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Gandhi Institute for Education and Technology

Baniatangi, Bhubaneswar

LABORATORY MANUAL
Electrical Power Transmission & Distribution Lab
DEPT. OF _______________________

NAME: ..........................................................................

REGD. NO: .................................................................

BRANCH: ...................................................................

SEMESTER: ...........................YEAR..............................

ACADEMIC YEARS:......................................................

GANDHI INSTITUTE FOR EDUCATION & TECHNOLOGY


Baniatangi,Bhubaneswar-752060
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Introduction:

For economical generation of power large generating stations are used. Capacities of individual
generating sets have gone up recently. Generating sets in the range of 10 MW, 210 MW and 500 MW
are being manufactured in many countries. Generating station are now not necessarily located at load
centers. In fact other factors like availability of fuel and water play more dominating role in the
selection of sites for thermal stations. Hydro stations are obviously located only at the sites where
water is available at sufficient head. A vast network of transmission system has been created so that
power generated at one station may be fed to grid system and may be distributed over large areas
and number of states. The transmission and distribution system comprises a network of three-phase
circuits with transforming and or switching substations at the various junctions. The parts of a
transmission and distribution network maybe grouped as given below.

Alternating Current is used for electric power distribution because it can easily be transformed to a
higher or lower voltage. Electrical energy losses are dependent on current flow. By using
transformers, the voltage can be stepped up so that the same amount of power may be distributed
over long distances at lower currents and hence lower losses due to the resistance of the conductors.
The voltage can also be stepped down again so it is safe for domestic supply.

Three-phase electrical generation and transmission is common and is an efficient use of conductors as
the current-rating of each conductor can be fully utilized in transporting power from generation
through transmission and distribution to final use. Three-phase electricity is supplied only in industrial
premises and many industrial electric motors are designed for it. Three voltage waveforms are
generated that are 120 degrees out of phase with each other. At the load end of the circuit the return
legs of the three phase circuits can be coupled together at a 'neutral point', where the three currents
sum to zero if supplied to a balanced load. This means that all the current can be carried using only
three cables, rather than the six that would otherwise be needed. Three phase power is a type of
polyphase system.

In most situations only a single phase is needed to supply street lights or residential consumers. When
distributing three-phase electric power, a fourth or neutral cable is run in the street distribution to
provide one complete circuit to each house. Different houses in the street are placed on different
phases of the supply so that the load is balanced, or spread evenly, across the three phases when
consumers are connected. Thus the supply cable to each house can consist of a live and neutral
conductor with possibly an earthed armoured sheath. In North America, the most common technique
is to use a transformer to convert one distribution phase to a center-tapped 'split-phase' 240V
winding; the connection to the consumer is typically two 120-volt power lines out of phase with each
other, and a grounded 'neutral' wire, which also acts as the physical support wire.

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Contents

Sl.No Name of The Experiment Page Start Page End Sign

1 To measure the Earth 4 7


Resistance.

2 To determine the string 8 10


efficiency

3 study of various lightning 11 16


arrester

4 Series and shunt Capacitance 17 21


Computation in
Transmission line

5 Study of Ferranti Effect 22 24

6 Determination of ABCD 25 27
parameter of a transmission
line

7 To measure the dielectric 28 29


(Breakdown) strength of
transformer oil.

8 To Study corona discharge 30 32

3
Experiment no-1 Date:

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: To measure the Earth Resistance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Earth Tester-1 no.

2. Spikes --3 No.

THEORY:-

Construction of Megger

Circuit Construction features:-

• Deflecting and Control coil : Connected parallel to the generator, mounted at right angle to each other
and maintain polarities in such a way to produced torque in opposite direction.

• Permanent Magnets : Produce magnetic field to deflect pointer with North-South pole magnet.

• Pointer : One end of the pointer connected with coil another end deflects on scale from infinity to zero.

• Scale : A scale is provided in front-top of the megger from range ‘zero’ to ‘infinity’, enable us to read
the value.

• D.C generator or Battery connection : Testing voltage is produced by hand operated DC generator for
manual operated Megger. Battery / electronic voltage charger is provided for automatic type Megger for same
purpose.

• Pressure coil resistance and Current coil resistance : Protect instrument from any damage because of
low external electrical resistance under test.

Working Principle of Megger:-

• Voltage for testing produced by hand operated megger by rotation of crank in case of hand operated
type, a battery is used for electronic tester.

• 500 Volt DC is sufficient for performing test on equipment range up to 440 Volts.

• 1000 V to 5000 V is used for testing for high voltage electrical systems.

• Deflecting coil or current coil connected in series and allows flowing the electric current taken by the
circuit being tested.

• The control coil also known as pressure coil is connected across the circuit.

• Current limiting resistor (CCR and PCR) connected in series with control and deflecting coil to protect
damage in case of very low resistance in external circuit.

• In hand operated megger electromagnetic induction effect is used to produce the test voltage i.e.
armature arranges to move in permanent magnetic field or vice versa.
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• Where as in electronic type megger battery are used to produce the testing voltage.

• As the voltage increases in external circuit the deflection of pointer increases and deflection of pointer
decreases with a increases of current.

• Hence, resultant torque is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to current.

• When electrical circuit being tested is open, torque due to voltage coil will be maximum and pointer
shows ‘infinity’ means no shorting throughout the circuit and has maximum resistance within the circuit under
test.

• If there is short circuit pointer shows ‘zero’, which means ‘NO’ resistance within circuit being tested.

• Work philosophy based on ohm-meter or ratio-meter. The deflection torque is produced with Megger
tester due to the magnetic field produced by voltage and current, similarly like ‘Ohm's Law’. Torque of the
Megger varies in ration with V/I, (Ohm's Law: - V = IR or R = V/I). Electrical resistance to be measured is
connected across the generator and in series with deflecting coil. Produced torque shall be in opposite
direction if current supplied to the coil.

• High resistance = No current: - No current shall flow through deflecting coil, if resistance is very high i.e.
infinity position of pointer.

• Small resistance = High current :- If circuit measures small resistance allows a high electric current to
pass through deflecting coil, i.e. produced torque make the pointer to set at ‘ZERO’.

• Intermediate resistance = varied current: - If measured resistance is intermediate, produced torque


align or set the pointer between the range of ‘ZERO to INIFINITY’.

Connection Diagram of Megger for Testing:-

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PROCEDURE:-

1) Put the two spikes acting as current & potential electrode in to the ground at a distance of

15 cm & 7.5 cm from earth electrode under test.

1) Connect the two spikes to C2 & P2 terminals respectively.

2) Short the P1 & C1 terminals of motor & connect it to the earth electrode under test.

3) Place the megger on horizontal firm stud.

4) Turn the handle of megger to speed slightly higher then rated speed & note down the

deflection of the needle.

5) Take down the 3 to 4 readings by keeping the distance same and placing the electrodes at

the other positions.

6) Take the average of these readings which is equal to earth resistance.

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Tabulation:-

Sl.No D1 Distance in cm from D2 Distance in cm from Earth Resistance in Mean


reference reference Ohms Value

CONCLUSION:-

The value of earth resistance by direct method is ------------- Ω

Name of the student

Registration Number

Signature of Faculty

Date

7
Experiment no-2 Date:

Aim of the experiment: To determine the string efficiency

Apparatus Required:

1. Matlab Software

Theory:

From equivalent circuit, applying Kirchoff's current law to node A,

I2 = I1 + i1

V2ωC = V1ωC + V1ωkC

V2 = V1 + V1k

V2 = (1 + k)V1 ...... eq.(i)

applying Kirchoff's current law to node B,

I3 = I2 + i2

V3ωC = V2ωC + (V2 + V1)ωkC

V3 = V2 + (V1 + V2)k

V3 = kV1 + (1 + k) V2

V3 = kV1 + (1 + k)2 V1 ...... from eq.(i)

V3 = V1 [k + (1 + k)2]

V3 = V1 [k + 1 + 2k + k2]

V3 = V1 (1 + 3k + k2) ...... eq.(ii)

Now, voltage between the conductor and the earther tower is,

V = V1 + V2 + V3

V = V1 + (1 + k)V1 + V1 (1 + 3k + k2)

V = V1 (3 + 4k + k2) ...... eq.(iii)

from the above equations (i), (ii) & (iii), it is clear that the voltage across the top disc is minimum while voltage
across the disc nearest to the conductor is maximum, i.e. V3 = V1 (1 + 3k + k2). As we move towards the cross
arm, voltage across the disc goes on decreasing. Due to this non-uniform voltage distribution across the string,
the unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum electrical stress and is likely to be punctured.

String Efficiency

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As explained above, voltage is not uniformly distributed over a suspension insulator string. The disc nearest to
the conductor has maximum voltage across it and, hence, it will be under maximum electrical stress. Due to
this, the disc nearest to the conductor is likely to be punctured and subsequently, other discs may puncture
successively. Therefore, this unequal voltage distribution is undesirable and usually expressed in terms of string
efficiency.

The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the voltage across the disc
nearest to the conductor is called as string efficiency

String efficiency = Voltage across the string / (number of discs X voltage across the disc nearest to the
conductor).

Circuit Diagram:

Program Body:

clear all;

r =33*1e3;

v=r/sqrt(3)

k =0.11;

ins=3;

v1=v/(3+4*k+k^2);

v2=v1*(1+k);

v3=v1*(1+3*k+k^2);
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d=v*100/ins/v3;

fprintf('( i ) Voltage across top unit =%.2fkV \n\n',v1/1000) ;

fprintf('Voltage across middle unit = %.2fkV \n\n',v2/1000) ;

fprintf('Voltage across bottom unit = %.2fkV \n\n',v3/1000) ;

fprintf('( i i ) String efficiency = %.2f \n\n',d);

Output:

v=

( i ) Voltage across top unit = kV

Voltage across middle unit = kV

Voltage across bottom unit = kV

( i i ) String efficiency =

Conclusion: The String Efficiency is studied and is found out to be ______________ %

Name of the student

Registration Number

Signature of Faculty

Date

10
Experiment no-3 Date:

Aim of the Experiment:- study of various lightning arrester

Apparatus Required:-

1. Thyrite type lightning


2. Pellet type lightning

Theory

Lightning Arrester -Over voltages may cause burning of insulation of sub station equipment if not well
protected. Lightning is one of the most serious causes of over voltages. Lightning arrestors/ surge arrestors are
connected to protect the equipments from lightning and switching surges.

Various types of lightning arrestor construction are Rod gap, Expulsion type, Valve type, Horn gap, Pellet type,
Thyrite type etc.

An ideal LA should posses the following characteristics.

1. It must not take any current at normal system voltage

2. Any transient wave with voltage peak exceeding the spark over voltage must cause it to break down.

3. After break down it must be capable of carrying the resulting discharge current without any damage to itself
and without voltage across it exceeding the breakdown voltage.

4. The power frequency current following the breakdown must be interrupted as soon as the transient voltage
has fallen below the breakdown value.

Location of Lightning Arrestor

•Lightning Arrestor should be located close to the equipment that it is expected to protect.

• In large sub stations arrestors should be installed at take off points of the lines and of terminal apparatus.

•Many factors like system voltages, basic impulse insulation level, arrestor rating, station lay out, number and
arrangement of lines, position of isolators, distance between equipments etc. have to be taken into account in
fixing the location of the arrestors.

•The length of the arrestor lead should be as low as possible and should not exceed 10M. Arrestors are
installed both on HV and LV side of the transformers.

• Junction of an OH line and the cable should be protected by LA.

•Separate earth should be provided for each LAs. LA ground leads should not be connected to the station earth
bus.

Lightning Arrestor Ratings

The Rating of lightning arrestor are given below,

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Normal or rated voltage: It is designated by the maximum permissible value of power frequency voltage which
it can support across its line and earth terminal while still carrying effectively and without the automatic
extinction of the follow up current. The voltage rating of the arrestors should be greater than the maximum
sound phase to ground voltage.

Normal Discharge current: It is the surge current which flows through the LA after the spark over, expressed in
crest value (peak value) for a specified wave shape. Example 10, 5, 2.5, 1.5, 1 kA rating.

Power frequency spark over voltage: It is the RMS value of the power frequency voltage applied between the
line and earth terminals of the arrestor and earth which causes spark over of the series gap. As per IS 3070, the
recommended spark over voltage is 1.5 times the rated voltage.

There are also other ratings like maximum impulse spark over voltage, residual or discharge voltage, maximum
discharge current etc

Selection of Lightning Arrestor

For the protection of substation above 66KV an arrestor of 10kA rating is used.

Voltage rating of LA = Line to line voltage × 1.1 × coefficient of earthing.

Power frequency spark over voltage = 1.5 ×Voltage rating of LA

(Assuming coefficient of earthing equals 0.8 for effectively earthed system)

For 220KV side:

Voltage rating = 1.1 × 220 × 0.8 = 193.6KV

Power frequency spark over voltage = 1.5 ×193.6 = 290.4KV

Rated discharge current = 10 kA

For 110KV side:

Voltage rating = 1.1 × 110×0.8 = 96.8KV

Power frequency spark over voltage = 1.5 × 96.8 = 145.2KV

Rated discharge current = 10kA

For 66kV Side

Voltage rating = 1.1 × 66×0.8 = 58.08kV

Power frequency spark over voltage = 1.5 × 58.08 = 87.12kV

Rated discharge current = 10kA

For 11 KV side:

Voltage rating = 1.1× 11×0.8 = 9.68KV

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Power frequency spark over voltage = 1.5×9.68 = 14.52KV

Nominal discharge current = 5kA

Rod Gap Type Lightning Arrester

Pellet type lightning


arrester

Thyrite type lightning Horngap type lightning arrester


arrester
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Rod gap arrester

It is a very simple type of diverter and consists of two 1.5 cm rods, which are bent at right angles with a gap in
between as shown in Fig. One rod is connected to the line circuit and the other rod is connected to earth. The
distance between gap and insulator (i.e. distance P) must not be less than one third of the gap length so that
the arc may not reach the insulator and damage it.

Generally, the gap length is so adjusted that breakdown should occur at 80% of spark-voltage in order to avoid
cascading of very steep wave fronts across the insulators.

The string of insulators for an overhead line on the bushing of transformer has frequently a rod gap across it.
Fig 8 shows the rod gap across the bushing of a transformer. Under normal operating conditions, the gap
remains non-conducting. On the occurrence of a high voltage surge on the line, the gap sparks over and the
surge current is conducted to earth. In this way excess charge on the line due to the surge is harmlessly
conducted to earth

Limitations

•After the surge is over, the arc in the gap is maintained by the normal supply voltage, leading to short-circuit
on the system.

•The rods may melt or get damaged due to excessive heat produced by the arc.T

•he climatic conditions (e.g. rain, humidity, temperature etc.) affect the performance of rod gap arrester.

•The polarity of the f the surge also affects the performance of this arrester.

•Due to the above limitations, the rod gap arrester is only used as a back-up protection in case of main
arresters.

Horn gap arrester

Fig shows the horn gap arrester. It consists of a horn shaped metal rods A and B separated by a small air gap.
The horns are so constructed that distance between them gradually increases towards the top as shown. The
horns are mounted on porcelain insulators. One end of horn is connected to the line through a resistance and
choke coil L while the other end is effectively grounded.

The resistance R helps in limiting the follow current to a small value. The choke coil is so designed that it offers
small reactance at normal power frequency but a very high reactance at transient frequency. Thus the choke
does not allow the transients to enter the apparatus to be protected.

The gap between the horns is so adjusted that normal supply voltage is not enough to cause an arc across the
gap.

Under normal conditions, the gap is non-conducting i.e. normal supply voltage is insufficient to initiate the arc
between the gap. On the occurrence of an over voltage, spark-over takes place across the small gap G. The
heated air around the arc and the magnetic effect of the arc cause the arc to travel up the gap. The arc moves
progressively into positions 1, 2 and 3.

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At some position of the arc (position 3), the distance may be too great for the voltage to maintain the arc;
consequently, the arc is extinguished. The excess charge on the line is thus conducted through the arrester to
the ground.

Expulsion type arrester

This type of arrester is also called ‘protector tube’ and is commonly used on system operating at voltages up to
33kV. Fig shows the essential parts of an expulsion type lightning arrester.

It essentially consists of a rod gap AA’ in series with a second gap enclosed within the fiber tube. The gap in the
fiber tube is formed by two electrodes. The upper electrode is connected to rod gap and the lower electrode to
the earth. One expulsion arrester is placed under each line conductor.

On the occurrence of an over voltage on the line, the series gap AA’ spanned and an arc is stuck between the
electrodes in the tube. The heat of the arc vaporizes some of the fiber of tube walls resulting in the production
of neutral gas. In an extremely short time, the gas builds up high pressure and is expelled through the lower
electrode, which is hollow. As the gas leaves the tube violently it carries away ionized air around the arc.

This deionizing effect is generally so strong that the arc goes out at a current zero and will not be re-
established.

Advantages

•They are not very expensive.

•They are improved form of rod gap arresters as they block the flow of power frequency follow currents

•They can be easily installed.

Limitations

•An expulsion type arrester can perform only limited number of operations as during each operation some of
the fiber material is used up.

•This type of arrester cannot be mounted on enclosed equipment due to discharge of gases during operation.

•Due to the poor volt/am characteristic of the arrester, it is not suitable for protection of expensive equipment

Valve type arrester

Valve type arresters incorporate non linear resistors and are extensively used on systems, operating at high
voltages. Fig shows the various parts of a valve type arrester. It consists of two assemblies (i) series spark gaps
and (ii) non-linear resistor discs in series. The non-linear elements are connected in series with the spark gaps.
Both the assemblies are accommodated in tight porcelain container.

The spark gap is a multiple assembly consisting of a number of identical spark gaps in series. Each gap consists
of two electrodes with fixed gap spacing. The voltage distribution across the gap is line raised by means of
additional resistance elements called grading resistors across the gap. The spacing of the series gaps is such

15
that it will withstand the normal circuit voltage. However an over voltage will cause the gap to break down
causing the surge current to ground via the non-linear resistors.

The non-linear resistor discs are made of inorganic compound such as thyrite or metrosil. These discs are
connected in series. The non-linear resistors have the property of offering a high resistance to current flow
when normal system voltage is applied, but a low resistance to the flow of high surge currents. In other words,
the resistance of these non-linear elements decreases with the increase in current through them and vice-
versa.

Under normal conditions, the normal system voltage is insufficient to cause the break down of air gap
assembly. On the occurrence of an over voltage, the breakdown of the series spark gap takes place and the
surge current is conducted to earth via the non-linear resistors.

Since the magnitude of surge current is very large, the non-linear elements will offer a very low resistance to
the passage of surge. The result is that the surge will rapidly go to earth instead of being sent back over the
line. When the surge is over, the non-linear resistors assume high resistance to stop the flow of current.

Thyrite Lightning Arrester

Such type of arrester is most commonly used for the protection against dangerous high voltage. It consists the
thyrite which is an inorganic compound of ceramic material. The resistance of such material decreases rapidly
from high value to low value and for current from a low value to high value.

It consists a disc whose both the side is sprayed so as to give the electric contact between the consecutive disc.
The disc is assembled inside the glazed porcelain container. It is used in conjunction with the container.

When the lightning takes place, the voltage is raised, and breakdowns of the gaps occur, the resistance falls to a
very low value, and the wave is discharged to earth. After the surge has passed the thyrite again come back to
its original position.

Pellet type lightning arrester

Pellet Type Oxide Film Arrester Competing head to head with the first expulsion arrester was the new Pellet
Type Oxide Film Arrester. This new design was a product of arrester titan, GE. From the patents and other
literature, it is clear that GE had numerous engineers designing arresters in this era. This new pellet type
arrester had the excellent voltage current characteristics of the Aluminum Cell arrester, but without a liquid
dielectric.

Conclusion:-The various types of lightning arresters are studied and their properties were noted.

Name of the student

Registration Number

Signature of Faculty

Date

16
Experiment-4 Date:

Aim of the Experiment: - Series and shunt Capacitance Computation in Transmission line

Apparatus Required

1. Matlab Software

Theory:-

Inductance of Transmission Line

In the medium and long transmission lines inductance (reactance) is more effective than resistance. The
current flow in the transmission line interacts with the other parameter, i.e the Inductance. We know that
when current flow within a conductor, magnetic flux is set up. With the variation of current in the conductor,
the number of lines of flux also changes, and an emf is induced in it (Faraday’s Law). This induced emf is
represented by the parameter known as inductance.

The flux linking with the conductor consist of two parts, namely, the internal flux and the external flux. The
internal flux is induced due to the current flow in the conductor. The external flux produced around the
conductor is due to its own current and the current of the other conductors place around it. The total
inductance of the conductor is determined by the calculation of the internal and external flux.

Capacitance of Transmission Line

Transmission line conductors constitute a capacitor between them. The conductors of the transmission line act
as a parallel plate of the capacitor and the air is just like a dielectric medium between them. The capacitance of
a line gives rise to the leading current between the conductors. It depends on the length of the conductor.

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Program Body:-

1.

%3 phase double circuit

%3 phase single circuit

D12=input('enter the distance between D12in cm: ');

D23=input('enter the distance between D23in cm: ');

D31=input('enter the distance between D31in cm: ');

d=input('enter the value of d: ');

r=d/2;

Ds=0.7788*r;

x=D12*D23*D31;

Deq=nthroot(x,3);

Y=log(Deq/Ds);

inductance=0.2*Y

capacitance=0.0556/(log(Deq/r))

fprintf('\n The inductance per phase per km is %f mH/ph/km \n',inductance);

fprintf('\n The capacitance per phase per km is %f mf/ph/km \n',capacitance);

enter the distance between D12in cm: 350

enter the distance between D23in cm: 350

enter the distance between D31in cm: 350

enter the value of d: 20

inductance =

capacitance =

The inductance per phase per km is mH/ph/km

The capacitance per phase per km is mf/ph/km

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2. %3 phase double circuit

%3 phase single circuit

D12=input('enter the distance between D12in cm: ');

D23=input('enter the distance between D23in cm: ');

D31=input('enter the distance between D31in cm: ');

d=input('enter the value of d: ');

r=d/2;

Ds=0.7788*r;

x=D12*D23*D31;

Deq=nthroot(x,3);

Y=log(Deq/Ds);

inductance=0.2*Y

capacitance=0.0556/(log(Deq/r))

fprintf('\n The inductance per phase per km is %f mH/ph/km \n',inductance);

fprintf('\n The capacitance per phase per km is %f mf/ph/km \n',capacitance);

enter the distance between D12in cm: 236

enter the distance between D23in cm: 245

enter the distance between D31in cm: 700

enter the value of d: 20

inductance =

capacitance =

The inductance per phase per km is mH/ph/km

The capacitance per phase per km is mf/ph/km

3. %3 phase double circuit

S = input('Enter row vector [S11, S22, S33] = ');

H = input('Enter row vector [H12, H23] = ');

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d = input('Bundle spacing in inch = ');

dia = input('Conductor diameter in inch = '); r=dia/2;

Ds = input('Geometric Mean Radius in inch = ');

S11 = S(1); S22 = S(2); S33 = S(3); H12 = H(1); H23 = H(2);

a1 = -S11/2 + j*H12;

b1 = -S22/2 + j*0;

c1 = -S33/2 - j*H23;

a2 = S11/2 + j*H12;

b2 = S22/2 + j*0;

c2 = S33/2 - j*H23;

Da1b1 = abs(a1 - b1); Da1b2 = abs(a1 - b2);

Da1c1 = abs(a1 - c1); Da1c2 = abs(a1 - c2);

Db1c1 = abs(b1 - c1); Db1c2 = abs(b1 - c2);

Da2b1 = abs(a2 - b1); Da2b2 = abs(a2 - b2);

Da2c1 = abs(a2 - c1); Da2c2 = abs(a2 - c2);

Db2c1 = abs(b2 - c1); Db2c2 = abs(b2 - c2);

Da1a2 = abs(a1 - a2);

Db1b2 = abs(b1 - b2);

Dc1c2 = abs(c1 - c2);

DAB=(Da1b1*Da1b2* Da2b1*Da2b2)^0.25;

DBC=(Db1c1*Db1c2*Db2c1*Db2c2)^.25;

DCA=(Da1c1*Da1c2*Da2c1*Da2c2)^.25;

GMD=(DAB*DBC*DCA)^(1/3)

Ds = 2.54*Ds/100; r = 2.54*r/100; d = 2.54*d/100;

Dsb = (d*Ds)^(1/2); rb = (d*r)^(1/2);

DSA=sqrt(Dsb*Da1a2); rA = sqrt(rb*Da1a2);

DSB=sqrt(Dsb*Db1b2); rB = sqrt(rb*Db1b2);

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DSC=sqrt(Dsb*Dc1c2); rC = sqrt(rb*Dc1c2);

GMRL=(DSA*DSB*DSC)^(1/3)

GMRC = (rA*rB*rC)^(1/3)

L=0.2*log(GMD/GMRL) % mH/km

C = 0.0556/log(GMD/GMRC) % micro F/km

Enter row vector [S11, S22, S33] = [ ]

Enter row vector [H12, H23] = [ ]

Bundle spacing in inch =

Conductor diameter in inch =

Geometric Mean Radius in inch =

GMD =

GMRL =

GMRC =

L=

C=

Conclusion:-The series and and shunt Capacitance Computation in Transmission line is studied.

Name of the student

Registration Number

Signature of Faculty

Date

21
Experiment -5 Date

Aim of the Experiment:- Study of Ferranti Effect

Apparatus Required:-

1. Matlab Software
2. Voltmeter
3. Ammeter
4. Single Phase Load
5. Variac
6. Transformers

Theory:- Transmission line model consists of four sections and each section represents 50 kmlong 400 KV
transmission line. Parameters of 50 km long 400 KV Transmission line are taken as:-

Series Inductance = 80 mH

Series Resistance = 2 ohm

(In addition to resistance of inductance coil)

Shunt Capacitance = 0.47 microF

Leakage resistance or Shunt Conductance = 470 kohm

For actual 400 KV transmission lines range of parameter is :-

l = Series Inductance = 1.0 to 2.0 mH/Km

r = Series Resistance = 0.5 to 1.5 ohm /Km

c = Shunt Capacitance = 0.008 to 0.010 microF/Km

g = Leakage resistance (Shunt Conductance) = 3 x 10–8 to 5 x 10–8 mho/Km

A long transmission line draws a substantial quantity of charging current. If such a line is open circuited for a
very lightly loaded at the receiving end, the voltage at the receiving end may become higher then the voltage at
the sending end. This is known as ‘FERRANTI EFFECT’ and is due to the voltage drop across the line inductance
(due to the charging current) being in phase the sending end voltage. The both capacitance and inductance are
22
necessary to produce this phenomenon. The capacitance and charging current is negligible in short line but
significant in medium length lines and appreciable in long lines. Therefore, phenomenon occures in medium
and long lines. In the phasor diagram, Ferranti effect is illustrated. The line may be represented by a nominal pi
circuit so that half of the total line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated at the receiving end. OM
represents the receiving end voltage. OC represents the current drawn by the capacitance assumed to be
consetrated at the receiving end. MN is the resistance drop and NP is inductive reactance drop. OP is the
sending end voltage under no load condition and is less than receiving end voltage.

Procedure:

(i) Apply the voltage (200 V max.) to the sending end and connect power factor meter. Also connect 1 ammeter
and voltmeter to each end (receiving and sending).

(ii) Connect the load comprising of R, L and C at the receiving end and note down the value of receiving end
voltage.

(iii) Now remove the load from the receiving end and note down the voltage on receiving end. This voltage at
the receiving end is quite large as compared to sending end voltage.

Observation Table:-

Sl.No. Sending Voltage Sending Current Receiving Voltage ReceivingCurrent Load Comment

Program Body:-

clc

clear all

vr=220e3/sqrt(3);

alpha=0.163e-3;

beta=1.0683e-3;

L=5000;

K=1;

for i=0:10:L,

vs=(vr/2)*exp(alpha*i)*exp(j*beta*i)+(vr/2)*exp(-alpha*i)*exp(-j*beta*i);

X(K)=real(vs);

Y(K)=imag(vs);

23
K=K+1;

p(K)=vs;

q(K)=i;

end

figure(1);

plot(p,q);

figure(2);

plot(X,Y);

Sample Graph:-

a-Ferranti Effect if the length of transmission line is varied

Conclusion:- The details of Ferranti Effect is studied and its simulation conducted gave the study report for
variation of voltage in respect to distance and type of load.

Name of the student

Registration Number

Signature of Faculty

Date

24
Experiment-6 Date:-

Aim of the Experiment:-Determination of ABCD parameter of a transmission line

Apparatus required:-

1. MAtlab Software
2. Voltmeter
3. Ammeter
4. Single Phase Load
5. Variac
6. Transformers

Theory:-

ABCD Parameter are widely used in analysis of power transmission engineering where they will be turned as
“Generalized circuit parameter” ABCD parameters are also called as Transmission parameter. It is conventional
to designate the input port as sending end and the output port as receiving end while representing ABCD
parameter

Vs = A Vr + B Ir

Is = C Vr + Dir

[Vs/Is] = [A B/C D] [Vr / Ir]

Assuming the receiving end open Circuit i.e.

A =Vs / Vr Where Ir = 0

B = Vs / Ir Where Vr = 0

C = Is / Vr Where Ir = 0

D = Is / Ir Where Vr = 0

Fig:- Model of Transmission Line

Tabulation

Sl.No. VS VR IS IR A B C D
1
2
3
25
Program Body:-

clc

clear all

f=50;L=300;z=40+i*125;y=i*1e-3;

PR=50e6/3;VR=220e3/(sqrt(3));Pfload=0.8;IRR=PR/(VR*Pfload);IR=IRR*(0.8-i*0.6);

z=z/L;y=y/L;k=1;

for i=10:10:600,

%short line aproximation

VS_shortline(k)=VR+((z*i*IR));

IS_shortline(k)=IR;

spf_shortline(k)=cos(angle(VS_shortline(k))-angle(IS_shortline(k)));

spower_shortline(k)=3*abs(VS_shortline(k))*abs(IS_shortline(k))*spf_shortline(k);

%nominal pi method

A=1+(y*i)*(z*i)/2;

B=z*i;

C=y*i*(1+(y*i)*(z*i)/4);

D=A;

VS_nominalpi(k)=A*VR+B*IR;

IS_nominalpi(k)=C*VR+D*IR;

spf_nominalpi(k)=cos(angle(VS_nominalpi(k))-angle(IS_nominalpi(k)));

spower_nominalpi(k)=3*abs(VS_nominalpi(k))*abs(IS_nominalpi(k))*spf_nominalpi(k);

point(k)=i;

k=k+1;

end%plots of short line in red and nominal pi in red

figure(1);

plot(point,abs(VS_shortline),'r',point,abs(VS_nominalpi),'g')

figure(2);

plot(point,abs(IS_shortline),'r',point,abs(IS_nominalpi),'g')

figure(3);

plot(point,abs(spf_shortline),'r',point,abs(spf_nominalpi),'g')

figure(4);
26
plot(point,abs(spower_shortline),'r',point,abs(spower_nominalpi),'g')

Sample Graph:-

Graph-1- Sending End power variation Graph-2-Pf variation using shortline


using shortline and nominal pi method and nominal Pi method

Graph-3-VS variation using shortline and nominal Pi Graph-4-IS variation using shortline and
method nominal Pi method

Conclusion:- ABCD parameter of a transmission line is studied and its was observed.

Name of the student

Registration Number

Signature of Faculty

Date

27
Experiment-7 Date:-

Aim of the Experiment:-To measure the dielectric (Breakdown) strength of transformer oil.

Equipment Required:

1. Portable oil testing set-220/250 V

2. HV transformer-50 kV/250 V

3. Gap setting gauges -0.15711 width

Theory:-

The two unit portable testing set is designed for the periodical testing of samples of insulating oils drawn from
plant on site and for checking the dielectric strength of new samples of oil. The equipment is designed to
operate from 200/250V, 50Hz, Single phase AC supply. Test gap voltage up to 50kV, it consists of two units, one
is containing the testing transformer and other is control and metering equipments. These equipments are kept
in a metal box to provide full protection to the apparatus during transport and storage. The gap is adjusted
between electrodes in accordance with I Standard Specification (BSS) no. 148.

The gap between the spheres is adjusted to 4 mm with the help of a gauge and the spheres are immersed in oil
to a depth as mentioned earlier. The voltage is increased gradually and continuously till a flash over of the gap
is seen or the MCB operates. Note down this voltage. This voltage is known as rapidly-applied voltage. The
breakdown of the gap has taken place mainly due to field effect. The thermal effect is minimal as the time of
application is short. Next bring the voltage back to zero and start with 40% of the rapidly applied voltage and
wait for one minute. See if the gap has broken. If not increase the voltage every time by 2.1/2% of the rapidly
applied voltage and wait for one minute till the flash over is seen or the MCB Mm. Note down this voltage. Start
again with zero voltage and increase the voltage to a value just obtained in the previous step and wait for a
minute. It is expected that the breakdown will take place

Procedure:

1. Place the High Voltage transformer unit about 7 away from the control unit.

2. The control unit is connected to supply voltage taking care that the earth connections are effective.

3. The multiple point control switch is set at its lowest tapping.

28
4. The push button on control unit is pressed firmly for at least 5 seconds. Note that no Breakdown to occurs, in
which case button should be released at once without delay. Break down is indicated by a continuous discharge
across the gap, bubbling of oil in the cell and meter indicating a sudden voltage drop.

Tabulation:

Sl.No. Break Down Voltage Mean


1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Conclusion:-The measurement of the dielectric (Breakdown) strength of transformer oil is studied and it’s
mean was found out to be _________ KV

Name of the student

Registration Number

Signature of Faculty

Date

29
Experiment-8 Date:-

Aim of the Experiment:-To Study corona discharge.

Apparatus Required:

1. Matlab Software

Theory:-

A corona discharge is an electrical discharge brought on by the ionization of a fluid such as air surrounding a
conductor that is electrically charged. Spontaneous corona discharges occur naturally in high-voltage systems
unless care is taken to limit the electric field strength. A corona will occur when the strength (potential
gradient) of the electric field around a conductor is high enough to form a conductive region, but not high
enough to cause electrical breakdown or arcing to nearby objects. It is often seen as a bluish (or other color)
glow in the air adjacent to pointed metal conductors carrying high voltages, and emits light by the same
property as a gas discharge lamp.

Factors Affecting Corona

 Atmosphere: As it is already explained that the corona forms due to ionization of the air. There are
always some free electrons in the air (which means air is pre-ionized to a little extent). However, in
stormy weather, the number of free electrons is more than that in normal conditions. In such case,
corona occurs at much lesser voltage.
 Conductor size: Corona discharge also depends on the shape and size of the conductors. Irregularities
on the conductor surface concentrate the electric field at locations, resulting in corona at these spots.
Thus, a stranded conductor gives rise to more corona than a solid conductor with a smooth surface.
Also, conductors having large diameter have lower electric field gradient at the surface. Hence,
conductors having large diameter produce lower corona than small-diameter conductors.
 Spacing between the conductors: Larger distance between the conductors reduces the electric stresses
between them. And, hence, larger the distance between conductors, lesser the corona formation.
 Line voltage: As it is already explained, lesser the line voltage, lesser the ionization of surrounding air.
Corona discharge starts to occur when the voltage becomes greater than a minimum critical voltage
called as critical disruptive voltage.

How To Reduce The Corona Discharge?

Corona discharge is always accompanied by power loss (which is dissipated in the form of sound, light, heat and
chemical action). Corona discharge can be reduced by the following methods:

 By increasing the conductor size: As explained above, larger the diameter of the conductor, lesser the
corona discharge.
 By increasing the distance between conductors: Larger the conductor spacing, lesser the corona.
 Using bundled conductors: Using a bundled conductor increases the effective diameter of the
conductor. This results in reduction of the corona discharge..

30
Program Body

clc

clear all

E=zeros(3,50);

E_0=8.85e-21;

ii=1;

for i=2:0.1:7

tmp_mat=zeros(3,1);

tmp_mat=cal(i)./(2*pi*E_0*i);

E(1:3,ii)=tmp_mat;

ii=ii+1;

end

axes1 = axes('YGrid','on',...

'XTick',[2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8
4.9 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.99999999999999 6.09999999999999 6.19999999999999
6.29999999999999 6.39999999999999 6.49999999999999 6.59999999999999 6.69999999999999
6.79999999999999 6.89999999999999 6.99999999999999 7],...

'XGrid','on');

hold(axes1,'all');

plot(2:0.1:7,E(1,:),'Marker','*','Color',[1 0 0]);

xlabel('Variation of radius [cm]');

ylabel('GRADIENT- [kv/cm]');

title('Figure One');

figure

axes1 = axes('YGrid','on',...

'XTick',[2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8
4.9 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.99999999999999 6.09999999999999 6.19999999999999
6.29999999999999 6.39999999999999 6.49999999999999 6.59999999999999 6.69999999999999
6.79999999999999 6.89999999999999 6.99999999999999 7],...

'XGrid','on');

hold(axes1,'all');

plot(2:0.1:7,E(2,:),'Marker','*','Color',[0 1 0]);

31
xlabel('Variation of radius [cm]');

ylabel('GRADIENT- [kv/cm]');

title('Figure Two');

figure

axes1 = axes('YGrid','on',...

'XTick',[2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8
4.9 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.99999999999999 6.09999999999999 6.19999999999999
6.29999999999999 6.39999999999999 6.49999999999999 6.59999999999999 6.69999999999999
6.79999999999999 6.89999999999999 6.99999999999999 7],...

'XGrid','on');

hold(axes1,'all');

plot(2:0.1:7,E(3,:),'Marker','*','Color',[0 0 1]);

xlabel('Variation of radius [cm]');

ylabel('GRADIENT- [kv/cm]');

title('Figure Three');

Sample Graph:-

Conclusion:- The corona discharge was studied in a digitally simulated atmosphere and its various advantages
and disadvantages were observed.

Name of the student

Registration Number

Signature of Faculty

Date

32

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