Descartes, this is evidence of the existence of something outside of his mind,
and thus, an external world. Descartes goes on to show that the things in the external world are
material by arguing that God would not deceive him as to the ideas that are being transmitted,
and that God has given him the "propensity" to believe that such ideas are caused by material
things. He gave reasons for thinking that waking thoughts are distinguishable from dreams, and
that one's mind cannot have been "hijacked" by an evil demon placing an illusory external world
before one's senses.

Dualism[edit]
Further information: Mind-body dichotomy and dualism

Descartes in his Passions of the Soul and The Description of the Human Body suggested that
the body works like a machine, that it has material properties. The mind (or soul), on the other
hand, was described as a nonmaterial and does not follow the laws of nature. Descartes argued
that the mind interacts with the body at the pineal gland. This form of dualism or duality proposes
that the mind controls the body, but that the body can also influence the otherwise rational mind,
such as when people act out of passion. Most of the previous accounts of the relationship
between mind and body had been uni-directional.

Descartes suggested that the pineal gland is "the seat of the soul" for several reasons. First, the
soul is unitary, and unlike many areas of the brain the pineal gland appeared to be unitary
(though subsequent microscopic inspection has revealed it is formed of two hemispheres).
Second, Descartes observed that the pineal gland was located near the ventricles. He believed
the cerebrospinal fluid of the ventricles acted through the nerves to control the body, and that the
pineal gland influenced this process. Sensations delivered by the nerves to the pineal, he
believed, caused it to vibrate in some sympathetic manner, which in turn gave rise to the
emotions and caused the body to act.[31] Cartesian dualism set the agenda for philosophical
discussion of the mind–body problem for many years after Descartes' death.[49]

In present-day discussions on the practice of animal vivisection, it is normal to consider

Descartes as an advocate of this practice, as a result of his dualistic philosophy. Some of the
sources say that Descartes denied the animals could feel pain, and therefore could be used
without concern.[50] Other sources consider that Descartes denied that animals had reason or
intelligence, but did not lack sensations or perceptions, but these could be explained
mechanistically.[51]

Descartes' moral philosophy[edit]

For Descartes, ethics was a science, the highest and most perfect of them. Like the rest of the
sciences, ethics had its roots in metaphysics.[45] In this way he argues for the existence of God,
investigates the place of man in nature, formulates the theory of mind-body dualism, and
defends free will. However, as he was a convinced rationalist, Descartes clearly states that
reason is sufficient in the search for the goods that we should seek, and virtue consists in the
correct reasoning that should guide our actions. Nevertheless, the quality of this reasoning
depends on knowledge, because a well-informed mind will be more capable of making good
choices, and it also depends on mental condition. For this reason he said that a complete moral
philosophy should include the study of the body. He discussed this subject in the
correspondence with Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia, and as a result wrote his work The
Passions of the Soul, that contains a study of the psychosomatic processes and reactions in
man, with an emphasis on emotions or passions.[52]

Humans should seek the sovereign good that Descartes, following Zeno, identifies with virtue, as
this produces a solid blessedness or pleasure. For Epicurus the sovereign good was pleasure,
and Descartes says that in fact this is not in contradiction with Zeno's teaching, because virtue
produces a spiritual pleasure, that is better than bodily pleasure. Regarding Aristotle's opinion
that happiness depends on the goods of fortune, Descartes does not deny that this good
contributes to happiness, but remarks that they are in great proportion outside one's own control,
whereas one's mind is under one's complete control.[52]
The moral writings of Descartes came at the last part of his life, but earlier, in his Discourse on
the Method he adopted three maxims to be able to act while he put all his ideas into doubt. This
is known as his "Provisional Morals".

Religious beliefs[edit]
In his Meditations on First Philosophy Descartes sets forth two proofs for God's existence. One
of these is founded upon the possibility of thinking the "idea of a being that is supremely perfect
and infinite," and suggests that "of all the ideas that are in me, the idea that I have of God is the
most true, the most clear and distinct."[53] Descartes considered himself to be a devout
Catholic[2][3][4] and one of the purposes of the Meditations was to defend the Catholic faith. His
attempt to ground theological beliefs on reason encountered intense opposition in his time,
however: Pascal regarded Descartes' views as rationalist and mechanist, and accused him
of deism: "I cannot forgive Descartes; in all his philosophy, Descartes did his best to dispense
with God. But Descartes could not avoid prodding God to set the world in motion with a snap of
his lordly fingers; after that, he had no more use for God," while a powerful contemporary, Martin
Schoock, accused him of atheist beliefs, though Descartes had provided an explicit critique of
atheism in hisMeditations. The Catholic Church prohibited his books in 1663.[31][54]

Historical impact[edit]

Cover of Meditations.

Emancipation from Church doctrine[edit]

Descartes has often been dubbed the father of modern Western philosophy, the philosopher that
with his skeptic approach has profoundly changed the course of Western philosophy and set the
basis for modernity.[10][55] The first two of his Meditations on First Philosophy, those that formulate
the famous methodic doubt, represent the portion of Descartes' writings that most influenced
modern thinking.[56] It has been argued that Descartes himself didn't realize the extent of his
revolutionary gesture.[57] In shifting the debate from "what is true" to "of what can I be certain?,"
Descartes shifted the authoritative guarantor of truth from God to humanity. (While the traditional
concept of "truth" implies an external authority, "certainty" instead relies on the judgment of the
individual.) In an anthropocentric revolution, the human being is now raised to the level of a
subject, an agent, an emancipatedbeing equipped with autonomous reason. This was a
revolutionary step that posed the basis of modernity, the repercussions of which are still ongoing:
the emancipation of humanity from Christian revelational truth and Church doctrine, a person
who makes his own law and takes his own stand.[58][59][60] In modernity, the guarantor of truth is not
God anymore but human beings, each of whom is a "self-conscious shaper and guarantor" of
their own reality.[61][62] In that way, each person is turned into a reasoning adult, a subject, and
agent,[61] as opposed to a child obedient to God. This change in perspective was characteristic of
the shift from the Christian medieval period to the modern period; that shift had been anticipated
in other fields, and now Descartes was giving it a formulation in the field of philosophy.[61][63]

This anthropocentric perspective, establishing human reason as autonomous, provided the basis
for the Enlightenment's emancipation from God and the Church. It also provided the basis for all
subsequent anthropology.[64]Descartes' philosophical revolution is sometimes said to have
sparked modern anthropocentrism and subjectivism.[10][65][66][67]

Mathematical legacy[edit]

A Cartesian coordinates graph, using his invented x and y axes.

One of Descartes' most enduring legacies was his development of Cartesian or analytic
geometry, which uses algebra to describe geometry. He "invented the convention of representing
unknowns in equations by x, y, and z, and knowns by a, b, and c". He also "pioneered the
standard notation" that uses superscripts to show the powers or exponents; for example, the 4
used in x4 to indicate squaring of squaring.[68][69] He was first to assign a fundamental place for
algebra in our system of knowledge, and believed that algebra was a method to automate or
mechanize reasoning, particularly about abstract, unknown quantities. European mathematicians
had previously viewed geometry as a more fundamental form of mathematics, serving as the
foundation of algebra. Algebraic rules were given geometric proofs by mathematicians such
as Pacioli, Cardan, Tartaglia and Ferrari. Equations of degree higher than the third were
regarded as unreal, because a three-dimensional form, such as a cube, occupied the largest
dimension of reality. Descartes professed that the abstract quantity a2 could represent length as
well as an area. This was in opposition to the teachings of mathematicians, such as Vieta, who
argued that it could represent only area. Although Descartes did not pursue the subject, he
preceded Leibnizin envisioning a more general science of algebra or "universal mathematics," as
a precursor to symbolic logic, that could encompass logical principles and methods symbolically,
and mechanize general reasoning.[70]

Descartes' work provided the basis for the calculus developed by Newton and Gottfried Leibniz,
who applied infinitesimal calculus to the tangent line problem, thus permitting the evolution of that
branch of modern mathematics.[71] His rule of signs is also a commonly used method to
determine the number of positive and negative roots of a polynomial.

Descartes discovered an early form of the law of conservation of mechanical momentum (a

measure of the motion of an object), and envisioned it as pertaining to motion in a straight line,
as opposed to perfect circular motion, as Galileo had envisioned it. He outlined his views on the
universe in his Principles of Philosophy.

Descartes also made contributions to the field of optics. He showed by using geometric
construction and the law of refraction (also known as Descartes' law or more commonly Snell's
law) that the angular radius of a rainbow is 42 degrees (i.e., the angle subtended at the eye by
the edge of the rainbow and the ray passing from the sun through the rainbow's centre is
42°).[72] He also independently discovered the law of reflection, and his essay on optics was the
first published mention of this law.[73]

Influence on Newton's mathematics[edit]

Current opinion is that Descartes had the most influence of anyone on the young Newton, and
this is arguably one of Descartes' most important contributions. Newton continued Descartes'
work on cubic equations, which freed the subject from the fetters of the Greek and Macedonian
perspectives. The most important concept was his very modern treatment of independent
variables.[74]

Contemporary reception[edit]
Although Descartes was well known in academic circles towards the end of his life, the teaching
of his works in schools was controversial. Henri de Roy (Henricus Regius, 1598–1679),
Professor of Medicine at the University of Utrecht, was condemned by the Rector of the
University, Gijsbert Voet (Voetius), for teaching Descartes' physics.[75]

Writings[edit]
Handwritten letter by Descartes, December 1638.

 1618. Musicae Compendium. A treatise on music theory and the aesthetics of music written
for Descartes' early collaborator, Isaac Beeckman (first posthumous edition 1650).
 1626–1628. Regulae ad directionem ingenii (Rules for the Direction of the Mind). Incomplete.
First published posthumously in Dutch translation in 1684 and in the original Latin at
Amsterdam in 1701 (R. Des-Cartes Opuscula Posthuma Physica et Mathematica). The best
critical edition, which includes the Dutch translation of 1684, is edited by Giovanni Crapulli
(The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1966).
 1630–1631. La recherche de la vérité par la lumière naturelle (The Search for Truth)
unfinished dialogue published in 1701.
 1630–1633. Le Monde (The World) and L'Homme (Man). Descartes' first systematic
presentation of his natural philosophy. Man was published posthumously in Latin translation
in 1662; and The World posthumously in 1664.
 1637. Discours de la méthode (Discourse on the Method). An introduction to the Essais,
which include the Dioptrique, the Météores and the Géométrie.
 1637. La Géométrie (Geometry). Descartes' major work in mathematics. There is an English
translation by Michael Mahoney (New York: Dover, 1979).
 1641. Meditationes de prima philosophia (Meditations on First Philosophy), also known
as Metaphysical Meditations. In Latin; a second edition, published the following year,
included an additional objection and reply, and aLetter to Dinet. A French translation by the
Duke of Luynes, probably done without Descartes' supervision, was published in 1647.
Includes six Objections and Replies.
 1644. Principia philosophiae (Principles of Philosophy), a Latin textbook at first intended by
Descartes to replace the Aristotelian textbooks then used in universities. A French
 translation, Principes de philosophie by Claude Picot, under the supervision of Descartes,
appeared in 1647 with a letter-preface to Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia.
 1647. Notae in programma (Comments on a Certain Broadsheet). A reply to Descartes' one-
time disciple Henricus Regius.
 1648. La description du corps humaine (The Description of the Human Body). Published
posthumously by Clerselier in 1667.
 1648. Responsiones Renati Des Cartes... (Conversation with Burman). Notes on a Q&A
session between Descartes and Frans Burman on 16 April 1648. Rediscovered in 1895 and
published for the first time in 1896. An annotated bilingual edition (Latin with French
translation), edited by Jean-Marie Beyssade, was published in 1981 (Paris: PUF).
 1649. Les passions de l'âme (Passions of the Soul). Dedicated to Princess Elisabeth of the
Palatinate.
 1657. Correspondance (three volumes: 1657, 1659, 1667). Published by Descartes' literary
executor Claude Clerselier. The third edition, in 1667, was the most complete; Clerselier
omitted, however, much of the material pertaining to mathematics.

In January 2010, a previously unknown letter from Descartes, dated 27 May 1641, was found by
the Dutch philosopher Erik-Jan Bos when browsing through Google. Bos found the letter
mentioned in a summary of autographs kept by Haverford College in Haverford, Pennsylvania.
The College was unaware that the letter had never been published. This was the third letter by
Descartes found in the last 25 years.[76][77]

What are coordinates?

To introduce the idea, consider the grid on the right.

The columns of the grid are lettered A,B,C etc. The rows are numbered 1,2,3 etc from
the top. We can see that the Xis in box D3; that is, column D, row 3.

D and 3 are called the coordinates of the box. It has two parts: the row and the column.
There are many boxes in each row and many boxes in each column. But by having both
we can find one single box, where the row and column intersect.

The Coordinate Plane

In coordinate geometry, points are placed on the "coordinate plane" as shown below. It
has two scales - one running across the plane called the "x axis" and another a right
angles to it called the y axis. (These can be thought of as similar to the column and row
in the paragraph above.) The point where the axes cross is called the origin and is
where both x and y are zero.
On the x-axis, values to the right are positive and those to the left are negative.
On the y-axis, values above the origin are positive and those below are negative.

A point's location on the plane is given by two numbers,the first tells where it is on the x-
axis and the second which tells where it is on the y-axis. Together, they define a single,
unique position on the plane. So in the diagram above, the point A has an x value of 20
and a y value of 15. These are the coordinates of the point A, sometimes referred to as
its "rectangular coordinates". Note that the order is important; the x coordinate is always
the first one of the pair.

For a more in-depth explanation of the coordinate plane see The Coordinate Plane.
For more on the coordinates of a point see Coordinates of a Point

Things you can do in Coordinate Geometry

If you know the coordinates of a group of points you can:

 Determine the distance between them

 Find the midpoint, slope and equation of a line segment
 Determine if lines are parallel or perpendicular
 Find the area and perimeter of a polygon defined by the points
 Transform a shape by moving, rotating and reflecting it.
 Define the equations of curves, circles and ellipses.

Information on all these and more can be found in the pages listed below.

History
The method of describing the location of points in this way was proposed by the French
mathematician René Descartes (1596 - 1650). (Pronounced "day CART"). He proposed
further that curves and lines could be described by equations using this technique, thus
being the first to link algebra and geometry. In honor of his work, the coordinates of a
point are often referred to as its Cartesian coordinates, and the coordinate plane as the
Introduction to Coordinate Geometry
A system of geometry where the position of points on the plane is described
using an ordered pair of numbers.
Recall that a plane is a flat surface that goes on forever in both directions. If we were to
place a point on the plane, coordinate geometry gives us a way to describe exactly
where it is by using two numbers.Cartesian

Coordinate geometry is one of the most important and exciting ideas of

mathematics. In particular it is central to the mathematics students meet at school. It

provides a connection between algebra and geometry through graphs

CONTENT
It is expected that students have met plotting points on the plane and have plotted
points from tables of values of both linear and non linear functions.

The number plane (Cartesian plane) is divided into four quadrants by two
perpendicular axes called the x-axis (horizontal line) and the y-axis (vertical line).
These axes intersect at a point called the origin. The position of any point in the
plane can be represented by an ordered pair of numbers (x, y). These ordered
pairs are called the coordinates of the point.

The point with coordinates (4, 2)

has been plotted on the Cartesian plane shown. The coordinates of the origin are (0,
0).
Once the coordinates of two points are known the distance between the two points
and midpoint of the interval joining the points can be found.

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

Distances are always positive, or zero if the points coincide. The distance
from A to B is the same as the distance from B to A. We first find the distance
between two points that are either vertically or horizontally aligned.

EXAMPLE

Find the distance between the following pairs of points.

At A (1, 2) and B (4, 2) b A (1, −2) and B (1, 3)

SOLUTION

At The distance AB = 4 − 1 = 3

Note: The distance AB is obtained from

the difference of the x-coordinates of
the two points.
 B The distance AB = 3 − (−2) = 5

Note: The distance AB is obtained from

the difference of the y-coordinates of the
two points.

The example above considered the special cases when the line interval AB is either
horizontal or vertical. Pythagoras’ theorem is used to calculate the distance between
two points when the line interval between them is neither vertical nor horizontal.

The distance between the points A (1, 2) and B (4, 6) is calculated below.

AC = 4 − 1 = 3 and BC = 6 − 2 = 4.

By Pythagoras’ theorem,

AB = 3 + 4 = 25
2 2 2

And so AB = 5

The general case

We can obtain a formula for the length of any interval. Suppose that P(x1, y1)
and Q(x2, y2) are two points.
Form the right-angled triangle PQX, where X is the point (x2, y1),

PX = x2 − x1 or x1 − x2 and QX = y2 − y1 or y1 − y2

Depending on the positions of P and Q.

By Pythagoras’ theorem:

PQ = PX + QX
2 2 2

= (x2 − x1) + (y2 − y1)

2 2

Therefore PQ = QP =

Note that (x2 − x1) is the same as (x1 − x1) and therefore it doesn’t matter whether
2 2

we go from P to Q or from Q to P − the result is the same.

EXAMPLE

Find the distance between the points A (−4, −3) and B (5, 7).

SOLUTION

In this case, x1 = −4, x2 = 5, y1 = −3 and y2 = 7.

AB = (x2 − x1) + (y2 − y1)

2 2 2

= (5 − (−4)) + (7 − (−3))
2 2

= 9 + 10
2 2

= 181
Thus, AB =

Note that we could have chosen x1 = 5, x2 = −4, y1 = 7 and y2 = −3 and still

obtained the same result. As long as (x1, y1) refers to one point and (x2, y2) the other
point, it does not matter which one is which.

THE MIDPOINT OF AN INTERVAL

The coordinates of the midpoint of a line interval can be found using averages as we will see.

We first deal with the situation where the points are horizontally or vertically
aligned.

EXAMPLE

Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line interval AB, given:

a A(1, 2) and B(7, 2) b A(1, −2) and B(1, 3)

SOLUTION

a AB is a horizontal line interval, the

midpoint is at (4, 2), since 4 is halfway
between 1 and 7.

Note: 4 is the average of 1 and 7, that is, 4 = .

b The midpoint of AB has coordinates 1, .

Note that is the average of 3 and −2.

12

When the interval is not parallel to one of the axes we take the average of the x-
coordinate and the y-coordinate. This is proved below.

Let M be the midpoint of the line AB. Triangles AMS and MBT are congruent triangles
(AAS), and so AS = MT and MS = BT.

Hence the x-coordinate of M is the average of 1 and 5.

x= =3

The y coordinate of M is the average of 2 and 8.

 x= =5

Thus the coordinates of the midpoint M are (3, 5).

Midpoint of an interval

The midpoint of an interval with endpoints P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is , .

Take the average of the x-coordinates and the average of the y-coordinates.

EXAMPLE

Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line interval joining the points (6, 8)
and (−3, 2).

SOLUTION

The midpoint has coordinates, , = ,5

EXAMPLE

If C(3, 6) is the midpoint of line interval AB and A has coordinates (−1, 1), find the
coordinates of B.

SOLUTION

Let the coordinates of B be (x1, y1).

= 3 and =6

x1 − 1 = 6 y1 + 1 = 12

so x1 = 7 so y1 = 11.

Thus B has coordinates (7, 11).

EXAMPLE
A line passes through the points (1, 2) and (5, 10). Find its gradient.

SOLUTION

gradient =

=2