Onshore Pipelines The Road To Success Vol 1

Onshore Pipelines
THE ROAD TO SUCCESS
An IPLOCA document – 2nd edition September 2011
VOLUME ONE
© Copyright IPLOCA 2011
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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1
IPLOCA OBJECTIVES
Objective 1
To promote, foster and develop the science and practice of constructing onshore and offshore pipelines,
and associated works.
Objective 2
To make membership of the Association a reasonable assurance of the skill, integrity, performance, and
good faith of its Members, and more generally to promote good faith and professional ethics in industry.
Objective 3
To maintain the standards of the contracting business for onshore and offshore pipelines and associated
works at the highest professional level.
Objective 4
To promote safety and develop methods for the reduction and elimination of accidents and injuries to
contractor’s employees in the industry, and all those engaged in, or affected by, operations and work.
Objective 5
To promote protection of the environment and contribute to social, cultural and environmental
development programs, both in Switzerland and worldwide.
Objective 6
To promote good and co-operative relationships amongst membership of the Association as well as
between contractors, owners, operators, statutory and other organisations and the general public.
Objective 7
To encourage efficiency amongst the Members, Associate Members and their employees.
Objective 8
To seek correction of injurious, discriminatory or unfair business methods practised by or against the
industry contractors as a whole.
Objective 9
To follow the established Codes of Conduct set out by the industry and others with respect to working
within a free and competitive market, and in doing so, to promote competition in the interests of a
market economy based on liberal principle, both in Switzerland and worldwide.
Objective 10
To maintain and develop good relations with our Sister Associations as well as Associations allied to our
industry and play a leading role in the World Federation of Pipeline Industry Associations.
Disclaimer
In the preparation of THE ROAD TO SUCCESS, every effort has been made to present current, correct and
clearly expressed information. However, the information in the text is intended to offer general
information only and has neither been conceived as nor drafted as information upon which any person,
whether corporate or physical, is entitled to rely, notably in connection with legally binding commitments.
Neither its authors nor the persons mentioned herein nor the companies mentioned herein nor IPLOCA
accept any liability whatsoever in relation to the use of this publication in whatsoever manner, including
the information contained or otherwise referred to herein, nor for any errors or omissions contained
herein. Readers are directed to consult systematically with their professional advisors for advice
concerning specific matters before making any decision or undertaking any action.
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Executive Summary
“Onshore Pipelines: THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” was produced under the patronage of IPLOCA to
describe state-of-the-art project development and execution practices for onshore pipeline projects. It is
the collaborative result from six different working groups with the goal of covering all stages in the
development of a pipeline project.
The updates (*) and the new developments (**) introduced into this Second Edition are highlighted in
this executive summary.
Section 1 Introduction
Pipeline issues and challenges.
Section 2 Development Phases of a Pipeline Project

Section 2 describes the key points to be addressed during the FEL (Front End Loading)
phases in order to properly prepare for the project execution phase.
Much of FEL is done well before a project is sanctioned and begins construction to ensure
a complete project assessment so as to fully understand the challenges and risks
associated with a proposed pipeline project. During this period, project investors and their
design contractors typically have due diligence obligation to themselves and their
shareholders to achieve good FEL and therefore control the work process and make the
key project decisions. A detailed review of the data requirements and activities during
those phases is included.
Section 3 The Baseline of a Construction Contract

The next steps take place at the point of project sanction, where construction soon
begins. A baseline understanding of the project scope and its risks must be established
when investors and contractors enter into mutual agreement underlying a construction
contract.
This section offers recommendations for establishing the baseline for the Project Execution
phases with four chapters: the Scope of Works, the Programme, the Cost and the
Contract.
Section 4 Dealing with Risks in Pipeline Projects *

After project sanction, irrespective of all the efforts to reduce challenges and risks through
the FEL phases, there will inevitably be other challenges and risks that arise. These may
represent disruptions and changes to the established project baseline, so any pipeline
construction contract must document how these residual risks will be addressed and
managed.
Section 5 Best Practices in Planning and Design *

Best practices are developed in this updated section for planning and design, with the
process leading to the definition of the ROW and the information to be gathered during
the different phases of a project.
The routing and design of a pipeline requires a disciplined and organised sequence of
actions to ensure that the most acceptable and optimised route avoiding as many hazards
as possible has been selected and that the system has been designed under acceptable
standards to satisfy fitness for purpose, environmental constraints and safety.
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The Minimum Data Requirements and Activities for the Five Typical Project Stages
introduced in section 2 above are defined in this chapter.
Section 6 Earthworks
The terrain, soil types, and geohazards traversed by the pipeline are key factors to
consider in the design, construction, operation and maintenance of a pipeline project.
Firstly, the terrain typically affects pipeline hydraulics, above ground stations and pipeline
protection. Secondly, soil types will affect heat transfer, pipeline restraint, and
constructability. Finally, geohazards often require special design and construction
considerations.
The Earthworks section offers guidelines on how to prepare the right of way (ROW) in
different types of terrain, on the earthworks design, on the recommended measures to
reduce the impact on the environment, and finally on the approach to health and safety.
Section 7 Crossings **
This new section, to be further developed, is initiated with a description and comparison of
the different methods to execute major trenchless crossings.
Section 8 Logistics **
The risks associated with the logistics of pipe such as handling, transport, coating and
storage begin this new section. Other logistic constraints of pipeline projects will be further
developed in future editions.
Section 9 Welding (section to be developed)

This important topic deserves a section of its own, yet to be developed.
Section 10 Non Destructive Testing **

The section starts with a review of the main concerns of the different stakeholders of the
pipeline for completing the project. The second subject will be the role of codes and
standards in the design and building of pipelines. Finally the issues involved with NDT at
the various stages of the project are addressed:
• The role of NDT in the FEL/FEED stages.

• Vendor inspection and NDT at the material suppliers
• Girth weld inspection during the construction stage
• NDT during the use of the pipeline; considerations during the construction stage for
future maintenance
Section 11 Pipeline Protection Systems *

Most of the installed and currently planned onshore transmission pipelines around the
world are steel pipelines and their integrity during all the manufacturing, handling, storage,
installation and service life stages is an important aspect of any pipeline project. As the
external corrosion and the mechanical impacts have been identified as the most common
causes of pipe damage and failure in onshore pipelines, industry’s efforts have been
focused on addressing these issues in order to avoid potential economic, environmental
and human costs from pipeline failures. Therefore, this document reviews the passive
external anti-corrosion systems as well as the active cathodic protection approach.
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However, onshore pipeline projects can have other specific requirements. Supplementary
mechanical protection systems that protect the steel pipes and their coatings against
damage from external impacts are reviewed, along with internal coating systems and
thermal insulation. The floatability phenomenon has to be mitigated on onshore pipelines
crossing wet environments, such as lakes, rivers, or swampy areas and the industry has
developed specialized buoyancy control systems which are being presented here.
Section 12 Pipelines and the Environment (section to be developed)

This multiple-aspect topic also deserves a section of its own, yet to be developed.
Section 13 Future Trends and Innovation *

The onshore pipeline industry involves collaborative efforts between multiple stakeholders,
each of them having a key role to play at one stage or more during the project life cycle.
Understanding the involvement of each of these players is a vital step towards enhancing
the operations on the pipeline project in the areas of efficiency, quality, safety, and the
environment.
The GIS-based construction monitoring tool, the pipeline simulation tool, the Equipment
Tracking System and the use of Google Earth in pipeline construction monitoring are
presented as components of a well-rounded Integrated Pipeline Construction
Management (IPCM) System.
Innovative construction techniques (the “skidless methodology”) and developments in

construction machinery (features of the “ideal construction machine”, machine control
systems – GPS – and data transfer) are being proposed to the industry to complete this
section.
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Table of Contents (Volume One)

Page
Executive Summary 3
Preface 9
1. Introduction
2. Development Phases of a Pipeline Project
3. The Baseline of a Construction Contract
3.1 Defining the Scope of Work 1
3.2 Programming the Work 5
3.3 Contract Price Information to Facilitate Evaluation of Changes 9
3.4 Considerations in Developing the Conditions of Contract 10
Appendix 3.2.1: Recommendations for establishing Project Execution Plan -
Construction Phase 15
Appendix 3.2.2: A Primer to March Charts 21
Appendix 3.4.4: Contractual topics that have a particular importance
for onshore pipeline projects 35
Appendix 3.4.5: Project Cost Estimate and Contingency 39
4. Dealing with Risks in Pipeline Projects
4.1 Analysis, Allocation and Mitigation of Risks during
all Phases of a Pipeline Project 1
4.2 Management of Construction Risks on Pipeline Projects 19
Appendix 4.2.1: Examples of evaluation of time and cost impacts
of full stoppages or of slowdowns 25
5. Planning and Design
5.1 Right of Way & Constructability Guidelines 1
5.2 Minimum Data Requirements and Activities for the Five Typical Project
Stages 9
Appendix 5.1.1: Pipeline Route Selection Process 25
Appendix 5.1.2: Google Earth in Pipeline Design and Route Selection 51
6. Earthworks
6.1 Typical ROW Cross Sections for Large Diameter Pipeline 1
6.2 Earthworks Design / Trenching 13
6.3 Environment 18
6.4 Health and Safety 23
Appendix 6.2.: Pipeline Trench Design 26
Appendix 6.3.: Environment Control Measures 65
Appendix 6.4.: Health and Safety Control Measures 75
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7 Crossings
7.1 Trenchless Crossings 1
Glossary of Acronyms
Bibliography
Acknowledgements
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Preface
“Onshore Pipelines – THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” has been prepared and written under the patronage
of IPLOCA, the International Pipeline and Offshore Contractors Association.
IPLOCA is a non profit association with the key objective of fostering and developing the science and
practice of constructing onshore and offshore pipelines and associated works.
IPLOCA also promotes co-operative relationships between contractors, oil & gas investors & owners
and other stakeholders in the pipeline industry and has established fruitful relations with some of the
major oil & gas companies since its inception in 1966.
This document relates to onshore pipeline projects only.
Joint Development of “THE ROAD TO SUCCESS”
In 2003 a joint project started on a concept of industrialising the laying of large-diameter pipelines for
better, safer and faster installation. The land train concept was studied and a number of working groups
were formed to identify the main bottlenecks and fields of potential improvements. The land train
concept, which only addressed the pipeline construction aspects, was dropped in favour of a broader
perspective that addresses all phases of the onshore pipeline project from early development through
design, construction and commissioning. The joint work continued and all parties were very keen to
develop the findings identified during the earlier phase; the result is summarised in the present
document “Onshore Pipelines – THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” (herein after referred to as “THE ROAD TO
SUCCESS” or “THE ROAD”).
The list of those companies and persons having participated in this joint effort is included in the
Acknowledgements section. It comprises persons coming from oil & gas investors & owners, design
companies, construction contractors, suppliers and specialised subcontractors. This joint approach
aims at producing a document that can be used by all stakeholders in the pipeline industry.
To whom this document is addressed

“THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” has been prepared to assist all stakeholders who participate in the
development and construction of pipeline projects whether on a one-off or a regular basis, and in
particular:
- Investors/owners’ project managers, senior management and project engineers
- Designers’ project managers, senior management and project engineers
- Environmentalists who may be involved in pipeline projects
- Construction contractors and subcontractors key construction personnel,
Senior management and project engineers
- Students and teachers in the pipeline industry
It is IPLOCA’s sincere wish that THE ROAD TO SUCCESS will become a reference document for use in
the training of people coming to the pipeline industry.
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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Preface
Objectives
“THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” is prepared towards better identifying the key drivers in a pipeline project
from development to commissioning. This knowledge should in turn
• Improve the preparation process of pipeline projects for mitigation of risks towards a more
certain delivery date and budget
• Improve the relationship between investors/owners and construction contractors for the
success of the projects
• Improve the competitiveness of the pipeline industry through sound engineering & construction
practices and innovative solutions
“THE ROAD TO SUCCESS” is designed to focus on issues that concern specifically the onshore
pipeline industry. General contracting issues are dealt with in existing publications some of which are
listed in the Bibliography section.
The intent is to provide the reader with the basic knowledge required to improve the delivery of a project,
i.e. cost and schedule, whilst reducing the environmental footprint and achieving the desired safety
objectives.
Collaboration with Research Entities

As referred to in the First Edition, IPLOCA has moved forward by signing a Memorandum of
Understanding with APIA (Australian Pipeline Industry Association), EPRG (European Pipeline Research
Group) and PRCI (Pipeline Research Council International) to jointly develop research projects related to
our industry.
IPLOCA is proud of having served as a forum for such achievement and is committed to continue
developing and promoting this document and our pipeline industry.
This Second Edition is published in ring binder format to allow for more practical and environmentally
friendly updating of the book as the initiative progresses.
The Second Edition is also available on DVD.
IPLOCA is proud of having served as a forum for such achievement and is committed to continue
developing and promoting this document and our pipeline industry.
© September 2011 – International Pipeline and Offshore Contractors Association [IPLOCA] –

All rights reserved.
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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Preface
1. Introduction
Pipelines and IPLOCA

A pipeline is a facility through which liquids (crude oil and petroleum products), gases (natural gas,
carbon dioxide, steam) or solids (slurries) are transported. Although other forms of transportation are
available (tanker, road, rail), pipelines are the safest and most efficient means of transporting crude oil
and natural gas from producing fields to refineries and processing plants, and of distributing petroleum
products and natural gas to the consumer.
Pipelines are the irreplaceable core of fluid product transportation across the world. They reach billions
of consumers, directly into households and cars. Pipelines are selected as the main mode of
transportation due to economics and safety. Road transportation costs escalate with distance, making
road the most costly option. Rail is less dependent on distance, but still costly. Ship tankers are
comparable to pipelines in terms of cost, but are limited by geography.
Estimated percentages of volumes transported by each mode of transport are shown below.
Pipelines are not new. It is believed that pipelines were used from around 500 BC in China to transport
gas. Since then the design and construction development of pipelines has continued, and in recent
years pipeline contractors and investors from around the world have worked together within IPLOCA.
IPLOCA was formed to share ideas, engage the industry and its stakeholders to facilitate business
opportunities and promote the highest standards in the pipeline industry. With members in more than
40 countries, IPLOCA represents some 250 of the key players in the onshore and offshore pipeline
construction industry worldwide.
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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Introduction
Pipeline Issues and Challenges

International pipeline projects can be both challenging and rewarding. Challenges arise from the inherent
interactions between the land, the pipeline route, the communities which live and work nearby and the
further complexities of international languages, cultures, traditions, logistics, regulations, legal systems
and business practices. The potential for catastrophe is always lurking close at hand to catch the naïve
or complacent investor and contractor off-guard. However, when these challenges are successfully
addressed, leaving a pipeline system with solid integrity and performance as well as satisfied investors,
contractors and communities, projects can be very rewarding, both in financial terms as well as in the
esteem accorded to all those involved.
It is not always clear to investors or contractors how to overcome the challenges to reap the rewards.
They begin the project journey together, often entering at different stages along the way, always with
every intention of reaping the rewards, but all too frequently without an awareness of the challenges they
face. When a challenge is encountered, temptation often overtakes the carefully-nurtured relationships
and good intentions, leading either the investor or the contractor to expect, even demand, that the other
part take some action on behalf of the project to remove a challenge, with little or no effort on their own
part to address the very challenge they also face, being integrally involved in the very same project.
Unexpected challenges usually lead to misaligned expectations that damage the project and the
intended rewards for both parties.
This dynamic has not been lost on the industry, especially the contracting experts within it. Contracting
legal and commercial tools have developed to an ever-increasing sophistication, often attempting to
commit one party or the other to bear the full consequences of any challenge the project might
encounter, invoking the inevitable defensive reactions. Many explicit contract terms and conditions
currently in use have been crafted in response to very specific known challenges. But not all challenges
can be predicted in advance so, as new challenges become more widely understood within the industry,
more and more terms and conditions are reactively developed to try to assign the challenge to one party
or the other.
Unfortunately, the projects which discover emerging challenges first, or are without benefit of prior
experience, find themselves contractually ill-equipped to address the issues that arise. Prevailing
contracting law and practice frequently falls back on obtuse and implied contractual obligations, leading
to extended and often venomous disputes. The relationship and interactions between investor and
contractor quickly become almost entirely focused on the dispute, leaving the project vulnerable to
further challenges and disputes with the attendant loss of the rewards that enticed both parties to enter
the journey to begin with. A downward spiral of failure easily and frequently results. The primary
beneficiary is the litigation industry; everyone else loses. Various methods of conflict resolution or near-
litigation have been developed and are sometimes employed, but they all share the fundamental flaw of
dealing with conflicts reactively.
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Key Principles
There are three key principles that, if recognized and honoured, can prevent international pipeline
projects from such a sad fate:
1. Projects are only successful when they establish, nurture and protect close working
relationships between investors and contractors by jointly anticipating conflicts and preparing
agreements and commercial terms that enable predictable, effective and amicable resolution.
Unresolved project conflicts during project execution escalate and multiply rapidly as they
damage the working relationships between investor and contractor and distract the attention of
the project team from other challenges to come.
2. It is far better to proactively avoid and reduce project challenges than to assign their resolution,
even amicably, to only one of the parties in a contract. Challenges add effort and cost, both of
which inherently reduce the rewards for all the parties involved. The earlier in the project cycle
the challenges are recognized and addressed, the more reward is preserved. Early data
collection, design and planning during project development are essential in this respect.
3. A contract is nothing more than a document recording an agreement between two or more
parties. It is essential to establish the mutual agreement before developing and executing the
contract. Such an agreement for international pipeline projects must include, inter alia, how
each party will address the mutually identified project challenges, both those known at the time
and those as yet unknown. If an explicit and mutual agreement between the parties does not
exist in the first instance, any attempt by any party to use a contract document to force an
action later is unrealistic, counterproductive, abusive, unprofessional, manipulative, aggressive
and rightfully interpreted as a prelude to (commercial) war.
THE ROAD TO SUCCESS

It is with these key principles in mind that working groups, drawn from IPLOCA member companies
and a select group of international oil companies, set out to create this guidance document called the
THE ROAD TO SUCCESS. Our combined experience has led us to recognize why we have struggled
on some projects before, why many projects have succeeded and what we need to do consistently to
work together more effectively and succeed more often. It describes how to anticipate and avoid
challenges before beginning construction, how to conduct construction work to minimize exposure to
further challenges and, lastly, how to reach the mutual agreement necessary as the foundation for a
successful contract, addressing both known and as yet unknown challenges. It is our firm belief that the
approach outlined on THE ROAD TO SUCCESS will work anywhere in the world with any investor or
contractor on any pipeline project under any form of contract compensation.
THE ROAD TO SUCCESS is fairly simple in concept, but requires a degree of fair-minded and
commercially mature behaviours if travellers are to complete the journey. The junctions on THE ROAD
simply are:
1. Properly develop the project before beginning construction with, inter alia, adequate
engineering performed by a multi-skilled team including construction and environmental input.
2. Establish a clear baseline for the project in the construction contracts, including the scope, the
risks and the plans for responding to those risks.
3. Plan for all the risks involved with international business, but especially for those that are unique
to pipeline projects but common within our industry.
4. Develop contract agreements, terms and conditions to predefine responses, responsibilities
and commercial adjustments, ready to respond to unanticipated project challenges or events.
5. Implement best practices in Planning and Construction Techniques and evaluate merits of
future trends and innovative solutions.
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Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Section 2
2. Development Phases of a Pipeline Project

Pipeline projects are usually completed in five stages:
• Three front-end loading (FEL) stages for business planning,

facility planning and project planning
• Project execution stage
• Start-up and operations stage.
THE ROAD TO SUCCESS covers the three FEL phases and the project execution phase.
The diagram below highlights a staged-gated project system and should be reviewed in conjunction with
the minimum data requirements and activities for each FEL phase described in section 5.2.
It is imperative that the foundations of any project are sound: front-end loading (particularly FEL 1 and
FEL 2) forms a key part in providing the necessary framework and structure for a successful project.
Staged-Gated Project System
Front-End Loading
FEL 1: FEL 2: FEL 3: Project Start-up

Business Facility Project Execution And
Planning Planning Planning Operations
Owner/Developer
Engineer
Construction Input
Construction Contractor
Operator
Active Participants
Active participants through the lifecycle of the project have been highlighted above.
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2.1 Front-End Loading (FEL) Phases
Some of the key considerations that need to be defined during the three FEL phases include:
Product availability
Applicable codes and Design temperature Stations (compressor, pump)
standards
Product quality Design capacity Above ground installations (valve
stations, pigging stations,
metering stations, off take
stations)
Risk of natural hazards and Pipe OD SCADA/telecoms
human threats
Pipeline route and its right of Pipe wall thickness Maintenance and inspection
way corridor requirements
Topographic and Inspection requirements
geotechnical data
Materials (linepipe, valves, Pigging devices/integrity
tees, flanges, traps) assessment
Corrosion allowance Protection requirements Inspection philosophy
(trench depth)
Corrosion coating, field Expansion mitigation Schedule
joint coating
Cathodic protection Isolation valve spacing
Insulation Crossings design Cost estimates
Operational philosophy Overpressure protection Construction methodology
(hydrates, waxing, asphaltenes) (surge protection, linepack) • Camps
• Clearing and grading
• Material logistics
• Ditching
• Welding
• Pipe bending
• Field coating
• Backfilling
• Hydrotesting
• Final grading
Design life Leak detection Pipeline operations
Design pressure Metering requirements
2.1.1 Business Planning FEL 1
Before starting a project, the pipeline owner/investor (the body funding the project) must prove the
economic viability and need for the project i.e. will the project produce the required revenues and profit?
This phase captures the reasoning behind initiating the project and can take considerable time to
prepare.
FEL 1 includes:
• Business case
• Strategic objectives
• Economic analysis
• Project expectations
• Market analysis
• Competitors review
• Environmental constraints
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2.1.2 Facility Planning FEL 2
The purpose of FEL 2 facility planning (sometimes referred to as feasibility, preliminary, or pre-FEED), is
to ensure the selection of an optimum solution and put some details behind the project. Here we can
confirm the physical viability and anticipated cost of a project before any unnecessary time and energy is
wasted. This stage of the plan can take from 2-6 months depending on project complexity.
FEL 2 facility planning includes the review of:
• Environmental and social issues

• Routeing
• Pipeline dimensions (OD, WT, length)
• In-line facilities (pumps/compressor stations)
• Regulatory and governmental requirements
• Preliminary schedules
Led by the owner, developer or an appointed and experienced engineering contractor, these issues are
performed by a joint team and should include a range of technical, engineering, environmental, social
and legal specialists. The level of cost estimate at this point is typically +/-30%.
2.1.3 Project Planning FEL 3
Project planning or the FEED phase looks to develop the approved selected solution by narrowing the
cost estimate to +/-15% and achieving a higher level of development schedule. At this point any project
showstoppers would have been identified as part of the environmental and social impact assessment
process and suitable mitigation measures agreed with the relevant stakeholders (as part of the project
consent). It is only when consent has been granted that project sanction takes place and particularly
since it is then possible to place material orders for long lead items (LLIs) at this stage so as to meet the
development schedule. Project planning could take from 6-12 months depending on the complexity of
project and the environment through which it is routed. If the pipeline has not managed to avoid
sensitive environments, timescales for the FEL process can be extended by many months whilst
detailed ecological or cultural studies are performed.
In comparison with plant projects, the cost of FEL developments for a pipeline project are typically lower,
except for possibly international cross-border pipelines or complex systems such as high temperature
pipelines (design temperature > 70ºC), high pressure pipelines (design pressure > 200 bars), or fast
track projects.
However, whilst the cost of the development activity is lower, it is still significant and often
underestimated. Pipeline project facility planning (FEL 2) for example can range from one third to three
quarters of the activity associated with plant developments. However, the time taken can in certain
circumstances be longer.
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2.2 Key points to address during FEL
For many project teams the development of a pipeline may be a once-in-a-career event so experience
brought to the development may be limited. This often results in the required technology and
development processes for pipelines being underestimated by the new developer with the design and
plan far exceeding that expected, especially considering the management and approval processes
which take time and effort to put into place.
Directed by the inexperienced, a new development can be guided down the wrong path, which can lead
to disappointing results, such as extended schedules, increased costs and an unfit-for-design
installation.
In order to limit disappointing results the following key points should be addressed:
• Hire fully-qualified multi-skilled engineering resources with relevant experience
• Design basis, operational and HSES philosophies are in place to fully define
the safety, performance and operation requirements of the completed installation
• Ensure adequate data is available for engineering (design conditions data,

social and environmental data, geotechnical and topographical data)
• Provision of pipeline technical designs to ensure clear and concise installation

and that construction specifications and drawings can be produced
The key issues to be addressed will depend on the project type, size, length, location, terrain and
whether it is inter-country. This will include a review of land-take, biodiversity, heritage, pollution control,
agricultural disruption, traffic management, loss of remoteness, communicable diseases, employment
and trade opportunities.
Besides, no matter the type and size of the project, it is essential for investors/owners to develop their
project execution planning from the early phases of the front-end loading. Too often this task is left to
the construction contractor at the beginning of the project execution phase or during FEL 3 in case of
EPC projects. Whilst the establishment of a very exhaustive and detailed project execution planning by
the contractor is essential at that time (refer to section 3.2 and Appendix 3.2.1), the investors/owners
should initiate it to control in a disciplined manner the progress of the project development.
This should include contracting strategy; team participants and roles; integrated programmes with
critical path activities and items; plans for health and safety; environment and quality; controls; costs and
schedules.
It is also important to remember that a pipeline project is a multi-discipline (joint team) effort involving
pipeline engineers, metallurgy, process, control systems, electrical, piping, civil, mechanical as well as
social, cultural and environmental specialists. Besides the pipeline design, other activities include
SCADA and Telecoms, power supply, inline facilities such as valve stations, metering stations, scraper
trap station design, rotating equipment selection and specifications.
All the activities in FEL phases 1, 2 and 3 are key to attain a good foundation for the project. It will not
help the schedule if a better development option has been found in FEL 3, because it will include re-
tracing back to FEL 2. This is not an unusual occurrence resulting from a poor study/feasibility phase. A
good study phase needs an open forum for ideas where all ideas are equally considered, however
outlandish.
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All areas in business planning are key. It is important that an engineer with broad experience is involved
in this phase, who could highlight key driver issues, such as environmental, social, pipe parameters (OD,
length), in-line facilities and cost metrics.
For the facility planning phase, there should be some joint environmental and construction expertise
input, particularly in developing the construction schedules. Environmental restrictions can play a major
part on the length of the schedule, or the number of construction spreads required to meet a particular
schedule. This is also the phase when health and safety requirements to achieve the “zero accident and
no harm to persons” will be taken on board and further developed in the project planning phase to be
fully in place for the construction and operation phases.
For project planning, a whole range of issues and experts will need to be consulted, so as to address
the potential key issues described above and also detailed in section 5.2.
The diagrams hereafter illustrate the fact that the front-end loading phases of the project are where the
owners/investors have the most influence and impact on the project with the least cost and
expenditures. Key decisions left to later in project lifecycle come with a penalty of high cost, with little
influence to change the outcome.
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Fig. 1 – Influence and expenditure profiles over time
Fig. 1 indicates that at the early phases of the FEL process whilst expenditure is low, big decisions are
made. “Where will the pipeline go? Will we build a pipeline or use ships?” The ability to influence the
form of the project is high. It is thus essential at this stage that the investor and the engineer work
closely and consider the value added outcomes of all potential solutions. For this to be effective,
experience is essential.
As the project moves to the next FEL stage the major project decisions have been made but critical
parameters are yet to be fully addressed. The ability to influence the project is still high. It is therefore
fundamental at this stage to gain more understanding of the route and of the system design. The system
design will define the pressures, flows, pipe diameters and pump or compressor station requirements.
However the main drive is to gain more knowledge of the route options and to remove uncertainty. Key
factors for review are generally the pipeline profile, soil conditions and potential environmental and social
constraints. As the expenditures are still low constraints such as unstable terrain or environmentally-
sensitive areas can be coped with by major re-routeing without disruption.
The influence and expenditure graph shows how progression through the project phases results in a
lower ability to influence the design. On a pipeline this is truer than with a plant development. The
influence line drops off faster through FEL 3. However the expenditure on a pipeline even at this stage is
low in comparison with plant developments. It is therefore essential to ensure experience and
knowledge is used effectively at these early stages of the work. During FEL 3 it is likely that
commitments will be made to authorities and land owners, the form of the project is almost fixed.
6
Contingency Progression Per Project Phase
Fig. 2 The balance of contingency and estimated cost changes through the 5 project stages
As with most standard estimating methods, the early stages of the project are called “screening
estimates” or “conceptual estimates”. In these early stages of the project things remain undefined and a
large contingency is required to cover the expected but unknown aspects of the design.
In pipeline terms the knowledge of soils and land issues as well as an optimised system design has not
been completed. The routeing is based on maps or images and the sizing based on norms and
simplistic assessments. The project estimate “baseline” at this stage is therefore made up of the
estimated price and an almost equal level of contingency. At this stage of the project this is not a real
problem for the investor as he is looking to provide data that provides him with comparisons with other
potential developments and to see if his expected returns can be realised. It should be realised that
contingency is part of the estimate and is not discretionary or padding: it will be spent. Addition of
arbitrary contingency to cover the estimate shortfalls is thus not a tenable solution. What remains a
problem at the early stages of development is the project risk and how this will impact planning and
quality or certainty of the baseline. Contingency should not be confused with design allowances or
development or with management reserves (see Appendix 3.4.5 “Cost estimate of a pipeline
project/contingencies”).
As the project leaves FEL2 the feasibility has been tested the routeing information has been improved
and the sizing of the system has been scoped and understood. The level of unknowns is lower and the
contingency can be reduced.
Throughout the stages of the project the knowledge and certainty improve until the developer is
confident enough to sanction the full expenditure.
It can be seen that if the work is performed well the out-turn cost or “baseline cost” of the project
remains the same and contingency and unknowns are exchanged for certainty and knowledge. We are
reducing project risk and becoming more confident of the baseline estimate.
7
Fig. 3 Reduction of project risks during the FEL and execution phases
Figure 3 illustrates that during the FEL phases the reduction of project risks is the most effective. It also
shows how the total process of FEL and execution fits together. Of course even at project handover
some operational residual risk still exists although if the process has been followed correctly this should
be minimised.
Conclusion
This section has stressed the importance of properly planning and executing the FEL 1, FEL 2 and FEL
3 phases towards safely executing a quality construction works within the optimum cost and schedule.
It requires the early involvement of all experts under an integrated team during these phases covering
the following topics:
• Safety
• Environment
• Construction
• Public relations
• Operations
• Pipeline design
• Socio-economic factors
• Security
Further information on the minimum data requirements and activities for each FEL phase is included in
section 5.2.
At a certain point of the FEL 3 a baseline will be established for the purpose of agreeing the construction
contract. This is the subject of section 3.
8
3. The Baseline of a Construction Contract
The recommendations below can be classified in four categories:
• Detailed definition of the scope of works, of the physical conditions of the site,
of the environment and of the socioeconomic and local constraints.
This will define the baseline of the contract to be entered by the parties.
• Establishment of a detailed project execution plan, including a fully resourced

programme of the works described in the baseline to monitor progress and promptly
assess the time impact of changes to the project or to its environment.
• Recommended extent of the cost information to include in all the contracts may vary
from just one of:
• Cost plus
• Bill of quantities
• Activity schedule
• Lump sum
or a combination of the above, to enable a prompt evaluation of the cost impacts of:
• Changes to the project or to the environment of the project

• Mitigation measures elaborated to reduce the adverse consequences
of the above changes
• The conditions of contract
In this section and the following section 4, the owner/investor will be called the “client” being party to a
contract entered into with the “contractor”, the other party.
3.1 Defining the Scope of Works
The scope of works also includes the physical conditions of the site, of the environment and of the
socioeconomic and local constraints
3.1.1 Scope and Physical Conditions
• Definition of the pipeline route/right of way… (see also section 5.1.1)
The pipeline route and its impact on the environment will need to be considered, justified and approved
by regulators, the general public and land owners.
Hence, consultation is a key part of routeing. Key environmental and regulatory steps are illustrated
overleaf.
1
The development of a pipeline route commences with the known start and end points, for example a
gas field and a LNG terminal. Sometimes the integration of the terminal location with the route which a
pipeline can take will also be a variable to consider.
Once the end points are determined, the routeing becomes an iterative process starting with the
consideration of a wide area of interest and several potential corridors. As major constraints and cost
drivers are considered the investor/owner and the engineering team begin the process of refinement.
The chosen corridor which emerges is progressively narrowed as the FEL process continues and as
more data is available. At the end of FEL 3 the route is defined as the final right of way (ROW).
Typically the route alignment steps are:
• Multiple 10 km wide corridors between the two end points of the pipeline
• 10 km-wide corridor of interest
• Desktop routeing/satellite imagery
• 500 m-wide ‘preferred route corridor (large scale maps)
• Route using route maps with scale 1:50,000
• 100 m-wide ‘ specified corridor’ (more detailed maps)
• Large/scale routeing: detailed routeing using 1:5,000 to 1:10,000 maps
• 20 to 40 m-wide ‘construction corridor’ (detailed routeing/preliminary surveys)
• Site reconnaissance; surveys; soils data; initial consultations with statutory
authorities; preliminary alignment sheets
• 8 m-wide ‘permanent corridor’ (ROW) (final surveys)
Special attention is to be paid to ROW sections which may not be fully available at the commencement
of the works due to land availability or environmental constraints. They should be clearly identified and
become a programme constraint similar to sections where flooding or snow prevents access part of the
year. Anticipation of such situations is more productive than facing the problems once the full spread(s)
is in progress and suddenly stopped or disrupted.
2
• Other land areas beyond the linear construction corridor of the pipeline
are required for:
• Access routes to the right of way
• Designated areas for camp sites
• Waste disposal locations
• Pipe storage area
• Borrow pits
• Benching (on side slope)
• Additional working space adjacent to road, rail, water and special
crossings (such as archaeological areas or environmental constraints)
• Temporary nursery sites/translocation areas for storing turves, plant
material or temporary removal of protected species
• Compensation or accommodation works (agreed as part of the
consent/easement)
• Temporary airstrips and helipads
• Temporary right of way for laying pipelines to water sources for the
provision of water tests
These areas should be established and detailed as part of the FEL process.
• Description of the geological assumptions together with an allowance for variations to

be part of the baseline
• Seismic and volcanic constraint
• Crossing assumptions
• Other special physical constraints resulting from environmentally sensitive areas,
archaeological surveys etc.
• Specific quality requirements for pipe and pipe protection such as:
• Land pipe requirements (metallurgy for steel pipes etc.)
• External mainline pipe coating, field joint coating and supplementary mechanical
protection system (see section 11)
• Description of the extent of early works which are being carried out by others to
provide, for instance, additional accesses to the site, drainage works, ROW clearance,
crop removal and of their expected completion dates
• Description of additional site investigation or product testing (by whom) to conduct at
the commencement of works and to include in the baseline
• Detailed description of the standards of reinstatement required
3.1.2 Health and Safety, Environment, Socioeconomic and Local

Constraints
The HSES requirements are essential aspects of a project development. Historically, whilst pipelines
provide a very safe and environmentally friendly form of transportation, lost time incidents and other
issues are still evident during construction. HSES costs time and money to implement effectively and
must be planned for in depth from the outset of the development. Commercial pressures may develop
to scale down costs at all levels of a project. Clients must prevent any scope or cost reduction in the
field of HSES and define clearly from the onset the detailed requirements as described overleaf.
3
The environment and the socio-economic and local constraints should be clearly defined in the contract
documents and are generally contained in the social and environmental impact assessment.
A summary of the commitments made as part of the pipeline routeing and FEL stages 1, 2 and 3 should
be included in the scope of works as part of the construction contract and identified on the alignment
sheets.
• Detailed Health and Safety requirements in terms of organisation (detailed list of qualified
personnel), provision of facilities (training schools, hospitals, infirmaries etc.), training
requirements and expected targets to achieve plus allowance for additional resources to
be part of the Baseline
• Health provisions including working in contaminated land, dust inhalation, extremes of

temperature and working time restrictions
• Transmission of pests, diseases and alien species (plant material), particularly when
working in intensive agricultural regions, or animal husbandry areas
• Detailed environmental requirements (limitations on emissions, surface discharge,

effluents, noise, waste selection and treatment; special treatment fauna and flora; special
measures near living areas etc.) and allowance for potential additional requirements to be
part of the baseline
• Precise description of the weather assumptions to be part of the baseline together with
the assumptions for flooding, snow and storms, all of which have a significant influence on
the programme of works and on the way resources are mobilised
• Detailed security measures envisaged in the context of the country where works will be
carried out
• Special attention to the socioeconomic environment including the extent of the required
actions to be undertaken by all parties (i.e. public meetings, brochures, media
publications, TV programmes etc.) in this respect should be well defined in a plan and part
of the baseline with whatever allowance necessary to include. They should include inter
alia the requirements of the laws of the country, of any special agreement made at
government level or possibly of the financial institutions
• Where applicable, description of the specific local constraints negotiated with the local
governments or administrations: they may cover employment conditions of labour and
staff, working hours, restrictions on employment of foreign labour and staff, procedures for
permits and licences, custom procedures and restrictions, definition of the laws and
regulations to apply to the project, accommodation works agreed with the local
landowners or local administration organisations
• Archaeology and protection of cultural sites of significance should be dealt with sensitively
and in accordance with the consent conditions and local laws and customs
It is the responsibility of the client and its technical advisors (engineers, land agents and environmental
advisors) to provide the contractor with a clear summary of the restrictions identified along the route of
the pipeline and of the commitments which have been agreed during FEL phases 1, 2 and 3.
4
3.2 Programming the work
The detailed project execution plan established for the construction phase (see Appendix 3.2.1 for
detailed recommendations) of the works defined in the baseline will result in a fully resourced
programme of works (manpower, plant, material, facilities) as defined below.
A detailed March chart for all the linear activities combined with standard critical path method (CPM)
programmes for fixed installations (such as pump/compressor stations or valve stations) should
constitute this resourced programme.
The March chart should incorporate all the details of the terrain (roads, railways, waterways, electrical
power lines, underground utilities), expected ground conditions, anticipated weather in relation to the
seasons and geography (mountains, low lands, arid zones, deserts, swamp areas), environmental
constraints, local community constraints and political constraints as defined in the baseline.
It is the recommended tool to assess correctly the complexities of a pipeline project, to evaluate the
criticalities of the programme of works, to follow up progress and promptly assess the impacts of
disruptions, changed conditions and stoppages as compared with the baseline (see Appendix 3.2.2 –
“A Primer to March Charts”).
A typical sample is presented overleaf:
5
6
Extract from the March chart on the previous page:
In order to arrive at an acceptable construction programme, the following should be established in

detail:
• The minimum mobilisation time necessary for the contractor and the client (the engineering team
where applicable) to assemble their teams, who will have to familiarise themselves with the project
as a first step, then plan in detail and mobilise resources. Considering the pressure to get the project
in operation as early as possible this preparation time can often be reduced to nearly nothing: this is
certainly detrimental to achieving a proper “kick-off” to the project. Indeed the teams who tendered
a contract on the contractor’s side and the teams who prepared and evaluated those tenders on the
client’s side are not always the teams who will execute the project. Therefore a minimum preparation
period varying from a few weeks to a few months, depending on the size and complexity of the
project, in addition to the proposed construction programme, would certainly lead to a smoother
development of the operations (unless that preparation period has been included in the tendering
process as a step in the finalisation of the contract with the preferred tenderer)
• The average rates of progress for the different activities I, II, III,…which are dependent on the
terrain, the ground conditions, the weather at the considered period of the year, the environmental
constraints, the local constraints and obviously the resources allocated
• The minimum time lag between two activities, A0 (between activity I and II), B0, C0,… shown in the
March chart extract above, should also be clearly established taking into consideration:
• The contractor’s own constraints (learning curves, changing the teams of local labour when
crossing different regions, maintenance of equipment, breakdowns)
• The expected weather conditions at a given period of the year which may affect progress of one
activity more than one of the following activities (e.g. rain at PK 100, good weather at PK 80)
• The client’s constraints: the client may demand that allowances for minor stoppages should be
incorporated (and priced) in the base programme (e.g. 2 days per month to cater for design
considerations, local disturbances, shortage of some supplies etc.) or that there should be a limit
to the distance of the various phases of the works
7
With such a tool the most critical sequences of works will always be highlighted and the effects of
changes or disruptions to the project on the programme of works can be promptly assessed.
Any areas where the contractor considers the information is incomplete or alternative
routeing/construction/mitigation measures should be considered should be clearly identified early in the
construction programme to allow for consultation with the client, their advisors, local landowners and
stakeholders.
8
3.3 Contract Price Information to Facilitate Evaluation of Changes
Experience shows that the major cost impact of changes on projects is the additional cost of teams and
resources related to the additional time they spend on site either working with full running costs or in
standby with reduced running costs.
Changes to the baseline/disruptions/stoppages have in general two consequences for a project:
• The duration of certain activities will be extended

• There might be a need for mobilising additional resources to mitigate an overall extension of
project duration
In this section and in section 4 the word “cost” is understood from a client’s point of view: it means the
price paid by the client to the contractor which includes the contractor’s direct and indirect costs, its
overheads and profit.
Therefore, in order to allow both client and contractor project management teams to promptly evaluate
the cost impacts of changes and/or disruptions to a project, the contract price should include the
breakdown of the weekly costs of the main working crews in operation (including energy, spare parts
and consumables for the equipment and machines used as well as labour and staff costs including
food, lodging and transport) and the weekly costs of the site overheads (offices, stores, yards etc.), as
well as that of the management overheads, combined with a schedule of the costs of the same working
crews in standby (when no energy and consumables for major equipment is used), and of the costs of
potential mitigation measures (such as cost of moving different crews in relation with distance). All
weekly costs would exclude the cost of incorporated materials since their cost impact is quantity-related
instead of time-related.
Examples of time-related costs (weekly costs) for a pipeline contract together with examples of
evaluation of time and cost impacts of stoppages are attached in Appendix 4.2.1.
In the case of cost plus type contracts, the actual costs plus fees are compared at given intervals to a
bill of quantities or an activity schedule, which should include such time related cost information as
described above.
In the case of bill of quantities or activity schedule type contracts, these time-related costs should be
incorporated as bill items or activity items in the pricing document.
In the case of lump sum contracts, a breakdown of these time related costs should be in an appendix
attached to the tender.
This time related cost information, together with the fixed costs for mobilisation of teams, equipment and
facilities (which generally form part of most contracts but should also be included in the lump sum
tenders), are essential management tools to assess changes.
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3.4 Considerations in Developing the Conditions of Contract
Traditionally, contracts terms tend to be issued by clients, and market forces and/or financial institutions
tend to drive in their favour. Too often risk allocation continues to be pushed from one party to another
depending on prevailing environmental or market conditions, with little consideration to the loss of
potential value and earnings incurred due to inattention to reducing the risk to begin with.
However, as a general principle, the conditions of contract (general conditions and particular conditions)
should not be overly favourable to one contracting party vis-à-vis the other(s). Indeed, experience shows
that construction and operational risks are best allocated where they can most appropriately be
managed and borne. A fair contract helps to significantly reduce the risks of conflicts, delays and
disruptions when difficulties occur in the performance of a project by clearly identifying the agreed risk
allocation and providing fair compensation for bearing them.
Several (unsuccessful) attempts have been made in the past to develop standard balanced contract
conditions, applicable to all types of major onshore pipeline projects. The failure of these attempts was
largely due to the fact that national clients are bound to abide by the local contracting practices and
global clients have, over the years, developed their own contract conditions which, they feel, can adapt
to the varying context of their projects.
3.4.1 Pipeline Project Specifics
Whatever the conditions of contract used, the recommendations above acknowledge the specificities of
onshore pipeline projects as well as the uniqueness of their sites. Unlike the relatively small concentrated
areas of other construction projects (such as terminals, pump/compressors stations etc.), onshore
pipeline projects often extend over several hundred kilometres, crossing state and/or international
boundaries.
The likelihood, therefore, of encountering conditions different to those upon which the initial design and
construction programme were predicated is higher than in other construction projects, hence the
requirement for a good FEL as the likelihood of changes is inherent to pipeline projects.
This requires that the parties analyse potential risks at an early stage (during the bid phase) and that the
contractual baseline is set accordingly to ensure that anticipated risks are fairly allocated. Both parties
can benefit from prudent front-end loading (see section 2).
10
3.4.2 Clarifying Risk Responsibilities
As demonstrated here, the baseline of a good pipeline construction contract must include a clear
definition of inclusions and limitations for key risks. The scope of works provides the basis for an
agreement between contractor and client. Under ideal circumstances this would be sufficient for an
onshore pipeline contract.
However, in reality, risk events, when they occur, lead to contractual disputes unless the contract
addresses these issues. Contracts should therefore include terms which allow sufficient commercial
flexibility to address these inevitable variances while still preserving the performance incentives inherent
in the commercial terms for the baseline portion of the scope.
This requires the recommended “spirit of trust and mutual co-operation between the parties” and the
situation where lack of clear and concise scope and engineering definition leads one party to consider
exploitation at the cost of the other should be avoided. The client may see under-priced lump sum bids
as a benefit, whilst the contractor may see the opportunity for change and scope increase during the
execution of the work. In actual fact the result is disputes, delays and additional costs seldom to any
party’s benefit.
11
Exemplary preferred conditions of contract have been achieved in international onshore pipeline
projects. Clauses of general interest for all construction contracts such as exchange risk, country risk,
indemnities, insurance, payment terms etc. are not further developed herein as they may be found in
general contract literature. There are certain contractual topics that have a particular importance for
onshore pipeline projects. The guidelines included in Appendix 3.4.4 address the following:
• The weather conditions/inclement weather

• The environment and archaeology
• The definition of (and access to) the site
• The programme (and adjustment thereto, including compensation)
• The relations with third parties (pipeline projects involve an unusually large number of third
parties)
• The supply of materials
• The ground conditions
• The responsibility for design and constructability
3.4.3 Probability of Risk and Cost Outcome
Many a contractor has fallen into a trap associated with risk pricing when clients insist in having the
contractor to bear some of the risk impacts. The desire to achieve commercial advantage sometimes
tempts a contractor to bid a lump sum contract based on a calculation of the estimated costs of
inherent risks.
The baseline cost estimate is normally based on the expected cost of the project. This cost includes the
required contingency commensurate with the project definition at that stage of the work, where the
contingency is added to the base estimate to a level that is equivalent to the 50/50 (or P50 – see
graphic below). Onto this a bidder will add reserve that provides his company with the level of assurance
that the execution of the work with all normal risks will achieve his goal of profitability. This level of bid is
normally assessed at a level where the company can be 80-90% sure of the outcome or in general
terms the P80 estimate (this process is described further in Appendix 3.4.5.)
Whilst some bidders may be sufficiently confident in their ability to execute work to an estimated budget
based on the 50/50 estimate, or with little-to-no reserve it does assume that the bidder has 100%
definition of all risks and unknowns and that his price is complete. This is an unlikely condition and
normally results in the bidder placing a high reliance on claims or changes to his advantage.
Some project risks occur in a continuous and incremental fashion, so that the differing price points
considered by different bidders will only vary from the actual cost outcome by degree, leaving the bidder
a marginal profit or loss in the end.
However, projects often have discrete risks which result in an “all or nothing” cost impact. While the
probability of these risks is still variable, their cost outcome is not. Competitive pressures often tempt
contractors to bid such risks at less than expected cost on the hope that the unconsumed contingency
will become additional profit or can be recovered through claims. When the risk does arrive and is not
sufficiently supported with funds, the expected profit is not only lost but profit is drawn from other
aspects of the project to offset the risk cost impact. Contractors feel forced to recover their incurred risk
costs from their clients, often creating an uneasy relationship with their clients. This inevitably leads to
commercial stress and can work to unravel the contractual arrangements made between the parties.
12
The alternative advocated here is to be overt in the contract as to how much of the risk cost impact is
included in the baseline and how the excess or residual risk will be addressed commercially. Clients are
especially urged to avoid entering contracts where known risks have been aggressively priced at a point
below the likely cost impact. The better answer is to have the client bear the risk and avoid the
commercial inefficiency of potentially paying for the risk twice – once in the baseline and again in a claim!
Cumulative Probability
Cost Outcome
Contracts need to contain an appropriate contractual and commercial mechanism to deal with
(unanticipated) risks that eventuate during the course of the work – despite parties’ best efforts to
counter, factor in, or eliminate these risks. For risk not accounted for in the baseline, parties can agree,
in advance, the form of compensation and the method of calculation of the adjustment.
Therefore, the characteristics of onshore pipeline projects make it more important to attain a well defined
allocation of risks between the parties. Furthermore, parties need to determine early on how they are
going to deal with residual execution risk. This is fundamental to achieving optimum contractual
co-operation between the parties and minimising conflicts surrounding eventual contract adjustments.
3.4.4 Conclusion
The baseline of a construction contract needs to be clearly established including scope of work, the
detailed execution plan with a resourced March chart programme for all linear activities combined to
CPM programmes for all fixed installations, the cost elements and the conditions of contract.
There may be circumstances when the baseline has not been sufficiently developed at time of going to
tender and needs to be improved through early works to arrive at a better contract.
Section 4 will review the main risks of pipeline construction contracts and propose mitigation measures
which can be implemented at various stages of the development of the project.
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14
Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Appendix 3.2.1
Appendix 3.2.1
Recommendations for Establishing the Project Execution Plan -

Construction Phase
3.2.1.1. Introduction
The project execution plan (PEP) is a substantial portion of a pipeline project development. In this
document the selected contractor has to explain the way he plans to execute the project describing in
detail the assumptions and all the considerations taken into account.
A PEP is a tool that will help identify, during project development, all the strengths and weaknesses of
the Plan which in the end will serve to define risk mitigation actions.
Through this document, the clients get a very clear understanding of the extent of knowledge and
evaluation done by the contractor, who shows his level of familiarity with all the characteristics of the
project and the site.
3.2.1.2. Project Background or Baseline

This is a description of the findings that determine the baseline which will serve as a basis to define the
project execution strategy. In order to have a detailed baseline the PEP has to describe:
• The applicable legislations of the country where the project is to be executed
• The labour legislation and manpower availability
• The evaluation made of suppliers and countries of origin for long lead items
• The owner organisation for the project including evaluation of the financial capacity
• The applicable and required technologies including others to be considered
• The basic terms of contract and its deadlines
• The project site including evaluation of historic weather conditions, registers and soil
characteristics
• The existing access facilities and transportation means in the area
• The existing facilities to supply materials, tools and spare parts
• The existing sources of food and available number of lodging facilities
• The capacity of the existing fuel and grease facilities in the area
• Customs import and export conditions for equipment and materials
• Immigration conditions and language requirements to bring professionals and skilled HHRR
• Health and safety requirements
• Existing communication facilities
3.2.1.3. Project Execution Organisation

In this section the contractor project management team will define the organisation chart that will be
used to execute the project. It is very important to identify the name of the key personnel early on and
make sure of their availability and commitment to remain in the project from the beginning of the project
needs until the end of their assignment.
Special attention should also be given to the organisation chart that the client intends to set up for
project follow-up and their location in the area. This is essential to maintain good communication at all
project levels.
15
The organisation chart should also depict the interface with the headquarters and define the contractor’s
representatives assigned to the project in case of joint ventures.
Each of the following activities should be covered:

a) Engineering: with clear definition of the group leaders, consultants and subcontractors.
b) Main Supplies and Subcontract: special attention should be given to include the group which
will execute the following activities:
• Procurement of long lead items

• Lease or purchase of construction equipment
• Supplied materials
• Consumables
• Inspections at the supplier’s facilities
• Follow up and handling
• Import/export of all needed elements
• Customs clearance
• Transportation logistics
• Material management
c) Construction
The construction organisation should define the structure - up to supervisory level - for all phases
of the project. It should identify the number of crews being planned for all the different segments of
the project (i.e. pump stations, pipeline, terminals, tank farms, SCADA etc.).
e) Project Administration and Finance

A list of the accountants, treasurers, human resources people and other related tasks required
should be detailed in this area.
f) Logistics
This area includes camps, transports, supplies, fuel distribution, warehouses and communication
systems amongst others. In many remote pipeline projects this is a very critical activity that should
be very well planned and detailed
g) Project Control
This group is in charge of the cost reports and progress payment reports. Many projects also
include progress control and planning in this group
h) Equipment administration and maintenance

The planned resources for line maintenance, repair shops, crew assistance etc. should be listed
here based on the construction equipment to be used and the weather conditions.
i ) QA/QC
A brief description of the quality assurance and control (QA/QC) programme and the resources to
be deployed should be given in the section.
j ) HSE
A brief description of the HSE program and the resources to be deployed should be given in
the section where the requirements of the environmental impact study and the environmental
management plan should be taken into account.
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k) Technical Support
This is an office set up to act as an interface between the engineering group and the construction
people. It prepares work procedures to execute the activities in full compliance with the technical
requirements, the HSE and QA/QC provisions of the contract. This group of people also produces
sketches and detailed as-built surveys during construction.
l) Contract Administration
This group includes all needed resources to keep contractual communication with the client’s
representatives, evaluate contract interferences, estimate scope changes
m) Communications and systems

A group of technicians to assist the systems needs of the project should be considered and
detailed in the chart.
3.2.1.4. Key Personnel:

The curriculum vitae of this group of people should be part of the PEP so as to provide a detailed
qualification of the proposed leaders of the project execution.
3.2.1.5. Indicative Content of the Project Execution Plan:
3.2.1.5.1 Engineering Execution Plan

The engineering manager will define here his plans to:
• Execute this task describing the subcontractors, consultants and advisors he is planning to use.
• Set up the software and hardware tools needed for his group.
• Identify the critical aspects and his plans to keep them under control.
• Interface with other actors of the project like suppliers, owner representatives, construction
people and the community.
• Control the progress made in his area including the list of data sheets, drawings and
specifications.
• Execute his activities under a CPM program depicting all the interfaces of his area with others.
• Assist the procurement group to place supply agreements for long lead items in full alignment
with the warranty and design conditions of the contract.
• Test and commission all the facilities of the installation including HAZOP activities and design
SCADA.
3.2.1.5.2 Procurement Execution Plan

The procurement manager defines here the methodology he plans to follow to supply the project with all
materials and equipment.
His plan should consider,

• Procurement of long lead items (defining also the warranty period)
• Lease or purchase of construction equipment
• Special tools and materials
• Supplied materials and spare parts
• Spare parts for construction equipment
• Consumables
• Inspections at the supplier’s facilities
• Follow up and handling
• Import/export of all required elements
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• Customs clearance
• Transportation logistics
• Temporary housing
• Food and lodging subcontracts
• Pipeyards and warehouses
• Material management system definition and set up
• Follow up information to be given to the client
3.2.1.5.3 Administration and Finance Plan

Here the administration and finance manager defines how he plans to keep a register of all the costs
and revenues of the project, the accounting system and the information that he will be able to produce.
In joint ventures it is very important to also define the agreement that will govern the parties. The location
of the bank accounts and advisors needed to carry out the activities in full compliance with the local law
should be detailed as well. The financing lines, the cash flow and the insurance coverage for the project
should be detailed in this paragraph. Type of guaranties to be issued for contract purposes should also
be clearly defined to avoid last-minute inconveniences
3.2.1.5.4 Construction Execution Plan

The construction manager describes here the most important aspects of the project and the
construction techniques he is planning to put in place. A split of activities is recommended in order to
better describe each crew scope and required resources with an indication of the production expected
for each one. It is extremely important to issue a velocity chart, also called a March chart as described in
section 3.2 and in Appendix 3.2.2. This chart allows the client to better understand the position planned
for each crew at each moment with details of the expected progress. The access plans and
transportation requirements should be considered for each portion of the project. The camps’ strategy
and food preparation and distribution must be detailed including the subcontractors’ and owner’s
representatives’ needs.
For each crew, it is recommended to prepare:
• List of personnel
• List of equipment
• Services and subcontracts needed
• Scope of their work
• List of challenges and plans to control them
• Timing
• Special methods or requirements
• Procedures needed.
3.2.1.5.5 Health & Safety Plan

The health and safety manager for the project in coordination with the corporate HSE manager will
adapt the corporate health and safety plan to the project needs and will describe his execution plan to
induce all the HHRR involved in the project to a unified and leveled project plan. The target statistic
figures for the project should be established here. Special attention has to be given to the existence of
epidemics and generally to the health conditions of the site. The existence and location of first aid and
hospital facilities should be carefully planned in order to give full coverage to all the project workers and
also protect the community. It is very important to identify the number of H&S specialists that will act on
each section of the project as well as the first aid facilities. Special attention should be given to all
specific procedures needed, such as emergency evacuation, as described in the contract.
18
3.2.1.5.6 Environmental Impact Plan

The management plan to mitigate the environment impact of the project has to be described here by the
environment manager in coordination with the corporate HSE manager. The environment impact study
(EIS) for the project should be approved by the financial entities and/or the client before the project site
construction activities get started. These entities have to make sure that the EIS has been duly
discussed at all stages with the government and that the most important NGOs of the area have been
consulted with so that everybody knows what is being planned in order to reduce the risk of last-minute
disagreements and misunderstandings, detrimental to the project. The execution plan needs to define
here all the mitigation plans to be used in the construction procedures to install the facilities and the
restoration works, indicating also which are part of the contract and those other that should be
instructed by the owner. This part of the PEP is essential in order to give clear definition of the scope of
work and the construction methods that have been planned to execute the project. All last-minute
requirements for environmental protection measures demand a lot of resources that may challenge the
smooth execution of the project if not planned in advance.
3.2.1.5.7 Project Planning and Control Plan

This is another substantial part of the PEP since it defines the way resources have been planned to get
the progress of all phases of the project needed to reach the milestone dates. The project resourced
programme should cover the entire project scope and also include sufficient detail to reflect the PEP. It is
a document that ties together all elements of the PEP and provides the key basis to accurately evaluate
the cost estimate. Additionally, all bill of quantities are shown here in order to give a clear idea of the
amount of work that has been considered for each portion of the work. This information will be essential
to provide the baseline to discuss impact of scope changes, interferences, weather restrictions and
influence along with other disruptions like stoppages or suspensions of the project activities.
The main tools to control the project execution are the March chart and CPM resourced programmes
combined with the near-real-time project control system, as described in detail in section 13.1.
This plan has to list all the information that will be produced to track the project progress and costs to
be reported on a regular basis as required by the contract. Milestones should be defined in order to
provide a tool that will help to track completion of certain activities that otherwise could be 99%
complete and would remain there since the last 1% generally takes tremendous time and effort to get
completed. This is essential to give some warning signs to the project team. Therefore, it is extremely
important to chose project milestones that identify completion of key activities. One important element to
control progress is the weighted “S” curve which is developed giving the percentage participation in the
cost of the activity as estimated in the cost estimate to weight the percentage of physical progress.
3.2.1.5.8 Risk Analysis management plan.

The project team should get together to list and evaluate all project risks identified during the project
study. The entire life cycle and scope of the project including the social aspects should be analyzed to
identify the potential risks of the project. These risks have to be classified as operational, financial, legal,
contractual, climatic, community, inland security risks, etc. It is also important to identify which are
associated with internal factors which could be under the project team’s control and those due to
external factors that are out of the project team’s control.
A probability level has to be given to each risk and also the gravity of it occurrence should also be valued
in order to set up a matrix (probability/gravity) that will allow the project team to properly weight the risks
in order to develop a mitigation plan for each risk.
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3.2.1.5.9 Quality Plan

The QA/QC manager has to develop a quality plan for the PEP, based on the corporate quality Plan and
the contractual conditions under the supervision of the corporate QA/QC manager. This plan has to
identify the practices and the sequence of activities linked to the specific quality of the project. The plan
has to define which processes are going to be controlled and also include the applicable procedures to
be used as part of the quality plan. It very important to define the content and format of the information
that will be included in the regular report to be issued by the QA/QC Manager to track the progress of
the non-compliance reports (NCR) and the actions taken to fix these NCR, which otherwise could turn
out to be an important barrier for project completion if not followed properly.
3.2.1.5.10 Community Relations Plan.

Many pipeline projects face severe difficulties, delays and costs overruns due to disruptions created by
the approach taken towards the communities. Many pipeline projects are executed in remote areas
where the local people are unfamiliar with large machinery. When they are suddenly exposed to much
new equipment and people in their territory, uneasiness and opposition to the newcomers may build up
quickly. In order to prevent difficulties it is extremely important to develop a community relations plan in
coordination with the local authorities, the client and the contractor. The client regularly takes this risky
item in his hands but this plan has to be followed up and supported by the contractor’s own forces.
Participation in all open meetings with the communities to explain the way the project will be executed is
essential, as is the appointment of community relations team to keep a close contact with the local
people. Both need to be clearly described in the PEP. The local regulations and common practices
followed by other projects in the area are also extremely important to define the community relations
plan. In this regard the PEP should also establish the rules for hiring local labour and the expectations
regarding the involvement of local suppliers and subcontractors.
3.2.1.5.11 Systems
The systems manager has to define the strategy to link all the project camps with the project offices and
the headquarters, including also the owner’s representative offices. He will also identify (in coordination
with the leaders of each project activities) the type of software that will be used for engineering, material,
procurement, accounting and control. The technical support will also be identified in order to give a clear
understanding of the systems plan that is being considered to execute the project. It is extremely
important to make sure that all systems to be used in the project will be able to interact with systems
used by the client, the suppliers, the subcontractors and the consultants that are being part of the
process. This seems to be simple but, if it is not well defined at the beginning it could trigger a lot of
delays in the project execution. Should the operational organisation of the client (other than the
construction organisation) require all the project build to be done in a certain software that has not been
used to do all the engineering, the risk of errors and loss of information and data would be very high.
Therefore, it is essential to analyze all the project scope, the contractual requirements and the full life
cycle to define systems.
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Appendix 3.2.2
A Primer to March Charts
Introduction
Traditional scheduling software for the construction industry is dominated by Primavera, Microsoft
Project, Power Project and others. All of these solutions provide opportunities to develop a series of
activities that are logically connected in a sequence from project start to finish. While these tools are very
powerful, they are better designed for the construction of buildings and other facilities (power generating
stations, refineries, etc.) and are not adequate for the constructability issues and demands of building
linear project such as pipelines, rail systems or roadways. A linear project is defined as a series of crews
moving in sequence along a ROW (right-of-way) during construction.
March charts (also known as Time-Distance charts) have been widely used in linear projects, particularly
in Europe and the U.K. This methodology is newer to the Americas, but is rapidly gaining widespread
acceptance. March charts are often hand drawn, prepared in Microsoft Excel or in a drawing program
such as AutoCAD. Linear planning and scheduling software that automates development of the plan
and progressing is relatively recent (approximately the last 15 years). Key advantages of March charts
are that the schedule is connected to the ROW geography and any constructability issues that are
important to the project. The intent of this “Primer to March Charts” is to provide an overview of how to
interpret and use March charts with an emphasis on using a selection of the linear planning software
tools that are currently available. A list of software is provided at the end of this appendix.
3.2.2.1 The Basics
• Differences between Gantt and March charts

Gantt charts are familiar to anyone who has planned and scheduled a project. The planner creates a
series of activities based on the project execution plan and then logically connects these activities
(Finish-Start, Start-Start, Finish-Finish and Start-Finish). Resources can be added to each activity
schedule and resource loading can be easily displayed. In order to maintain crew sequencing in a
pipeline project, the planner ensures that each activity is connected to its successor by a Start-Start and
a Finish-Finish relationship. A typical Gantt chart for a pipeline job is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Traditional Gantt Chart
This Gantt charts clearly shows each activity with its start and end date. Any progress is shown on the
Gantt chart as the percent completed for each task. The problem with a traditional Gantt chart is that
reporting that a bending crew is 45 % complete is quite meaningless because these traditional tools
assume that progress is from start to finish and no connection exists between progress and the
geography of the ROW. The ability to include crew moves, permitting delays, environmental restrictions
and other construction issues is simply not possible.
21
A March chart on the other hand displays the same crews as a series of lines moving along the ROW.
Each crew is logically connected to its successor with Start-Start and/or Finish-Finish relationships.
Completed sections are easily identified with crew moves, crossings and environmental windows visible
on the March chart. Using the same example, a March chart will clearly display which 45% of the ROW
has been completed by the bending crew and how any moves or ROW access issues have impacted
the progress.
A typical March chart (Fig. 2) in its most basic form shows each crew represented by a different line
type. Usually distance along the ROW is horizontal and increases from the left to the right. Time is
typically represented vertically, increasing from bottom to top (although it can just as easily be shown
increasing top to bottom). It should be noted that the orientation of the time and distance axes is a
matter of personal preference and can easily be switched in the software.
The advantage of March charts is immediately obvious as you can determine the location of each crew
at any particular point in time. Any issues associated with crew productivity rates are also readily
apparent. For example, the red arrow in Fig. 3 indicates that based on the productivity of each crew, the
lower-in crew will overtake the ditching crew between KP 25+000 and 30+000, which was not obvious
in the Gantt chart view (Fig. 1).
Furthermore, in March charts the slope of the activity indicates the relative productivity rate for the crew.
The steeper the slope, the slower the crew is moving (because more time is spent and less distance is
completed).
Fig. 2 Simple March Chart
22
Non-work periods such as scheduled days off or work stoppages appear as vertical segments on the
crew line. A vertical line indicates that time is passing but the crew is not moving. Fig. 3 shows an
example where the grade crew is moving slower (468 m/day) than the haul and string crew (600m/day)
with each crew working a 6 day 10h shift rotation. The green bars across the March chart and the short
vertical jumps in each crew indicate the day off each week. This March chart shows that grading has to
start 18 days ahead of hauling and stringing in order to keep these crews from overlapping. The
productivity rates that are displayed are calculated automatically by the March chart software based on
duration and length of each task.
For clarity and ease of explanation, all of the following examples in this guide will show only a few
representative pipeline crews. Typically, each crew is assigned to a different layer of the March chart so
that the planner can display one or many crews simultaneously, by activating the corresponding layers.
Fig. 3 Productivity Rates and Slope
3.2.2.2 Constructability Issues
With a basic understanding of these March chart elements, a March chart can be further enhanced to
display any other critical element of your project. These can include the ROW profile, crossings,
environmental restrictions and land acquisitions. Other elements such as vegetation type, soil type and
rainfall data can also be included on the March chart. The amount and type of information shown on a
March chart is determined by the project team.
23
ROW Profile
The ROW profile is important in developing the hydro-test plan and to determine productivity rate
changes based on elevation (discussed later in the speed profiles section). Most profile data (LIDAR or
survey) is available in a spreadsheet format and can be easily imported into a profile diagram using the
import function of the march chart software to generate the ROW profile as seen below in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 Elevation Profile and Restricted ROW Access
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• Restricted ROW access
Construction of pipelines may be hampered by periods when certain parts of the ROW are not
accessible. This would include environmental windows for wildlife and rare plants, permitting issues or
ROW acquisition delays.
Restricted access periods are easily represented graphically on March charts by rectangular shapes as
shown in Fig. 5. Once the impact of a restriction has been evaluated, it may be necessary to modify the
work plan to avoid working in restricted areas. This can be done by splitting the crews so that work
which is impacted by restricted areas will be completed at a later date once the restriction period is over.
Fig. 5 illustrates a move for both the grade and string crew to avoid a restricted area. In this example,
both crews skip the restricted area (a 1 day lag is included to allow for move) and continue to the end of
the ROW at 30+000. Once this work is finished, and the environmental restriction has expired, both
crews move back to the restricted area and complete it in a reverse lay. The red dashed lines indicate
the logical links between each crew segment.
Fig. 5 Restricted Access Showing Move Around
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• Crossings
Once the environmental or land restrictions have been established on a March chart, the next step is to
identify crossings. Crossing types can include foreign utilities, roads, rail or water and are important
features to locate on March chart. The method of crossing will be dependent upon the type of crossing.
Water crossings usually require an open cut (if permissible under the environmental guidelines) or will use
a HDD (Horizontal Directional Drill). Most roads and rail crossings use some type of bore method while
foreign utilities are exposed using a hydrovac. Each type of crossing can be colour-coded on the March
chart for quick and easy identification.
Fig. 6 shows a highway (at KP 1+793) shown in grey and a blue river crossing (KP 29+690) on the
March chart.
Fig. 6 Road and River Crossings
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• Stockpile locations and Valve Sites
Virtually any information that is considered important can be inserted into the March chart. The following
example (Fig. 7) shows the stockpile location (KP 26+102) and the supply zone for this pipe (KP 0+000
to KP 29+655). It is interesting to note that non-linear structured tasks (such as mainline block valves)
can also be shown on a March chart. The two valves shown in Fig. 7 are represented by a series of
rectangular shapes indicating different stages of installation from civil to mechanical to instrumentation
and telemetry. Other non-linear features that can be added to a March chart would include hot bends
(with delivery dates) and detailed HDD activities. Pump stations can also be represented as rectangular
activities that can be progressed as well. In this regard, a March chart is able to represent both linear
and non-linear components, providing an overview of the entire project.
Fig. 7 Stockpile Sites and Valve Locations
27
• Weather Risk
Risk related to weather events such as precipitation levels or temperature, are easily evaluated by
overlaying meteorological data on the March chart. In Fig. 8, the different shades of blue represent
average monthly rainfall amounts. The heaviest rainfalls occur in the lower right of the March chart,
represented by a darker blue. In this example, the planner has avoided working in this area during high
rainfall thus reducing the risk of heavy rain impacting construction.
Fig. 8 March chart showing monthly average rainfall data.
3.2.2.3 Other Features
• Spend Profiles and resource histograms
Spend profiles and resource histograms are simple to create once costs are added to the labour,
equipment and materials used in the March chart.
Fig. 9 illustrates an example where the weekly cost per crew and the total cumulative cost are presented
in a histogram and table. It is also possible to display the resource histogram per week (month or day) to
determine camp requirements. Spend profiles are a function of time and are therefore displayed parallel
to the time axis of the March chart. It is also possible to create a spend profile parallel to the distance
axis showing the cost per section of the pipeline. Any changes to the March chart (such as crew moves)
automatically create a change to the spend profile.
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Fig. 9 Weekly Spend Profile (per crew with weekly and cumulative totals)
• Applying work and speed Profiles to crews
Most estimates, schedules and March charts assume a consistent productivity (or work) rate for each
pipeline crew along the ROW. This productivity factor is then applied for the entire length of the spread
to determine the duration of each crew. Applying a constant productivity rate to a crew does not
account for changes in profile, soil, terrain (muskeg versus mineral soil conditions) or vegetation types.
For example, a logging crew that has a productivity rate of 2000 m/day would require 15 days to
complete a 30 km ROW. While this provides a rough estimate it doesn’t account for productivity rates
based on changes in vegetation types or whether there is logging required in certain areas (for example
an old burn area that does not have salvageable timber).
The following examples shown in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11, illustrate the difference when a vegetation
classification system is used to define the productivity rates for logging and clearing crews in a Northern
pipeline spread. In this example the vegetation data and productivity rates for both crews in a particular
location were imported directly into the March chart from an Excel data file supplied by a survey.
29
Fig. 10 Logging and Clearing Crews with constant productivity
In Fig. 10, we can see that both crews have very similar productivity rates with a duration of 25 and
26 days respectively for the logging and clearing crews.
The vegetation index in this example defines the amount of work (area in Ha) and work rate for each
vegetation type along the ROW. Once this data is known and available in a spreadsheet format, it is
easy to apply this index to each crew as shown in Fig. 11.
The first noticeable change is that the crews are not consistently progressing along the ROW. Each crew
line now reflects a different productivity rate with each change in vegetation type. More importantly we
can see that the duration for each crew has changed significantly.
Specifically, logging has decreased from 25 days to 16 days while the duration for clearing has
increased from 26 days to 40 days!
30
Fig. 11 Logging and Clearing optimized by vegetation index
This approach could easily be used in any other geographic location where a known variable impacts on
the work rate of crews along a ROW. The ability to define productivity in terms of the ROW conditions
will enable the creation of a more accurate project plan and spend profile when compared to simply
applying an uniform rate to each crew. Progress can now be applied against the adjusted crew profiles.
Applying a speed profile to a crew, based on known changes in productivity, creates a more accurate
picture of how the crew is moving along the pipeline ROW as seen in Fig. 12.
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Fig. 12 Crew Speed profile
3.2.2.4 Progressing March Charts
Progressing crews on a March chart requires the start KP, end KP and the date range for each progress
period (based on the inspector field reports) to be applied. The exception to using linear meters for
progress would be to count the number of welds, usually back end welds, or the number of UPI items,
such as bag weights.
Fig. 13 shows progress for both the grade and the haul & string crews. Progressing is simple in the
example software shows, selecting a crew by clicking on it, then entering the start and end date for the
progress period and the start and end KP.
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Fig. 13 Progressing Crews in March Charts
The March chart software calculates the physical percent completed based upon the amount of work
completed, divided by the total length of the pipeline. In this example, grading is 61% and haul &
stringing is 40% complete. It should be noted that the progress is for the segment starts at
KP 0+000 and ends at restricted access area, it does not include the other two segments for each of
these crews.
• Progress bar charts
Progress can also be indicated in a bar chart format where the progress of each crew is represented by
a shaded bar chart. As progress is applied to a crew the bar chart view is automatically updated to
reflect this progress. In Fig. 14, the direction of build is from KP 162+000) to KP 112+000.
In this example, the clearing, pioneering and grade crews have completed the entire length of the
spread. Haul and string are between 40% and 50% complete and the automatic welding crew has
just started.
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Fig. 14 Crew Progress Bar Chart
Conclusion
The intent of this guide is to provide a comparison of traditional scheduling tools to March charts and to
provide an overview of the how to interpret these charts. This overview described how to interpret
march charts in the simplest form and then increased the complexity by adding constructability issues
such as environmental restrictions and risks such as weather. The ability to represent non-linear activities
(valves and pump stations) on a March chart makes this a very powerful solution that enables one to
view the entire project on one March chart.
Also described was the ability to apply speed and work profiles to connect the productivity rates to soil,
timber or any other factor that will have an impact. Progress during project execution is dependent on
the input of the crew inspector daily report. Typically the start and end KP for each crew is recorded
daily for progressing the March chart. UPI items and welding may also be tracked as the number
installed or completed.
It should be apparent that March charts are well suited for pipeline construction projects. We have seen
that March charts connect the schedule to the geography and risks of a project in a manner that is not
simply possible using traditional scheduling methods. Hopefully, this guide has helped provide readers
with an understanding and appreciation of March charts and the potential that is possible.
34
Appendix 3.4.4
Contractual Topics that have a Particular Importance for Onshore
Pipeline Projects
Weather
The contract should identify the baseline weather conditions that the contractor can expect to encounter
along the route. This is usually obtained from publically available sources. The contractor should be
required to allow sufficient time and resources to deal with the anticipated weather conditions. The
contract may require the contractor to allow for slightly worse conditions than those anticipated by the
weather data. The contract should also require the contractor to monitor actual weather conditions at
identified locations along the pipeline route.
Should the weather conditions be worse than those indicated in the contract then the contract should
provide a mechanism for identifying and valuing the effect on programme and resources. The contract
should then identify how and to what extent financial compensation and time extensions should be
established.
Environment/Archaeology
Prior to the commencement of pipeline construction, environmental and archaeological surveys from
publicly-available sources will have been carried out as part of the FEL. This information will have
identified a series of constraints that should be included within the contract documentation and which
the contractor should allow for dealing with within the contract price. During the course of construction
unanticipated environmental/archaeological issues are bound to arise. The contract should clearly
identify responsibility for dealing with and mitigating the effect of these issues and a mechanism for
valuing the effect on programme and resources.
Site and Access

The site and access to it needs clear definition within the contract. The easement width available to the
contractor for overland pipeline construction should be clearly stated-particularly if this varies throughout
the route as a result of constraints. Additional land take required at each crossing should also be clearly
identified together with land associated with valve stations/AGIs etc. It is usual practice for the client to
obtain all permissions associated with securing pipeline route and installations.
Pipeline construction contracts should also clarify who is providing land for pipe dumps, construction
yards, mobilization/demobilization yards, parking areas along the spread, office compounds, and
accommodation compounds. The document should indicate the location and area of each piece of land
to be provided by the client and the general characteristics of the land i.e. is it virgin ground? Is it built
on? Have any soils investigations been done? Are there services available? How long is it available for
etc.
It should be clearly stated in the contract if the contractor is to provide these facilities.
As part of FEL the client should have determined suitable access routes to the site which should be
identified in the environmental impact study. These can vary from negotiating with the highway
authorities which roads can be used for heavy/light traffic to constructing major temporary roads and
bridges to access the easement. Responsibility for obtaining permissions to construct off-easement
accesses should be clearly set out in the contract. It is recommended to have the same party dealing
with ROW easements and accesses at the same time.
The contract should also state when each portion of land is available to be used by the contractor,
whether for pipeline construction, support facilities or off-easement accesses.
35
Programme
The contract should contain the programme of works for the completion of the pipeline including the
activities and milestone dates agreed by the contractor and the client. For pipeline construction this is
generally in the form of a fully resourced March chart supplemented by CPM of special sections and
crossings. These clearly identify the anticipated resources.
The impact of any changes, stoppage or slow-down of production can be monitored via the contract
programme and measures put in place to mitigate the effect of delays. The contract will contain
provisions as to the financial responsibility for specific types of stoppage/delay (for example it is usually
the client’s responsibility to pay for delays caused by lack of access and the contractor would bear his
own costs if the delays were due to inadequate resourcing). Once the delay has been monitored and
mitigation measures put in place the consequences in terms of resourcing can be valued at a
predetermined set of rates and allowances.
Third Parties
Pipelines by their very nature pass through diverse geographical and political areas and touch on many
people’s lives and environmentally sensitive areas along the way. Many of these people will have an
interest in and impact upon pipeline construction. They may include:
• Farmers
• Land owners
• Local inhabitants
• Local businesses
• Local authorities/municipalities
• Police
• Army
• Insurgents
• Protestors
• Port/railway/highway authorities
• Other utilities
• Customs authorities
• Environmental agencies
• Environmental pressure groups (NGOs)
• State/national governments
• Planning authorities
The responsibility for dealing with third parties, although best served by a joint client/contractor’s
approach, should be under the leadership of the client since it has to be initiated at a very early stage of
FEL. It is extremely important to appoint people who understand the culture and the social aspects of
the project’s environment. These people should preferably remain throughout the duration of the FEL
phases and the construction of the project in order to maintain communication and commitments with
the third parties. Many projects have encountered major problems when lacking a well-planned third-
party programme. When appointed the contractor should jointly participate in this programme in order to
provide a unified response to all the third-party issues and the contract should be clear how time and
cost impact of any third-party action should be addressed.
Materials
Where materials are to be supplied by the client the quantity and specification of the material should be
included within the contract document. The delivery date(s) should also be included together with the
location of the handover. The contractor usually has the duty to physically inspect the material to identify
any obvious damage. Responsibility for any latent defect would remain with the client. Any change in the
delivery date or the handover location is usually the client’s responsibility; they should carry the financial
impact.
36
Ground Conditions
Please also refer to section 6 Earthworks
As in most civil engineering contracts understanding the nature of the ground and what the contractor is
required to construct in/on it is fundamental to the success of the project. During the FEL ground
condition surveys/boreholes will have been taken along the proposed route with particular attention
being paid to crossings. This information will have been used to select the optimum route. Particular
attention will have been paid to crossings. The extent of survey information available can be extremely
sparse and this creates huge risks for the project. This data will have been made available to the
contractor during the tender/negotiation process and should form part of the contract. The contractor
will have used this information to determine resource levels and construction methods for both the
trench and the crossings. If there is insufficient reliable data available the client may be advised to
instruct the contractor to base his tender assessment on a set of assumptions. If during the construction
process it is found that the actual ground conditions are at variance to those indicated in the
surveys/boreholes or with the set of assumptions and that those differences have caused either
stoppage/delay or increased resource levels then the responsibility for financial consequences should be
addressed in the contract. The contractor should normally be expected to accommodate minor
changes in ground conditions but anything that affects production beyond a minor amount should
generally be borne by the client.
Design
The contact should clearly state who is responsible for which elements of the design.
When the client is responsible for the design then any delay in issuing design information which causes
additional costs should be the client’s responsibility.
It is recommended that the client always remains responsible for the accuracy and correctness of the
information and data supplied at the time of tender or at any time thereafter.
When the contractor is expected to endorse certain elements of the FEED, sufficient time (to be agreed)
should be allowed to either identify errors or omissions or to request changes.
Fit-for-purpose clauses should be qualified as being in accordance with the contract with a clear
definition of the purpose.
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38
Appendix 3.4.5
Project Cost Estimate and Contingency
3.4.5.1 The Development of a Project Estimate

An estimate is developed by considering the scope of a given project and estimating the quantities of
material and resources needed to successfully complete the project within a given schedule.
Any estimate carries risk. The allocation of allowances, escalation and contingency within an estimate
and the assignment of an accuracy range to that estimate is a means by which a bidder endeavours to
identify and manage the risks associated with any estimate.
• Allowances
Allowances cover incremental resources (for example, hours and money) included in estimates to cover
expected but undefined requirements for individual accounts or sub-accounts. They cover design
allowance for engineered equipment, bulk material take-off allowance, overbuy allowances,
unrecoverable shipping damage allowance, provisional allowances for poorly defined items and freight
allowance (equipment and materials). There are two main types of allowances, assumed (based on the
bidders’ perception of the project requirements) and validated or historical (based on the bidders’
estimating database).
• Escalation
Escalation is a provision in actual or estimated costs for an increase in the costs of equipment, material,
and labour from a set point in time and is due to a continuing price change over time until the
completion of the project.
Escalation does not cover hyper-escalation, that is escalation which is outside what is expected from
published indices, Hyper-escalation should be covered by contingency and allocated based on the
perceived risk.
• Contingency
A bidder will typically include three main types of contingency in an estimate, estimate contingency,
event contingency and management Reserve.
Estimate contingency is defined as a special monetary provision in the project budget to cover
uncertainties or unforeseeable elements of time/cost in the estimate associated with the normal
execution of a project, for example, labour rates and design development. Estimate contingency is
calculated using a risk model with input from a knowledgeable team.
Event contingency is defined as a monetary provision in the project budget to cover the costs
associated with the occurrence of one or more specific risks, for example incurring liquidated damages
or impacts from severe weather or hyper-escalation.
Management reserve is a further contingency included based on the bidder’s management perception of
the overall likelihood of the project cost and associated risks.
39
3.4.5.2 What Contingency is not meant to cover

Contingency is not meant to replace the development of an accurate estimate commensurate with the
stage of the project and the associated definition at that stage.
It is not meant to cover project scope change for example a change in pipeline throughput or terminal
storage volume.
It does not cover for design allowance which should form part of the normal project estimate basis.
Contingency does not cover for management reserve or profit. These areas will also be discussed.
3.4.5.3 Development of Allowances, Escalation and Contingency
• Pipeline Materials
Most of the material qualities can be relatively easily quantified following the FEL process, the number
and size of valves will be set, the location and specification of pig-traps will be defined. The associated
allowances will be set based on historical data and escalation will be set based on the appropriate
published indices. These do not cover the full estimate risks. The supply price that is the price at the
time of purchase from the supplier is still likely to be subject to change as this often cannot be fixed until
some months after the bid has been made to the developer. The risks associated with this will need to
be assessed and appropriate contingency allocated.
• Other Materials
Other materials are likely to be subject to more significant quantity variations. For example, the
allowances for weight coating will cover some repair and damage and additional usage as part of the
overbuy allowance. However, contingency may also be included in the estimate to allow for potential
local rerouting which might be required to solve problem and undefined ground issues.
• Construction Labour
The construction manpower estimate has many more variables. It starts with an assessment of the
volume of work to perform, how many welds, how much ditch to dig etc.
Following assessing the volume of work the construction schedule is developed to meet the
requirements of the bid, as described in the March chart section of the “The Road”. Resourcing by
activity is then developed to achieve the required speed of production.
In generating the construction estimate many assumptions will have to be made for example how easy
the soil is to dig, how much of the soil can be reused in the ditch, whether the ditch stand up without
batter or stepping, and how well the ROW will stand up to multiple heavy traffic movements. All of these
will be captured in the estimate basis.
An assumption is made of construction labour productivity and equipment availability rate. The weather
in the construction season is reviewed and the impact on progress evaluated. Many more risks are also
inherent in this estimate. (A review of the risk register will demonstrate the issues confronting the bidder.)
40
All elements of the buildup of the construction labour in the estimate will be reviewed and appropriate
allowances, escalation and contingency included and defined in the bidder’s estimate basis. The
determination of these figures can be complicated since, for example, the productivity/quality of the
construction labour will not just influence the number of hours and therefore the number of people
required to execute a project, it will also influence the loss and damage of materials due to poor
installation or handling.
• General
As the various areas of the estimate are developed the variability and risk in each is different. However
the bidder’s estimate cannot assume that all the potential problems associated with the construction will
occur on the same job, his bid price would not be competitive. Similarly it would be unwise to assume
that no mishaps will occur either. A Monte Carlo analysis, or similar statistical analyses, will determine
the overall level of contingency that will be required to bid a project at a level of risk that is acceptable to
the bidder.
3.4.5.4 What is the Estimate Range?

The range of an estimate is defined as the difference between the lowest and highest probable values of
the estimate.
In single-point estimating, the estimator assigns a single cost value to the estimate. But picking a single
point is equivalent to stating the project WILL cost this much and clearly does not take into account that
this is an estimate with surrounding uncertainty. The single point tends to be the most likely cost in the
estimator’s view, the probability of achieving this cost is not fully evaluated.
Three-point estimating allows for uncertainty around the estimated cost. To help establish the most likely
value of the estimate many approaches can be used. One such approach is a risk based assessment
using Monte Carlo techniques. It is normal to represent each area of the estimate as a triangular
distribution.
In the example above 20 individual costs could be found for the cost of a commodity . However the
estimator can idealize the cost by knowing just three points as follows
minimum = $2,000
likely = $5,000
maximum = $11,000
41
Using a simulation and allowing the cost to vary between the high and low values in a random way
described by the shape of the triangular distribution results in a total project cost distribution as shown
in the diagram below. In this example the most likely cost (mean) or the 50/50 estimate P50 is
$74.5 million. This contrasts with the base case estimate of $70.9 which was found by adding
only the most likely figures together.
The above graphic represents the output of a real estimate the distribution is slightly squewed. For the
purposes of the ongoing discussion this distribution will be represented by a smooth normal distribution
as follows.
Normal Distribution
Median, mode, and mean are aligned
In a normal distribution without skew the mean, median and mode are aligned and have the same value,
all equal the 50/50 or P50 probability.
42
A good estimate from a developer’s perspective should have equal probability of overrun and under-run
(i.e., a 50% probability). This is a risk neutral approach, the assumption being that some projects will
overrun while others will under-run and, in the long run, they will balance out.
The more conservative, risk-averse attitude used by companies that need to ensure each project returns
a profit to their company (true for contracting organisations) normally specifies a probability of 80% or
higher that the project will not overrun. This is a safer route but by specifying a high probability the
required contingency (or contingency and management reserve) will increase and with it the project cost
to the developer.
This results in a sub-optimal use of funds. Large contingencies on projects in the developer
organisation’s project portfolio will sequester monies that could otherwise be put to productive use (e.g.,
funding additional projects, beefing up R&D, investing in product improvement, new equipment). This is
a key reason why reduction of risk to the bidder by the provision of a good FEL and by equitable
allocation of risk, as discussed in “The Road “, is beneficial to the developer. The excessive contingency
is removed and the funds remain with the developer for his use. Contingency added to the bid by a
bidder, due to poor project scope definition, becomes part of his bid and is lost to the developer.
Contingency is released or consumed by the project team as each of the risks is passed. It must be
noted that the contingency which is determined in the development of the estimate is total required
contingency. It does not reflect what is sometimes called "management reserve", a discretionary amount
which is added to the estimate for possible scope changes or unknown future events which cannot be
anticipated by the project team. Addition of this reserve increases in proportion to the lack of project
definition and to the history the bidder has of the way in which the client manages change.
At the final management review of the estimate past project metrics are commonly used to gauge the
result and to provide a reality check.
Some special risks also impact the assessment of the final project contingency. These include
commercial terms of contract, for example, liquidated damages. Whilst these can play a part in a
contract with well-developed conditions and FEL they are often applied without full consideration of the
impact on schedule and, as such, when the bidder performs his risk analysis they are found to result in
significant risk and a high probability of occurrence. In such cases the bidder adds the risk-based
impact of these items to his final estimate expecting that they will be paid in full or in part. The developer
has just unwittingly increased his cost for the project development.
43
3.4.5.5 Estimate Accuracy

What does a stated estimate accuracy of 15% mean?
Any discussion of accuracy must be related to a specified confidence interval.
In the next figure the median/mean/mode cost is $200 million. The 80% confidence interval in this
example (i.e., the confidence that the actual cost will fall within this range 80 times out of 100)
corresponds to costs between $170 and $230 million. The difference between $200 million and $170 or
$230 million is $30 million, which is 15% of $200 million. Hence in this example the estimate of $200
million has a + or - 15% accuracy with 80 % confidence.
3.4.5.6 How do we set Contingency?

Contingency is only meant to cover the project development as it has been described in the scope and
basis of design, which at the current state of project definition cannot be accurately quantified, but
which history and experience show will be necessary to achieve the given project scope.
There is a tendency for those not involved or unfamiliar with estimate development to view contingency
as evidence that the estimator is inflating or "sand-bagging" the estimate to improve the chance of
bringing in a successful project i.e. one that achieves its budgetary goals. In an effort to reduce the
projected cost of a project, clients and those unfamiliar with the process often try to limit contingency to
a fixed percentage of the base estimate or in some cases delete it entirely.
However, contingency forms an important and integral part of the estimate; it is not potential profit and
as we will discuss later should be expected to be spent in the development of the project.
44
4. Dealing with Risks in Pipeline Projects
4.1 Analysis, Allocation and Mitigation of Risks during

all Phases of a Pipeline Project
After project sanction, irrespective of all the efforts to reduce challenges and risks through the FEL
phases, there will always be previously unknown challenges and risk events that arise.
Risk events specific to pipeline construction projects retained in this section relate to events which lead
to slowdowns, hindrances and stoppages (all being called “stoppages” in this document) affecting some
part(s) or the whole of the construction activities.
The table in the following pages lists those residual risks events which are likely to be encountered
during the construction phase of a project.
• Column 1 classifies the risks events in nine categories

• Weather (Category A)
• Archaeological and Man Made Artefacts (B)
• Geological (C)
• Flora and Fauna (D)
• Social and Security (E)
• Materials (F)
• Engineering (G)
• Permit Conditions (H)
• ROW Remediation (I)
• Columns 2 & 3 describe the risk event considered
• Column 4 indicates at which FEL period the risk event should start to be considered
• Columns 5 & 6 define who should be the risk owner
• Column 7 defines the extent of the baseline reference and the extent of the risk mitigation
(if any) to include in the baseline.
• Columns 8 & 9 describe the respective duties and responsibilities of the contractor and of
the client for each risk event
1
2
Risk Events Table Mitigation measures Contractual impact
Category Description of events Mitigation defined at FEL 3 Normal baseline Excess mitigation -
mitigation - by client
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
Consideration of risk
a Inclement weather conditions creating FEL 2 X Make explicit and mutually agree the All weather impacts and Bear the cost of any
weather windows to be included in the weather allowance in the baseline. their consequences weather impacts above
programme of the works: those Agree the criteria for defining a falling within the baseline and beyond the baseline
conditions may concern the rainy weather window including the weather allowance, said weather allowance as
seasons/the monsoon, the periods consequenses of the said weather allowance being explicitly explicitly defined by the
when the land is flooded, when the on accessibility, trafficability and defined by the contract. contract.
snow constantly covers the land, the environmental impact (i.e. land too
periods of permafrost, the periods wet which could be damaged badly
when rock falls or snow slides are likely in case of traffic although the cause -
to occur, known periods of limitations the rain or the snow - has ended for
(partial or total) to construction some time etc). Plan the works
resulting from extreme temperatures or around the predefined weather
from temperature and humidity windows.
A combined conditions or from
Weather uninterrupted humidity or light rain etc.
b Isolated cases of inclement weather FEL 3 X Climatic data should be readily Bear cost of preventing Bear cost of additional
conditions such as available. Define in contract the measures and include preventing measures
storms/hurricane/typhoons, ROW expected time loss for those events time loss in baseline and/or time loss in
flooding, snow event, temperature during certain months of the year programme. excess of baseline.
extremes, temperature and humidity and the conservative preventing
extreme combined conditions, air measures to implement as baseline.
quality (e.g. ozone, sandstorm, smog,
blizzard whiteout, fog), rockfalls and
snow slides.
c Special weather constraints/weather FEL 2 X Weather constraints and weather Baseline constraints to Bear the cost of
windows at crossings such as periods windows at crossings to be part of be included in the additional constraints in
of flooding of a river, significant the baseline. programme of excess of baseline.
commercial fisheries imposing periods construction of
without construction activities etc. crossings.
mitigation - by Client
Item
Client
by Contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
a Uncharted or unexpected FEL 3 X Conduct field surveys prior to field Report all finds. Conduct surveys prior to
archaeological find, unexpected mine mobilization. Develop response work. Bear the cost for
workings, landfill. procedures to protect the site. work.
slowdown/relocation if
required.
b Perceived threat to antiquities. FEL 3 X Develop good relations with the local Develop good relations Intervene where relations
communities. Solicit their mitigations with the local deteriorate to threaten
and implement them. Develop and communities. Solicit their client reputation.
conduct a community relations mitigations and
program. implement them.
Develop and conduct a
B community relations
Archaeological program. Bear all costs
and Man Made
Artefacts for avoidance.
Weather
c Impact on cultural heritage (graves FEL 3 X Conduct field surveys prior to field Report all finds. Conduct surveys prior to
etc). mobilization and avoid burial work. Bear the cost for
locations. Develop response work.
procedures to protect the site. slowdown/relocation if
required.
d Unexploded ordinance, contaminated FEL 3 X Conduct field surveys and clearing Report all finds. Conduct surveys prior to
soil (prior human impact). activities prior to field mobilization. work. Bear the cost for
Develop response procedures to work.
protect personnel and equipment. slowdown/relocation if

required.
3
4
Item
Client
by Contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
a Ground conditions differing from the FEL 2 X X Conduct field surveys prior to field In addition to the baseline Bear the cost for work
ground conditions (hard rock, hard mobilization, including geophysical include an allowance for slowdown/relocation or
ground, soft ground, sandy area, etc) and subsoil work in accessible areas; deviations from the expected change of execution
derived from field surveys conducted then define the baseline assumption geology and define that process or additional
prior to field mobilization (including of the various ground conditions to allowance explicitly in the equipment required
geophysical and subsoil work). be encountered. At the start of work contract. As a guideline the should unexpected
as soon as all sections of the ROW limit of those deviations geology beyond the
are available trial holes to be carried would be: a change of the deviations defined in the
out to check initial assumptions. execution process; a change contract causing
of equipment required; a construction difficulty be
variation of soil nature identified at
beyond an initially defined commencement or during
band. construction phase.
C
Geological b Geology at crossings. FEL 2 X Carry out detailed ground Contractor to allow for Conduct surveys prior to
investigation at crossing including competent performance work. Bear the cost for
trial holes and boreholes and if based on conditions work slowdown/relocation
possible carry out investigations indicated in baseline if required.
below river beds. Ensure depth of ground information.
investigation is below required
construction depth. Consider
seasonal variations of water table.
Provide the design and set the
baseline.
c Swallow holes, ground liquefaction, FEL 3 X Conduct field surveys prior to field Include a baseline Conduct surveys prior to
mud volcanoes, crusted unstable soil mobilization, including geophysical allowance for minor work. Bear the cost for
(subkha), karst. and subsoil work. deviation of geology from work slowdown/relocation
that expected and define if required.
that allowance explicitly in
the contract.
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
d Landslides/Rock streams. FEL 3 X X Conduct field surveys prior to field Include a baseline Conduct surveys prior to
mobilization, including geophysical allowance for landslide work. Bear the cost in
and subsoil work. Instigate landslide mitigation and define that case additional mitigation
monitoring and mapping allowance explicitly in the in excess of the baseline
programmes. contract. allowance is required.
e Erosion. FEL 3 X X Conduct field surveys prior to field Include a baseline Conduct surveys prior to
mobilization, including geophysical allowance for erosion work. Bear the cost in
and subsoil work. Implement erosion mitigation and define that case additional mitigation
control techniques during allowance explicitly in the in excess of the baseline
construction/reinstatement. contract. allowance is required.
C
Geological
f Side slope slows work rate. FEL 3 X Conduct field surveys prior to field Bear all costs. Conduct surveys prior to
mobilization to understand ROW work.
constraints.
5
6
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
g Swamps. FEL 3 X X Development of measures for Adhere to baseline data Bear the cost in case of
working under those difficult with allowance for minor work slowdown/ work
conditions, taking into account deviations to be defined front relocation, due to
seasonal work implementation, use in the contract. deviations beyond those
of specialised machinery, plank roads defined in the contract.
construction, gravel & geotextile,
work slowdown in those sections
etc.
C
Geological h Backfill and padding material/borrow FEL 3 X X Baseline to indicate the expected Adhere to baseline data Bear the cost in case of
pits and royalties. extent of possible reuse of excavated with allowance for minor work slowdown/ work
materials and identify borrow pit deviations to be defined front relocation, due to
possibilities along the pipeline route in the contract. deviations beyond those
as well as protection measures to the defined in the contract.
pipeline, if required, in rocky areas.
i Soil disposal (excess/surplus soil, FEL 3 X X Baseline to indicate the expected Adhere to baseline data Bear the cost in case of
native soil not required). extent of materials to be disposed with allowance for minor work slowdown/ work
and identify the possible disposal deviations to be defined front relocation, due to
grounds along the pipeline route as in the contract. deviations beyond those
well as the licence requirements. defined in the contract.
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
a Unexpected listed species or wildlife X Conduct field surveys prior to field Report all finds. Conduct surveys prior to
along pipeline route. mobilization. Develop response work. Bear the cost for
procedures to protect the wildlife. work slowdown/
relocation if required.
b Introduction of invasive species. FEL 3 X Define species risk. Develop and Bear all costs. Adhere to Conduct surveys prior to
adhere to control procedures and control procedures work. Define species risk.
include them in tender requirements. defined in contract. Develop control
procedures and include
them in contract
requirements.
c Spread of animal and plant diseases. X Identify potential diseases and Bear all costs for Conduct surveys prior to
D ensure suitable wheel cleaning mitigation measures. work. Define disease risk.
Flora and and mitigation measures are Develop control
Fauna
implemented. procedures and include
them in contract
requirements.
d Planned mandatory exclusion FEL 3 X Identify exclusion zones and time Bear all costs. Adhere to Conduct surveys prior to
periods/animal habitats etc. periods before contract execution. control periods defined in work. Identify exclusion
Schedule work in the base plan to contract. zones and time periods
avoid them. in the contract.
7
8
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
e Discovery of dangerous transient FEL 3 X Ensure that fences/gates are Bear all costs. Adhere to Conduct surveys prior to
species on ROW, site storage areas or properly maintained. Warn workforce control procedures work. Define risk by
worker camps. if danger is known. defined in contract. species. Develop control
procedures and include
them in contract
requirements.
f Hunting/ poaching pressure. FEL 3 X Ensure workforce are instructed Bear all costs. Adhere to Conduct surveys prior to
hunting is unacceptable. Provide control procedures work. Define risk to
security to prevent unauthorised defined in contract. species. Develop control
access via new access routes. procedures and include
them in contract
requirements.
D g Habitat fragmentation. FEL 2 X Ensure flight paths and species Bear all costs. Adhere to Conduct surveys prior to
Flora and
access across the spread are control procedures work. Define risk to
Fauna
identified and kept open, minimise defined in contract. species. Develop control
vegetation clearance or provide procedures and include
temporary secure crossing of ROW. them in contract
requirements.
h Unanticipated mandatory exclusion X Identify exclusion zones and time Identify the risk drivers of Conduct surveys prior to
periods. periods before contract execution. exclusions and provide a work. Bear the cost for
Schedule work in the base plan to base time allowance for work slowdown/
avoid them. Identify the risk drivers variations from the base relocation in excess of
of these exclusions and make some plan. Explicitly define the the baseline allowance.
probabilistic time allowance for allowance in the contract.
variations from the base plan (similar
to weather allowance).
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
a Unexpected protest groups along the X Contractor to develop good relations Define the engagement Bear cost of excess
route or a portion of the pipeline route with the local communities including of the contractor in local stoppages.
crosses an area where security of the villagers’ representatives, local relations which should be
personnel involved in the construction councils, government departments, measurable and included
may not be correctly ensured. affected landowners (all called local in the baseline. Include
communities below). Provide for as well any allowance for
security patrols. Establish liaison with lost time to be included in
local law enforcement. the baseline programme.
b Unreasonable landowner behaviour X Develop good relations with the Define the engagement Bear cost of excess
causing disruption to schedule. Local Communities. Solicit their of the contractor in local stoppages.
mitigations and implement them relations which should be
prior to construction. measurable and included
in the baseline. Include
E as well any allowance for
Social and lost time to be included in
Security
the baseline programme.
c Disease spread amongst the FEL 3 X Maintain and appropriate health Bear all costs for Intervene to give support
workforce. education program. Provide avoidance. for avoidance actions.
workforce monitoring. Discourage
working sick. Quarantine where
necessary. Coordinate with local
community health officials. Maintain
hygiene of common facilities.
d Workforce substance abuse. FEL 3 X Develop and enforce zero tolerance Bear all costs for Intervene to give support
policies and procedures. Develop avoidance. for avoidance actions.
workforce testing programs and
certification requirements for vehicle

and machinery operators.
9
10
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
e Population criminal act. X Maintain relationships with local Report events. Intervene to resolve
communities and law enforcement. matter with the local
Define behavioural standards for the communities.
workforce.
f Workforce criminal act. X Maintain relationships with Bear all costs for
workforce. Define behavioural avoidance and obtain
standards for the workforce. support from local
Provide a security/policing resource. communities.
g ROW and access roads sometimes X Provide security measures as may be Bear all costs of the Bear cost of excess to
provide access to areas previously defined in the baseline (e.g. security baseline allowance. baseline allowance.
inaccessible. They may then be used guards/lighting...)
by others for their convenience.
E
Social and h
Access to the ROW is available but X Provide security measures as may be Bear all costs of the Bear cost of excess to
Security
access to the main supply points of defined in the baseline (e.g. security baseline allowance. baseline allowance.
the country (harbour, local main stores guards/lighting...)
etc) or access to pipeyards/site stores
or camps or access to borrow pits
needed to supply suitable backfill
materials are temporarily unavailable
due to external reasons (e.g. national
strike, national shortage of certain
materials, intervention by action
groups, other security reasons etc)
i Certain portions of the site are not X Insert the time needed for preliminary Bear cost of baseline Bear cost to excess to
available as scheduled in the baseline works in the baseline programme with agreed allowances. baseline.
programme due to preliminary works with agreed allowances.
done by others not completed.
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
j Impacts of project on local FEL 3 X X Develop good relationship with local Joint actions by Bear cost of excess to
communities and their economy. communities. Ensure that workforce Contractor and Client with baseline resources and
understand codes of behaviour to be the Local Communities. time.
adhered too. Highlight the community Define allowances in terms
and economic benefits rather than the of resources and time to
negativities associated with the project. provide in the baseline.
k Terrorism. X Pipeline guarding, work with local Report events. Intervene to resolve
communities, selection of pipeline matter with the local
construction technology. authorities.
l Personnel protection against wild X Ecological surveys, areas revelation of Bear all costs for Intervene to give support
animals. wild animals habitation. Development protection and avoidance for avoidance actions.
of measures for personnel protection actions.
E against wild animals.
Social and
Security m Transport/ infrastructure pressures. FEL 3 X X Ensure that appropriate traffic Provide a Traffic Bear cost of excess to
assessments have been carried out Management Plan based baseline resources and
prior to works and any mitigation on those traffic time.
measures agreed with local assessments as well as
governing body. traffic monitoring and
controls to be included in
the baseline.
n Contaminants. FEL 3 X Permits should define actions and Bear cost of baseline Bear cost of excess to
measures to take to investigate risks actions and measures. baseline resources and
such as entomological, epizootic, time.
radioactive or chemical issues and
define the surveys required for the
areas previously inaccessible. Those

would define the baseline.
11
12
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
o Workforce labour X Develop good relations with the Bear all costs for Intervene to give support
unrest/disruptions/strike. workforce and any representatives. avoidance. for avoidance actions.
Monitor external agents acting to
influence the workforce. Develop
and conduct an active labour
relations program. Provide for
security patrols. Establish liaison
with local law enforcement. Develop
a labour law compliance verification
system and where applicable
establish a site labour agreement.
p Equipment failure/unsuitable X Ensure contractor understands that Bear cost of schedule

E equipment. the suitability of equipment is its full impact in case of failure
Social and responsibility and that contractor has or unsuitability of
Security
adequate maintenance capacity. equipment.
q War in region/hostilities. FEL 3 X Fully understand geo-political risks. Contractor and client to Contractor and client to
Put evacuation plans in place. Work jointly prepare plans. jointly prepare plans.
abandonment plans. Payments Report events. Report events. To be
during hostilities. dealt with under
employer's risks/force
majeure.
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
a Aggregate sourcing. FEL 3 X Establish sources of aggregate prior Bear cost of baseline Bear cost (if any) of any
to work commencement to ensure allowance. change of sourcing
demand/quality can be met as part required.
of the baseline.
b An event elsewhere affecting material FEL 3 X A clear plan for the delivery of Baseline programme to Bear cost and time
supply/non-delivery of materials materials supplied by the client, with be based on such impact of any delay to
supplied by client. special attention to long lead items delivery plan. delivery plan.
should form part of the baseline.
c An event elsewhere affecting material X As part of the quality assurance Bear cost of delays or Assist in the follow up
supply/non-delivery of materials to be contractor to establish a deal with the matter and controls of long lead
F procured by contractor. procurement plan defining follow up under employer's items.
Materials procedures and controls with special risks/force majeure.
emphasis on long lead items.
d Client decides that further in-situ FEL 3 X Materials and testing procedures to Bear cost of baseline Bear cost of excess to
testing for new materials to be used in be defined in the baseline. allowance. baseline.
the project (e.g. new field joint coating
material).
13
14
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
a Unplanned route diversion or the FEL 3 X Pipeline route and scope of the works Plan for the baseline with Bear cost of excess
client decides to proceed with some are defined in the baseline. any minor deviation above baseline.
changes to the scope of the works. specifically spelled out in
the baseline.
b Change of crossing method/change FEL 3 X An early review of construction Contractor to establish Bear cost and time of
of design. techniques should be carried out to detailed construction impact due to change.
determine feasibility of each crossing to methodology of the
ensure that the crossing can be safely baseline together with a
built in the available time and that breakdown of construction
sufficient land/access is available. The costs/unit rates.
crossing method derived from this early
review to be included in the baseline.
G c Breakdown of crossing equipment X The baseline crossing method defines Bear cost of breakdown,
Engineering
(HDD or micro tunnelling machine) the crossing equipment to be used. of time impact and of
leading to the abandonment of the resetting equipment for a
crossing attempt. new crossing.
d Crossing equipment becomes X Early review of geology has governed Contractor to operate Bear repair cost as well as
blocked due to tunnel collapse or the choice of crossing method and equipment within the cost and time impact of
ground squeeze. equipment. recommended mechanical resetting new equipment
limitations. for a new crossing.
e Damage to third party FEL 3 X Maintain spill response procedures and Initiate response actions
pipeline/facilities resulting in spill/ equipment. Conduct spill response drills. and bear cost.
damage to buried services. Observe and report spill near misses.
Train workforce in spill prevention.
Identify all third parties in baseline survey.
Engage third party in risk management.
Ensure third party representative is on
site when crossing their services.
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
f Waste management on ROW and FEL 3 X Contractor to establish detailed Ensure compliance with Control compliance with
office sites. waste management plan for all waste plan. plan.
produced by the project as part of
the baseline.
g Discovery of informal tips/fly-tipped X Ensure appropriate mitigation Report all finds. Conduct field surveys
waste. measures are in place if necessary to prior to work. Bear the
avoid contamination/harm to cost for work
workforce etc. slowdown/relocation if
required.
h Off-spec water discharging into X Build catchment basin to impound Bear cost of these If site conditions are such
adjacent water ways. water. Sample and test runoff daily measures as part of the that additional measures
and during rain events.Ensure baseline. are needed, bear cost of
G engineering has designs for this at all those additional
Engineering likely locations prior to construction. measures.
i Unidentified buried services. FEL 3 X Ensure that all buried services and Baseline to include Bear cost of excess
their details are known (owner, size, information of final survey above baseline.
service, depth, date of installation, before construction.
design life, abandonment method).
j Unexpected earthquake fault FEL 3 X Conduct field surveys prior to field Include a baseline Conduct surveys prior to
crossing. mobilization, including geophysical allowance for minor work. Bear the cost for
and subsoil work. deviation of geology from work slowdown/
that expected and define relocation if required.
that allowance explicitly in
the contract.
15
16
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
a Failure to provide adequate FEL 3 X Understand the performance Bear cost of compliance Establish adequate
protection, such as: standards for permit conditions and and remedials. controls.
- Providing sub-standard protection design the ROW protections
- Failure to maintain adequate accordingly. Establish daily patrols,
protection inspections and a correction crew.
- Sabotage or storm event damaging Suspend local operations as required
protection until protections are restored.
b Operations outside of permitted FEL 3 X Understand the performance Bear cost of compliance Establish adequate
conditions such as: standards for permit conditions and and remedials. controls.
- Weather conditions not allowing define operational limitations.
work to proceed Identify a compliance officer to
- Mud and ROW conditions enforce them. Have adequate field
preventing work from proceeding engineers to provide suitable designs.
H - Uncontrolled run-off spoiling the
Permit
environment
Conditions
c Ground contamination due to FEL 3 X Maintain spill response procedures Bear cost of compliance Establish adequate
chemical spillage. and equipment. Conduct spill and remedials. controls.
response drills. Observe and report
spill near misses. Train workforce in
spill prevention.
d Discharge of off-spec hydrotest water. FEL 3 X Prior to contract execution, define Bear cost of compliance Establish adequate
discharge specification and treatment and remedials. controls.
options for off-spec water and gain
approval for both supply and disposal
of hydrotest water.
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
e Introduction of new permit conditions FEL 3 X Carefully review permit conditions Report events. Apply for Bear costs resulting from
during construction. and expectations and contingencies new permits and proceed new permit conditions.
with relevant authorities before to a joint risk mitigation
beginning work. In case of late exercise.
changes a joint client/ contractor
team to react swiftly.
f Late or slow issue of necessary FEL 3 X Understand the permitting process The baseline should Bear costs of delays in
permits. and cycle time risks before beginning include a clear permitting case plan is changed.
work. Schedule work areas to adapt plan.
to higher risk permits. Incorporate
likely risk areas into schedule and
possibly instruct contractor to to
H provide costs for partial or full move
Permit rounds.
Conditions
g Any restriction on working hours at FEL 3 X Any restrictions on working hours Contractor should
special points or specific crossings. should be identified within the programme and price for
baseline tender. complying with identified
restrictions.
17
18
Item
Client
by contractor
Contractor
at FEL phase N°
a Inadequate scour protection at river FEL 3 X Understand the performance Bear cost of compliance Establish adequate
crossings. standards for permit conditions and and remedials. controls.
define operational limitations.
Establish daily patrols, inspections
and correction crew. Include designs
in engineering.
b Inadequate erosion protection FEL 3 X Understand the performance Bear cost of compliance Establish adequate
cutback at river crossings and standards for permit conditions and and remedials. controls.
erosion protection at steep slopes. define operational limitations.
Establish daily patrols, inspections
and correction crew. Include designs
in engineering.
I
ROW c Inadequate revegetation/bio- FEL 3 X Ensure adequate reinstatement Bear cost of compliance Establish adequate
Remediation
reinstatement or difficulties of measures have been imposed i.e. and remedials. controls.
remediation. correct seed mix ratios/use of geo-
jute/effective top soil storage to avoid
loss/erosion.
4.2. Management of Construction Risks on Pipeline Projects
Proposed guidelines are given in this section to deal with specific risk events associated with the
construction of on shore pipelines which generally result in stoppages, slowdowns and hindrances
(all three called “stoppages” below) to the progress of the works.
It is understood that good design and works preparation at FEL phases can significantly reduce the
occurrence and/or extent of stoppages at the construction stage.
However, due to the very nature of pipeline construction numerous residual causes may trigger all types
of stoppages.
Below is the list of the most common causes of stoppages, followed by guidelines to assess:
• Their impact on progress

• The possible mitigation measures
• The cost impacts of stoppages and the cost of mitigation measures
4.2.1 List of the most common causes
The list of events which may lead to stoppages are developed in section 4 above under nine categories.
Typical examples are highlighted below.
4.2.1.1 Weather and climate (Category A)
The weather during certain periods of the construction may be worse than the limits defined in the
baseline and taken into account in the construction programme.
4.2.1.2 Archaeology and other unforeseen events (Category B)
Events affecting or stopping the progress of the works.
4.2.1.3 Geology/Ground conditions (Category C)
When there is a significant change as compared with the baseline with a larger extent of ground
conditions requiring specific equipment for excavation and/or backfill and/or reinstatement (e.g. quality
and/or extent of the rock, presence of large boulders/cobbles, swamp areas etc.).
4.2.1.4 Fauna and Flora (Category D)
Discovery of unexpected species or protected wildlife along the pipeline route.
19
4.2.1.5 Access to the site, Social and Security matters (Category E)
The access to certain portions of the site – the pipeline route or certain working areas – may not be
available or may be restricted in some ways. There are many reasons which could create such a
situation and the most common are listed below:
• Some land acquisition along the pipeline route might not be finalised or land owners may
request to revisit the conditions of transfer of ownership
• Intervention by an action group using the publicity and/or the negative impact on the project
schedule to promote their cause and/or obtain that the authorities consider their demands
• Security reasons: a portion of the pipeline crosses an area where security of the personnel
involved in the construction may not be correctly ensured
• Access to the pipeline route is available to the construction team but, for instance:
• access to the main supply points in the country (e.g. access to and from the
harbour or airport or local supply stores)
• access to the site pipe yards and/or to the main stores
• access to the borrow pits (when excavated material, even treated, are not
suitable for backfill)
are temporarily unavailable due to external reasons or interferences (e.g. national strike or national
shortage of certain materials or consumables, intervention by action group, security reasons)
• Preliminary works or adjacent works done by others interfering with the pipeline route or with
main access points to the ROW or to some of the main installations are not completed in an
area at the time when work on the pipeline should proceed
• Seasonal restrictions including breeding periods for protected species, climatic conditions
(flooding, rainy seasons, snowfall etc.)
4.2.1.6 Material supply (Category F)
• Late delivery of materials supplied by others (ordered directly by the client) and/or quality of
such material (e.g. main valves)
• The client and the designer decide further in-situ testing for new material to be used on the
project (e.g. new field joint coating)
4.2.1.7 Engineering, changes of scope/variation orders (Category G)
• There is a need to change the design of a certain portion of the work (e.g. unexpected
ground conditions, seismic fault or unstable ground in a zone where access was not fully
available for investigations at an earlier stage)
• Similarly the client decides to proceed with some changes to the scope of the works as a
result of the above or for some other reason (e.g. new material/component to be used,
procurement time impact, larger excavation required for a seismic fault and special backfill
material to be used, procurement time impact)
20
4.2.1.8 Permits or Licences (Category H)
• Delays in the issuance by the authorities of permit for the works or permit to access some
restricted areas (e.g. military zones, border zones etc.) or licences to use certain products
(e.g. explosives)
• Delays in agreeing method statements for construction in sensitive areas (e.g. river
crossings, designated sites)
• Restrictions due to transmittable diseases
• Consent for waste disposal facilities, water abstraction and discharge, camps and/or
borrow pits have not been issued
4.2.2 Assessment of their impact on progress, possible mitigation

measures and resulting cost impact
4.2.2.1 Impact and Management of Stoppages
The impact of the above events on progress can only be correctly assessed if a detailed programme of
works with precise assumptions has been understood and agreed by all parties at the onset (refer to
section 3.2 “Establishment of a Detailed Resourced Programme” above). It is also essential that “Early
Warning Procedures” be in place so that any party identifying an event with potential impact on progress
can promptly organise early warning meetings to jointly establish the responses to the consequences of
those events.
Then the management of stoppages can follow the sequences below:
4.2.2.1.1 Stoppage affecting one activity

The significant stoppage (meaning greater than the allowance made in the base programme) of one
activity does not affect other activities. This may be the case if:
a) the activity affected is well ahead of the base programme
b) the following later scheduled activities are significantly behind the base programme
c) a combination of a) and b) – in other words the actual time lag A1 or B1 etc. is greater than the
minimum agreed time lag A0 or B0 etc.
In the above three situations, the overall programme is not affected and unless further significant
stoppages are expected, there is no immediate need to mitigate the delay of the affected activity.
In terms of cost impact, only the cost of the crew (people, equipment and consumables with the crew
environment, transport, lodging and management) from the affected activity over the stoppage period is
to be considered.
4.2.2.1.2 Stoppage affecting several but not all activities

The significant stoppage of one activity affects some but not all the subsequent activities. For instance
the stoppage of activity I impacts on II and III but not on IV and on the others.
As in 2.1.1 above, the overall programme is not affected and unless further significant stoppages are
expected, there is no immediate need to mitigate the delay of the affected activities.
In terms of cost impact, only the costs of the crews from the affected activities (I, II and III) over the
stoppage period are to be considered.
21
4.2.2.1.3 Stoppage affecting all activities

The significant stoppage of one activity does affect all the subsequent activities.
This is often the case at the start of works when the stoppage of the ROW or the stringing, for instance,
prevents the start of the activities which follow.
It is also the case when all activities (whether progressing as per base programme or not) follow each
other at intervals close to the agreed minimum time lag A0, B0, C0,..
Here in the absence of mitigation measures (such as strengthening certain crews to subsequently
accelerate the works or jumping over the problem zone, (refer to paragraph 2.2) all subsequent activities
will be delayed and there may be a risk for the completion date of the project.
In terms of cost impact, the cost of the first crew affected as well as the cost of all following crews over
the stoppage period should be considered but the effect of the stoppage may also induce the extra cost
of an extension of the completion time of the project.
Examples of evaluation of time and cost impacts of full stoppages or of slowdowns to certain activities
intervening at various stages of the construction process are included in Appendix 4.2.1.1.
4.2.2.1.4 The special case of repeated stoppages

When repeated stoppages occur they may affect productivity of the working crews who have not had
sufficient time to get over repeated remobilisation phases and learning curves. The evaluation of this loss
of productivity is not simple. However should longer periods in the past without stoppages and better
productivity exist, they should become the reference to estimate the impact of repeated stoppages
during subsequent periods. In the absence of such reference a joint critical analysis of actual progress
as compared with the planned progress is the only solution.
4.2.2.1.5 The special case of repeated changes to the works

This includes repeated re-routeing, changes of depth, changes of types of protection or backfilling
material, when they occur close to the time when works were planned to be performed may also have a
disruptive effect to the progress and to the productivity. They should be avoided as far as possible. The
evaluation of the impact of those repeated changes is also complex and the same recommendations as
in 4.2.2.1.4 should apply.
4.2.2.2 Mitigation Measures and Cost Impact
When significant stoppage events occur, the different mitigation measures could consist of:
• Jumping over the affected zone: if possible (existence of adequate alternative roads or tracks
to the ROW) solution prevailing when the duration of the stoppage is likely to last for much
longer than the time needed to move equipment and personnel of a given crew. However the
logistics of such a move need to have been prepared (or at least identified) in advance to
obtain the full benefit (availability of sufficient transport equipment such as low beds for heavy
equipment, availability of lodging for personnel, camps, availability of storage and materials
etc.)
• Revised sequence of work (restarting work in another location initially planned to be done at
a later stage) when, for instance a stoppage may prevent completion in an area where the
weather is forecast to change soon (snow, heavy rain etc.) making jumping impossible.
Logistical problems similar to those associated with jumping should be addressed
22
• Strengthening some of the crews (for instance if more hard rock is encountered, this might
need additional specific equipment or more requirements for imported backfill material
requiring more dumpers for transport of appropriate material)
• Mobilisation of additional equipment and personnel to implement an overall acceleration
• Mobilisation of a full new spread
Similarly in the last three examples the logistics of such operations are fundamental to the successful
implementation of the measures.
It is therefore recommended to start some of the planning at the onset of the project:
• Make provisions in the tender such as the main infrastructure of the camps to be built in
advance of their actual need in the base programme, provision of alternative access
roads/tracks if feasible, provision of additional low beds for transfers of heavy equipment
• Prepare and mobilise the same at the start of the project and initiate the early identification of
availability of specific equipment and additional acceleration equipment as soon as the early
signs of delays materialise
The cost impact of certain mitigation measures could be significant. The more costly those measures
become, the more difficult it is, for the project management, to make the required prompt decisions.
In this respect, and under those circumstances, a sponsor group is needed to provide the required
support to the project management. This sponsor group should associate senior executives from both
the client’s and the contractor’s side, with no direct role in the management of the contract but who will
closely monitor the development of the project.
23
24
Appendix 4.2.1
Examples of Evaluation of Time and Cost Impacts of Full Stoppages
or of Slowdowns
4.2.1.1. Examples of evaluation of the time impact of stoppages –

full stoppages or slowdowns
For the purpose of this exercise we consider an extract of a project March chart ranging over a length of
60 km and over a period of 100 days as shown below.
Extract of the Baseline Construction Programme
The six activities shown above follow each other with the minimum time lags a0 to e0 between activities,
described in section 3.2. It means that should two activities follow each other with this minimum time lag
in the actual construction progress, in the absence of any mitigation measures, any stoppage or
slowdown of the preceding activity will sooner or later have an equal effect on the following activities.
Different scenarios are presented below with the assumption that no mitigation measure is implemented.
4.2.1.1.1 Event stopping completely one or more activity
4.2.1.1.1.1 If during the actual construction in that area, all activities progress with the minimum
time lag between them, a stoppage of D days of one activity will sooner or later induce the same delay
of D days for all the subsequent activities as shown on the simplified diagram 1.a. below. Note that the
delay D may not occur exactly at km 20 for all the subsequent activities but it will definitely happen at
some stage for all of them.
25
1.a. – Progress of all activities with the minimum time lag between activities
All activities will be delayed by the same delay “D” even if the event having caused the delay disappears
before all activities have gone through.
4.2.1.1.1.2 Diagrams 1.b. and 1.c show the effect of stoppages if during the actual construction
some activities are ahead of the following activities by more than the minimum time lag a0 to e0. These
diagrams assume that the ROW and the stringing activities are ahead of the following activities by b0 +
∆.
- If ∆ < D : the delay impact on the following activities will be (D - ∆)

- If ∆ ≥ D : there will be no impact on the following activities
1.b. – With ∆ < D
26
1.c. – With ∆ > D
4.2.1.1.2 Event slowing down one or more activities
4.2.1.1.2.1 As described in section 1.1.1 above if all activities progress with the minimum time lag
between them, a slowdown lasting D days for one activity, will result in a delay of D1 = D (1-P1/P0) as
shown in diagram 2.b. below, where P0 and P1 represent the activity progress before and during the
slowdown respectively. As shown on diagram 2.a, this will sooner or later induce a delay D1 for all
subsequent activities, though this will not necessarily occur between km 20 and 30.
2.a. – Progress of all activities with the minimum time lag between activities
27
2.b. – Comparison with full stoppages
P0 = progress of the activity before stoppage/slow down

P1 = progress of the activity during slow down
D1 = D (1-P1/P0)
4.2.1.1.2.2 Should a similar slowdown occur in the situations illustrated by diagrams 1.b. and 1.c.,
whereby some activities are ahead of the following activities by more than the minimum time lag, i.e. b +
∆, then:
- If ∆ < D1 : the delay impact on the following activities will be (D1-∆)

- If ∆ ≥ D1 : there will be no delay to the following activities
4.2.1.1.3 Activities running slower or faster than planned
This is the most common situation in many phases of the projects.
a) Actual progress Pa (expressed in km/day) is slower than the planned progress P0 (refer to
diagram 3.a.)
b) Actual progress Pb is faster than the planned progress P0 (refer to diagram 3.b.)
Delay impact for the case a) is D1 = D (1 – P1/Pa)
Delay impact for the case b) is D2 = D (1 – P1/Pb)
Since Pa < Pb D1 < D2
Therefore the March chart helps to quantify the obvious: a slowdown leading to the same progress rate
during the period of slowdown D affects more severely activities progressing faster than programmed
than activities progressing slower.
28
3.a. – Progress of the activity slower than programmed
Pa = progress before slowdown but slower than the planned progress P0

3.b. – Progress of the activity faster than programmed
Pb = progress before slowdown but faster than the planned progress P0

29
The previous evaluations of delays do not imply that compensation is due. This will depend on the
causes of stoppages/slowdowns and on how the agreement between the parties intend to deal with
activities running slower or faster than planned, which is the most common situation in real life.
4.2.1.2. Evaluation of the cost impact of Stoppages
Assuming that compensation is due as per the agreement between the parties, there are a number of
methods in contract literature to evaluate costs.
However experience show that in the case of lump sum contracts one cannot easily find the
mechanisms to promptly assess costs of delays D (stoppages) or D1 (slowdowns) calculated in chapter
1 above.
Hence the suggestion in section 3.3 of THE ROAD TO SUCCESS (Volume one) to break down the
lump sum contract price highlighting the time-related weekly costs of the main working crews in
operation (here onwards, “weekly” costs would also mean “weekly or daily” costs). In parallel the stand-
by weekly costs of the same crews should be indicated. The breakdown should also cover the weekly
costs of the various site installations and of the site management. It would however exclude costs of
incorporated materials which are quantity-related and not time-related.
Those would represent some 10 to 15 items of weekly costs for the crews of each spread as well as for
the weekly costs of the installations and of the site management and any other type of agreed
overheads. That would not exceed 50 items of time-related weekly costs for a major project with two
spreads.
As an example the weekly costs of one of the crews shown on the diagrams of chapter 1, when in
operation, would comprise:
• The all-in cost of all the personnel of the crew plus the cost of food, lodging and PPE as well as
the cost of transport to and from the site (the weekly cost of the camp management and of the
security should be included in the camp weekly costs as part of the installation’s time-related
costs).
• The cost of construction plant and equipment comprising depreciation and/or hiring costs,
maintenance costs (spare parts and consumables), the consumable tools (chains, bucket teeth
etc.)and the fuel and lubricants
The weekly cost of the same crew in stand-by would comprise the same items except that there would
be, among other items:
• a significant reduction of fuel and lubricant consumption for the construction plant
• a reduction of the maintenance costs
• a reduction of the personnel transport costs
When delays of the type D or D1 have been assessed, the application of the appropriate time-related
weekly costs of all the crews affected would promptly allow the evaluation of the overall cost impact.
30
This section develops the guidelines for planning and design of a pipeline project in order to provide the
right data at the right time in a project lifecycle to increase communication between all stakeholders,
reduce project uncertainties, and plan for success.
The objective is to prepare functional specifications and recommended guidelines to improve planning
and design processes, simulation and control of the construction activities, and communications during
all phases of an onshore pipeline project. The deliverables are to contribute improvements in safety,
reduction of risks and uncertainties, better integrity management of the asset and efficient project
execution.
Current industry observations and findings reflect the following:
• The pipeline route has a major influence on the success or failure of pipeline projects
• Insufficient information along with disjointed or misaligned activities during the planning
and design phases results in uncertainties, risks, and potential delays – it is very difficult to
recover from a poor design or plan during construction
• Data collection and data management standards are applied inconsistently across the
industry and from project to project
• Communication and data flow between all stakeholders is fragmented and complex
To address some of the issues related to the above stated observations the following activities were
identified:
• ROW and constructability study & guidelines

• Minimum data requirements and activities for the five project stages
The deliverables for these activities are addressed in detail in sections 5.1 and 5.2.
5.1 Right of Way Constructability Guidelines
Constructability issues play a key part in the pipeline right of way (ROW) route selection. Selecting a
route without considering constructability early in the selection process may lead to additional cost and
schedule impacts in the latter phases of the project. It is not uncommon for the most cost effective route
to be chosen during the early project phases only to find later on that the original cost savings have
been offset by increased construction costs, leading to much higher overall higher project costs.
In order to gain an appreciation of ROW constructability issues in the pipeline industry, the key
consequential constructability issues that may arise during the route selection phase are discussed
below.
Reference is also made to Appendix 5.1.1, which discusses the pipeline route selection process.
1
5.1.1 Constructability Issues

ROW constructability issues can be broadly classified in the following eight categories:
Constructability Issues General Description

This covers access to the ROW from existing roads including the
requirement to construct access roads from existing roads as well as
access along the ROW i.e., the ease or difficulty of travel along the ROW
Access and the frequency of access points to the ROW. Access to the pipeline and
associated above ground installations (AGIs) is not only required during
construction, but will be required all year round (365 days) for pipeline
maintenance and emergency repairs.
Also known as “skips”, this issue addresses sections of the ROW for which
Non-contiguous permission to work is pending, forcing the contractor to move around the
ROW section, disrupting continuous lineal progress and requiring a return of
equipment and labor to complete the ROW at a later date.
This includes satisfactory minimum width requirements, boundary
restrictions, e.g. the need to remain within the strict confines of the ROW,
constricted working space due to permit requirements, existing structures
Working Space
or parallel existing pipelines. Working space requirements will need to be of
sufficient width, length and height to allow the use of equipment with sizes
up to the maximum expected footprint.
This covers the requirements to restore the ROW after construction to a
Restoration near pre-construction state including dealing with landowners to settle
damage claims.
This includes the considerations necessary to meet environmental permit
requirements both during construction—special construction techniques to
Environmental
minimize damage to sensitive areas, flora and fauna—as well as for post-
Mitigation
construction mitigation requirements—strict restoration requirements: re-
vegetation, construction of retaining walls, etc.
This includes the impacts resulting from permit compliance requirements
Permits and the issues associated with permits that must be obtained by the
contractor.
This covers the ROW preparation challenges posed by the physical
conditions to be encountered e.g., hills, mountains, desert, wetlands.
Terrain
Typically it also includes aspects such as topsoil segregation requirements
and road, rail and river crossings.
This includes issues more typically encountered on an international project
in a developing country, such as local content requirements, community
Community Relations assistance programs during construction e.g., building a road to a village,
and nominated local subcontractors which the contractor must utilize
during construction.
2
Industry experience to date generally considers that terrain is the top constructability issue, followed by
access and working space. In developed countries, working space is a key issue, whereas in other
countries access is often important due to remote terrains. Depending upon the region of the world
where the project is built, community relations are sometimes also a priority. The issues can be ranked
by order of importance as follows.
Relative importance of various activities:
5.1.2 Overview of Constructability Issues

The simple proposition to move hydrocarbons through a pipe from point A to B is quickly complicated
by recognizing that the ROW element affects all the project stakeholders: owners, landowners/users,
environmentalists, agencies, regulators, engineers, contractors and operators.
Developing countries may present more flexibility for pipeline ROW options due to their less developed
permitting and environmental guidelines, but these countries are fast adopting the approach of the
developed countries, particularly regarding environmental issues. In developed countries, environmental
concerns tend to dominate other route selection issues.
Because of the predominant nature of environmental concerns, existing pipeline corridors or other
existing linear corridors (such as roads or electrical lines) are preferred when a project looks to route a
new line. A new scar on the landscape will likely add time and cost to the project from both an
environmental and permitting perspective.
The owner and engineer orient the pipeline route to comply with environmental and cultural limitations,
permit restrictions, landowner/land-use constraints, and engineering and construction considerations.
Within the boundaries of the available corridor and along with the regulatory confinements, attention is
given to terrain, soil type and access to the ROW for construction and operation.
3
The contractor has to manage multiple difficulties including limited access to the ROW during
construction, and constrictions and restrictions to the working space. While these obstacles can be
daunting, time consuming and costly, construction is a one-time event in the life cycle of a pipeline
system.
The multiple and sometimes conflicting variables which determine pipeline route selection may combine
to make constructability issues appear to be a secondary consideration which could lead to an
expensive and time-consuming mistake.
In general, a pipeline route should be optimized to minimize the impact to habitations, environment and
other valued land areas while at the same time be as short and as constructible as possible. Shorter
pipelines (not withstanding those through inhabited areas and severe terrain) are typically less expensive
to install and operate, offer less maintenance needs, expose less land (and often less of the public) to
pipeline operations, are safer, have less impact on future development, and provide more efficient
hydraulics.
Choosing a pipeline route that meets these criteria can be a challenging balancing act between the
desires of the landowners, the permitting authorities, and the pipeline owners whose functional and
financial needs are the driving force behind the project.
This process often includes a number of iterations of route selection, evaluation, negotiation, refinement
before the final route is selected.
Routeing preferences move toward terrains that are flat, open (unoccupied and unforested), dry, and
have stable soils and away from terrains that are occupied, hilly to mountainous, heavily eroded, wet,
contain unstable soils, and have numerous crossings (natural or manmade watercourses, roads etc.). An
optimal route can be found by prioritizing and weighing all the different features and terrains encountered
in combination with conscientious, good faith negotiations with the landowners and the permitting
authorities and never losing sight of the owner’s goals and needs for the pipeline’s functionality, cost,
and safety. Appendix 5.1.2 discusses how to use Google Earth to aid in pipeline design and route
selection.
5.1.2.1 Access
Once a route has been selected, access to the route must be obtained first for engineering assessment
and surveying, for construction, and then permanent access for operations and maintenance.
Construction access is important as it involves the transport of heavy equipment and material to the
ROW. Permanent access for operations and maintenance is by far the most important as this will be
required all year round (365 days) for any potential emergency inspections and repairs. Access may be
via public or private means. Public roads and highways are used to get material and equipment into the
general vicinity of (if not directly to) the area on the ROW where they are needed. Otherwise, the
contractor must rely on either access directly down the ROW or by private access, negotiated with
landowners, to get his equipment and material to the ROW. Contractors rely heavily on access down the
ROW, but this is frequently interrupted by the presence of natural features such as marshes and soft
ground, streams, and ravines. Long driving distances are often involved in circumventing these features
by public roads. In such cases, private access is often required, by means of a private road or temporary
board or gravel road (built by the contractor) on private property. Temporary access roads are most
often removed after construction and pre-existing private roads used must typically be left in as good or
better condition than found.
4
5.1.2.2 Non-contiguous ROW

A non-contiguous ROW is primarily a planning and permitting issue, and is often encountered where
landowner negotiations for the ROW have been prolonged or face litigation or where permitting issues
have not been fully resolved in a given area at the time construction is scheduled to begin. Unresolved
access to the ROW can force a contractor to reload, move, and unload his equipment repeatedly and
also complicates the logistics of moving material to the ROW. Similarly, missing ROW sections can
interfere with the efficient hydrostatic testing of the pipeline once installed and can force the contractor
to return to the area once the ROW is obtained. This interference with the normal pipeline construction
and testing process lowers construction efficiency, raises costs, and extends the construction schedule
thus delaying the pipeline in-service time. As a result, every effort should be made to minimise non-
contiguous ROW issues prior to start of construction.
5.1.2.3 Working Space

Working space constitutes the area in which the construction equipment will operate while installing the
pipeline and associated facilities. For the pipeline itself, this is a combination of the ROW and the
temporary workspace outside the ROW, which is negotiated with land owners, for use on a temporary
basis during construction only. This temporary workspace is often located parallel to and on both sides
of the pipeline ROW. The full, running construction corridor (ROW and temporary workspace) is typically
broken into three, parallel strips. First, there is the pipe trench located in the central portion of the
corridor (and within the ROW), second, the spoil side workspace where the trench spoil is placed, and
third, the working side (opposite the spoil side of the trench) where the pipe is strung and welded
together, the side booms operate, and typically a travel or passing lane is provided outside the pipe and
side booms. The width of the temporary workspace is largely dependent on the size of the pipe, the size
of the equipment to handle it (side booms etc.), the depth of the trench, and the degree to which soil
segregation is required. Typically, additional temporary workspace is provided at road, stream and other
crossings where more or special construction equipment is required, crossing pipe sections (drag
sections) must be fabricated, and additional requirements for spoil storage must be made. These
additional temporary workspace requirements are essentially standard for road and stream crossings,
but can be much larger and more complex for special construction areas such as at horizontal
directional drilled (HDD) crossings.
The proper allowance of workspace on a pipeline project creates an efficient construction environment
where high levels of safety and productivity can be achieved and maintained, construction schedules are
reduced, costs are mitigated, and a better industry reputation maintained altogether. On the other hand,
inadequate workspace creates an inefficient and unsafe work environment where equipment and
personnel must work too closely together, equipment is restricted in its ability to move and pivot,
material storage and fabrications must be done at remote locations then transported to site, spoil must
be transferred to multiple locations, access and passing lanes are nonexistent or restricted, and project
schedules are prolonged, safety and quality is sacrificed, and costs increased etc.
In general, adequate work space is a key component of a successful pipeline project. However, the
availability of space is dependent on the terrain being crossed. Construction at the peaks of
mountainous terrain will have limited working space, meaning that construction traffic will require more
control moving up and down the right of way compared to a flat right of way. This will affect construction
rates, and hence overall schedules.
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5.1.2.4 Restoration
Restoration is the return of the temporary construction workspace and the pipeline ROW to a condition
similar prior to the pipeline’s construction. Restoration plans are generally negotiated with the land
owners, environmental engineers, and permitting authorities prior to construction commencement. Plans
are drawn up according to the agreements with all involved. Typically the restoration of ROW and
workspace involves the return of appropriate plant life to these areas and updating ground drainage to
work as before. In some cases it will also involve the replacement of road and parking lot surfaces etc.,
or the stabilization of stream and river banks at crossings. In the latter cases, care should be taken to
prevent settlement or erosion of those surfaces in the years following construction. Regarding plant life
restoration, the workspace may be typically allowed to either return to its natural state on its own or be
replanted with plant life, including trees, similar to those in the surrounding area. Typically the ROW itself
is not replanted with trees or heavy brush as it must be passable by maintenance and emergency
vehicles, and be able to be monitored by crews on foot or by plane. There are exceptions to this such as
along navigable and scenic rivers where tree screens are often required by the permitting authorities.
However, any trees or heavy brush planted near pipelines must have shallow roots so as not to interfere
with the pipeline and its coating. At a minimum, the disturbed ground is typically graded then seed, lime,
mulch, fertilizer etc. is spread to provide a temporary stabilization to the soil surface to mitigate erosion
(in accordance with the approved plans). At times, the soil must be broken or aerated to some degree if
it has been compacted too severely by construction equipment. Farmers will often take care of the
restoration of their own cropland in accordance with their own plans with expectations of compensation
for their effort. In some cases the restoration effort may extend over several years until a given
percentage (specified in the permit) of the disturbed land has been restored. Complicated restoration
efforts (as might be required in national parks) are often subcontracted out by the owner or prime
contractor.
5.1.2.5 Environmental Mitigation

As an example, a large-diameter pipeline 100 miles long may traverse various terrain types and cross
through or near many farms, parks, forests, and/or prairies; and dozens of streams and/or rivers. Such a
pipeline can potentially disturb over 1200 acres of land and leave in its path a prominent scar across the
countryside. In an effort to mitigate the negative impact of a pipeline project on the environment it is
important to first assess the types of environments through which the pipeline is proposed to pass.
Second, to develop a plan by which the impact of the pipeline’s construction and operation in those
environments is mitigated. This environmental mitigation plan for a pipeline project is prepared in
cooperation with the land owners and the permitting authorities. Optimized routeing of the pipeline is the
first and most important tool by which environmental impact is mitigated. By that means alone, very
important or sensitive land areas have the best opportunity to minimize or eliminate negative
environmental impact. Additional mitigation measures include:
• Boring or HDD under or passed areas of concern

• Reduced ROW and/or workspace width
• Bridging over areas of concern
• Increasing the depth of cover or insulating the pipe (where surface heating or
cooling is a concern)
• Rearranging mainline valves out of areas of concern
• Sharing ROW with adjacent utilities
• Using existing bridges
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• Installing interconnections with existing pipelines (where extra capacity is available)

rather than building a new pipeline
• Using skid mounted equipment prefabricated elsewhere
Further ways may also exist to reduce or eliminate the impact of pipeline construction and operation to
the environment. As for land that is impacted by the pipeline, a plan must be developed in cooperation
with the landowners and permitting authorities, to restore the disturbed environment to its
preconstruction state as much and as soon as possible.
5.1.2.6 Permits
Any and all pipelines that are to leave the property of the pipeline owner and cross either public land or
private land, not owned by the pipeline owner, must be approved by the appropriate public authorities. It
is the duty of the public authorities to ensure that all laws of the land are obeyed, that the rights of
private property owners are respected, and that there is an overriding public good provided by the
pipeline project. The approval of the project, by the public authorities, is generally provided in the form of
a permit, signed by the appropriate public representative and officially issued.
This permit, often issued with stipulations, is the means by which the pipeline is approved to be
designed, constructed and operated. Different countries have differing regulatory and permit
requirements. Such permits can typically be broken into three types. These are typically federal, state,
and local. Generally speaking, if a pipeline is classified as having common carrier status (carrying the
products of more than one company) then the owner company is given the right of eminent domain,
which in effect allows the pipeline owner company to condemn property owners in court to obtain (at fair
market value) the access, ROW, and/or workspace needed to construct and operate their pipeline.
Typical reasons that permits are issued include the following:
• To confirm that a pipeline project is in the best public interest and that a fair
increase in commodity or tariff rates may be made, by the owner company,
to offset the projects costs
• To confirm that property owners, on whose property the pipeline is to be located,
are not unduly burdened by it
• To confirm that the environmental impact is acceptable and that appropriate
mitigation and restoration will be conducted
• To confirm that the route and workspace has been searched for prehistoric and
historic sites in the vicinity of the project and that either the project’s impact to any
such sites is nil or acceptable and that appropriate restoration will be performed (as
required)
• To confirm that the route and workspace has been searched for endangered
species and habitat in the vicinity of the project and that either the project’s impact
to any such sites is nil or acceptable and that appropriate restoration will be
performed (as required)
• To confirm the acceptance of road, railroad, stream and other crossings
Numerous additional types of permits might also be required. These permits can take from a few days to
prepare a simple drawing and obtain a local road crossing permit to over a year to apply and obtain a
federal permit for a large multi-state project.
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5.1.2.7 Terrain
This is the most important construction issue. In weighing the construction, material, and operational
costs and needs of a cross country pipeline, there will sometimes be decisions made during the routeing
process to traverse a shorter distance through a more difficult terrain rather than take a longer distance
through a more favorable terrain (and vice-versa). Generally, shorter pipelines make for lower
construction, material, and operational costs. However, in some cases, it may be preferable to take a
longer route around an area, such as a dense city or a mountain range, rather than take the shorter and
more direct route through it. Complications can increase substantially in mountainous and other regions
affecting safety and extending the construction schedule resulting in increased costs.
In addition, product transportation and operation costs can significantly increase though mountainous
regions (for liquid lines). In such cases, for example, the increase in costs for a mountainous route, over
the life of the pipeline, could outweigh those for a longer route around a mountain range. These are
issues that must be worked out in the overall process of optimizing the pipelines function and lifetime
cost (construction, material, and operations).
Nevertheless, difficult terrains are often part of a chosen pipeline route, and must be dealt with by the
construction contractor. Such terrains might include mountains, marshes, permafrost, urban areas,
unstable soils (moving sand dunes etc.), rugged areas with much erosion and exposed rock, areas with
poor access etc.
In all these cases, careful planning of the workspace, access, material storage yards, construction
equipment to be used, pipeline installation methods, and construction schedule (winter, summer etc.) in
consideration of the terrain will make vast improvements in the safety and productivity of the
construction phase of the project.
5.1.2.8 Community Relations

Presenting a proposed pipeline project in a positive way to the communities it affects, and maintaining a
good and positive relationship with affected communities is key to minimizing many of the problems that
can often hamper the permitting, construction, operation, and maintenance of a pipeline. Project
administrators should notify communities early on about the plans for a proposed pipeline project by
contacting community administrators, posting newspaper notices, and conducting public meetings.
Open public meetings provide an opportunity for local officials, landowners, business leaders, and other
affected parties to receive information about the pipeline(s) location(s), construction schedule, and key
project contacts. These meetings can also provide a means of providing information about the benefits
of a pipeline project (economic stimulus, jobs etc.), allow community members to have their questions
answered and concerns addressed, rectify misunderstandings that frequently alarm people
unnecessarily about pipeline projects, and avert negative media attention. Likewise, these meetings
allow for dialogue with property owners and community.
Overall, good relationships between pipeline owner companies and communities are invaluable toward
improved routeing and facility location options, ROW and workspace negotiations, assistance from the
local contractors and workforce, and opportunities for the use of community infrastructure and facilities
among other things.
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5.2 Minimum Data Requirements and Activities for the Five Typical
Project Stages
The diagram below shows the typical project cycle time and the project phases in relation with the
Construction Contract duration.
It is also important to bear in mind that a pipeline project is a multi-discipline effort involving coordination
between pipeline engineers, metallurgy, process, control systems, electrical, piping, civil and mechanical
works as well as social, cultural and environmental specialists.
5.2.1 FEL 1 Business Planning

Business planning is of utmost importance as it sets the foundation stone for the project, ie why the
project is required, that project expenditure is necessary, and the purpose of the project.
Defining the purpose of the project is key, as the purpose of the project phases following this phase FEL
1 will be to provide the optimum solution to comply with the project purpose / statement of
requirements (SOR). It basically sets the ground rules / constraints around which the design will be
performed.
The key activities normally involve the following:

• Business Case
• Strategic Objectives
• Economic Analysis
• Project Expectations
• Market Analysis
• Competitors Review/Competing projects
• Environmental Constraints
• Desk Top Routing Study to identify a Regional Corridor
(typically 15 – 25 km wide
9
Cost estimates (+/- 50%) and schedules are key drivers in the business planning phase and are
determined by a multidiscipline effort. Major cost / schedule input items such as pipeline size
determination and pump or compressor requirements are determined by pipeline and
process/mechanical engineers. SCADA / telecoms, pipeline security, environmental issues, terrain, and
regulations are also considered by a multidiscipline effort inclusive of electrical and instrumentation,
piping, civil, environmental, social and safety engineers. For business planning of long distance pipelines
crossing country borders, both legal and commercial inputs are also required to advise on international /
cross border conditions, tariffs, and international negotiations.
As stated above, a pipeline projects is a multi-discipline effort. A composite team of pipeline, process,
controls, piping, civil, environmental, social and safety engineers is required. For business planning of
long distance pipelines crossing country borders, both legal and commercial inputs are also required to
advise on international / cross border conditions and tariffs, international negotiations.
The costing analysis will need to offset revenue costs against:
• Material and construction (pipe, valves, SCADA, rotating equipment,

fiscal metering)
• OPEX (fuel usage, security, maintenance and inspection, CO2 offset)
• Tariffs (domestic and international)
A high level pipeline schedule showing the start and end date to commissioning the line is important.
Key overview activities include:
• EIA (Environmental Impact Studies)

• Regulatory permits and approvals
• Design
• Long lead items (pumps, compressors, linepipe, SCADA / telecoms)
• Construction
The minimum data requirements for business planning are typically:
• Existing infrastructure information

o Land use (agriculture, woodland, wetland, open water, residential,
commercial)
o Designated areas (existing or planned parks, public areas, developments)
o Rights-of-way (roads, railroads, utility corridors to be crossed or paralleled)
o Identify physical obstacles (swamps, mountains, lakes, and rivers) on maps
o Identify geotechnical constraints including Seismic activity, karst areas,
landslides,
o Energy grid (alternative energy sources, competitor pipelines, existing
company lines)
o Origin and termination points of pipeline identified
o Potential customers (taps) and potential partners (tie-ins) along route identified
o Demographics, area growth potential
o Need for new pipeline (U.S. proof of “convenience and necessity”)
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• Political situations
o Unrest and extremism
o Regulatory atmosphere and pending legislation
o Future tariffs, energy tax credits, infrastructure inducements
• Expectations
o Customers
o Partners
o Regulatory approval provisions
o Landowners
• Market information
o Long term availability of oil or gas supply for pipeline
o Long term demand by customers
o Open season offering to gauge potential pipeline customers
o Oil and gas price projections
• Financing
o Lending environment
o Cost of borrowing
o Potential investors and partners
• Competitor data
o Public information
o Consultant information
o Other in-house projects pending
• Key environmental constraints
o Water bodies
o Protected species
o Archaeological sites
o Air quality and noise
o Hazardous waste areas
• Field Investigation
o Regional pipeline corridor pinch points identified
o Discussion with local agencies and business groups
o Right-of-way research at courthouse
o Assess landowner resistance
o Estimate land cost
The key deliverables from the business planning phase are typically:
• Business case justification document

• Project statement of requirements
• Framework / Scope / Project Objectives
• Regulatory plan
• Decision Review Packages
• Cost Estimate – (+/- 50%, or order of magnitude OOM)
• Schedule Timeline
• Project Execution Plan
• Project Risk Assessment (commercial / technical / environmental)
• At least one feasible corridor identified
It is important that the above deliverables have been thoroughly studied, as any changes later on could
introduce flaws for the whole philosophy leading to the effort having to be re-done. This would result in
redundant work, and consequential impacts on cost and schedule.
11
A Regulatory Plan is also of paramount importance to plan the submission of the key approval
documents during the alternative selection phase. It is also needed to ensure that the schedule takes
into account public consultation meetings, local area / local jurisdiction approvals and governmental
approvals.
Project Teams shall begin to organize their data collection around a Geographical Information System
(GIS) structure to facilitate the management of this data throughout the life cycle of the project.
Any problems in these areas can jeopardize the project viability.
5.2.2 FEL 2 Alternative Selection

The alternative selection phase is where the pipeline system design is further progressed to confirm
viability and to review and select the optimum solution. This phase improve accuracy of the cost
estimate and to the schedule. The cost estimate for this phase is expected to achieve a +/-30%
accuracy.
The schedule for this phase of a project will become more detailed by adding more activities and
confirming durations for more specific selections
The selection phase will utilize the project statement of requirements (SOR), framework, scope, and
project objectives to develop viable options meeting the project requirements. These options will be
driven by safety, environmental and social constraints and cost, and can include:
• Routing options
• Pipeline configurations (single line / multiple lines)
• Pipeline diameter vs design pressure options
• Pipeline diameter vs number of pump / compression stations
• Locations of stations
It is important that all the viable options are considered in detail and that there is agreement on the
optimum solution selected. It is important that solution selection criteria is prepared, is agreed, and is
robust enough to ensure that the correct criteria is used for the selection analysis. The key requirements
need to be prioritized in a list as appropriate.
It is not uncommon that a number of selection phase studies are done to ensure that the correct
solution for further engineering development is selected. In some cases, design competitions are held
with this intention.
The key engineering activities involved during this phase are generally:
• Establish Regulatory / Permitting requirements / schedule
• More detailed Route selection to identify alternative routes (100 to 500 meter wide)
within the Regional Corridor (15 to 25 km wide)Generally performed on a desk top
basis.
• Perform Hydraulic Study to ascertain pipeline sizes and station locations of
alternative routes
• Determine pipeline operating / batching philosophy
• Preliminary SCADA / telecommunications design
• Class Location and Main Line Valve study
• Determination of road, RR, water body crossing methods
• Detailed Field reconnaissance of route alternatives and aboveground facilities
locations
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• By end of FEL 2, alternatives are trimmed to one primary route, and perhaps one or
two alternatives, on the basis of cost, constructability and project SOR for purpose
of environmental assessment and permitting to carry forward into the FEL 3 Stage.
(Certain regulatory frameworks may dictate the number of alternatives required to
carry forward for permitting/certification).
• Preparation of preliminary route maps
• HSE Plan
• Involvement of critical equipment / material providers (long lead items, coatings,
etc)
Minimum data requirements for the FEL 2 Alternative Selection phase:

• FEL 1 Business Planning Report
• Project Statement of Requirements
• Applicable regulations and codes
• Pipeline owner / operator Design Specifications
• Satellite imagery and/or aerial photography and elevation data
• Identification of wetlands; i.e. geologic maps
• Preliminary survey of aboveground facilities
• Other data required for the work is collected as required
• Continued development and enhancement of the GIS system
• Environmental impact assessment
The key deliverable is a study report generally comprised of the following:
• Pipeline Route
o Routing plan drawing
o Route Maps
o Number of and Station locations (valve, pigging, pump, compression, metering)
o Terrain (topographical / geotechnical) description
o Crossings
• Process description
• Pipeline system parameters:
o Design code
o Outside diameter
o Wall thickness / material grade
o Length
o Pressure / Temperature profile
o Corrosion protection (CP, coatings, etc.)
• SCADA / telecoms requirements
• AGI’s / Station layouts / plot plans (valve, pigging, pump, compression, metering)
• Plant layouts (equipment upstream and downstream of the pipeline system)
• Pipeline delivery and/or supply tie-in locations
• Preliminary Equipment list / MTO’s
• Regulatory
o Permitting and regulatory plans
o Authorizations and approvals plan
o Crossings approval plan
• Construction methodology
• HSE
o Safety Plan
o Preliminary Environmental Impact Assessment
o Environmental constraints (plant, pipeline and stations)
o Health Plan
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o Community Awareness Plan

o Public Relations Plan
o Environmental Risk Register
• Cost estimate
• Schedule
Topographical and geotechnical surveys should be scoped, specified and awarded at the start of
Alternative Selection to enable critical areas to be evaluated with the results to be used during the
selection process
It is recommended that an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report be commissioned after this
phase using the pipeline route maps and station location / layouts as the basis. The purpose of this will
be to highlight any major issues preventing project realization before committing to any further funding.
5.2.3 FEL 3 Project Definition

The project definition phase is where the engineering of pipeline system is enhanced to a level providing
a +/-15% estimate, and the schedule activities are now shown to a more detailed level.
Key processes for this phase include:
• Project Management
• Contracts Plan
• Regulatory
• Material Selection
• Hydraulic Study
• Detailed Route Selection of primary route is narrowed down to a fixed 50m to
100m wide right of way (ROW)
• Detailed Engineering of pipeline and associated facilities
• ROW design completed and drawings finalized
• Alignment sheets are completed and marked for construction
• Procurement Plan
• Construction Plan
• HSE Plan
Minimum data requirements for this phase include:
• Alternative Selection Phase report

• Field surveys with full access to route
• Detailed Topographical and Geotechnical Surveys
• Environmental Assessment
• Inputs from specialists (eg river / flood plain crossings)
• Regulations and codes
• Pipeline owner / operator Design Specifications
In this phase the route is finalized, the GIS system (geographic information system) and PODS database
should be fully implemented, and constructability and construction planning becomes a key issue
together with engineering.
14
The Pipeline Open Data Standard (PODS) is one industry standard for pipeline data storage and
interchange. The PODS Data Model provides the structure to associate pipeline data records, such as
inspection results, with each specific pipe segment and geographic location. These data records may
include (partial list): centerline location, pipeline materials and coatings, MAOP, valves and pipeline
components, cathodic protection facilities and inspection results, hydrotesting, operating conditions,
physical inspection results, leak detection surveys, repairs, foreign line crossings, inline inspection (ILI)
results, close-interval survey results, pump and compression equipment specifications, geographic
boundaries, external records, risk analysis methods and results, regulatory reports, and pipeline and
ROW maintenance activities, among others.
The PODS Data Model is used by many pipeline operators to manage pipeline, integrity, inspection,
regulatory compliance, and operational data in a Geographic Information System (GIS). The early
implementation of a PODS Data Model integrated with GIS during the project phase enables the project
to record pertinent information obtained during the project execution in a standardized format and
provides a more seamless transition of the handover to operations at the completion of the project.
During the course of project definition, when the route maps have been better defined, a constructability
session with engineers and construction contractors present should be conducted to ensure that the
design has not introduced expensive and time consuming stipulations. Construction contractors
maybe able to advise of more cost effective and less time consuming options regards pipeline and
stations layouts.
The Output of FEL 3 typically includes, but is not limited to, the following
• Management
o Design Basis
o Economic Evaluation of Alternatives
o Decision Review Packages
o Org Charts
o Risk Register
o Staffing Plan
o Cost Estimate - Class 3
o Detailed Project Schedule
o Project Execution Plan
o Freeze/Commit To Design
o Scope Of Works
o Construction Plan
o March Charts
o HSE Plan
o Environmental Impact Assessment
o Community Awareness Plan
o Public Relations Plan
o Environmental Risk Register
• Procurement
o Contractor Pre-Qualification/Selection
o Contract Enquiry Packages
o Contractor Technical Bid Evaluations
o Contract Awards
o Vendor Pre-Qualification/Selection
o Material Enquiry Packages
o Material Technical Bid Evaluations
o Material Award Packages
o Vendor Print Reviews
o Procurement Support (typically long lead items)
15
o Line Pipe
o Corrosion Coatings
o Pig Launchers/Receivers
o Material Logistics Plan
• Detailed Design
o Permitting And Regulatory Plans
o Authorizations And Approvals Plan
o Crossings Approval Plan
o Materials And Corrosion
o System MAOP
o Flow Assurance
o Surge Analysis
o Station Spacing/Location
o Number Of Stations
o Metering Philosophy
o Horsepower Requirement/Station
o Facility Specs (Pump/Compressors, Metering, Traps, Etc.)
o Transient Analysis Results
o MTO/Long Lead Items
o Design Report
o System Sketch
o MTO Plan
o Crossings List
o Populate GIS
o Environmental Compliance Engineering
o Equipment Engineering
o Project Data Sheets
o Material Selection
o Survey Specifications
o Cathodic Protection Design
o Equipment Specifications
o Material Specifications
o SCADA Philosophy
o Operating Philosophy
o Construction Specifications
o Control Philosophy
o Pre-Commissioning/Commissioning
o Specifications
o Mechanical Design Analyses and Calculations:
o Wall Thickness
o Operational Stress Analysis
o Upheaval Buckling Analysis
o Bend Analysis
o Expansion/Anchoring Analysis
o Anchor Flange Calculations
o Line Erosion Analysis
o Buoyancy
o Road Crossing
o Rail Crossing
o River Crossing
o Blasting
o Earthquake
o CP Plan
16
o Typical Drawings:
o Pipeline Right-Of-Way Detail
o Bored Road Crossing
o Minor Water Crossing
o Open Cut Road Crossing
o Trench & Backfill Details
o Pipe Crossing Through Wet Areas
o Bored Crossing Trench Detail
o Railway Crossing Bored (Single)
o Railway Crossing Bored (Dual)
o Pipeline Concrete Coating
o Pipeline Marker Sign
o Pipeline Pig Launcher Arrangement
o Pipeline Pig Receiver Arrangement
o Valve Station Location Drawing
o Pipeline Main Line Valve – Vented General Arrangement
o Anchor Block Detail
o Sketches
o Plot Plans
o Layouts
o Tie-Ins
o Detailed Drawings:
o Plot Plans
o Alignment Sheets
o Valve Stations Health Plan
o Scraper Station General Arrangement
o Pipeline Main Line Valve
o Cross-Sectional Crossing Drawings (Plan And Profile) Showing Pipeline In
Relation To All Existing Facilities
In addition to the pipeline design itself, the other elements of the design include the upstream and
downstream facilities, pipeline safety and control, SCADA / telecoms, metering, station design, access
roads / infrastructure, buildings etc.
Pipeline design will include diameter and wall thickness confirmation and operability stress analysis, and
will include anchoring analysis.
Depending on the schedule, and market conditions it is not uncommon, to place some materials orders
during this phase for long lead items (LLI’s) such as linepipe, rotating equipment, and SCADA. Specific
engineering actions to define these long lead materials are then performed. Materials can be novated at
a later stage to the contractor.
HSEIA (Health Safety and Environmental Impact Studies) activities such as QRA, HAZOP / SIL, HAZID,
SIMOPS, will be conducted. The findings from these studies will be included in the design.
QRA (Quantitative Risk Assessment) is a risk assessment activity, part of an integrity management
program, to understand the nature and location of risks along the pipeline and at the AGI’s / Stations.
QRA (Quantitative Risk Analysis) is often used to qualify the probabilistic risk approach in which not only
the consequence of an adverse event is calculated but also the likelihood is quantified.
SIL (Safety Integrity Level) study is a measure of Probability to Fail on Demand (PFD) of any Safety
Instrumented System (SIS) installed on the pipeline (eg surge protection equipment). SIL is a statistical
representation of the integrity of the SIS when a process demand occurs. A demand occurs whenever
17
the process reaches the trip condition and causes the SIS to take action. In simpler terms, SIL is a
measurement of performance required for a Safety Instrumented System (SIS).
Four SILs are defined, with SIL4 being the most dependable and SIL1 being the least. A SIL is
determined based on a number of quantitative factors in combination with qualitative factors such as
development process and safety life cycle management.
Hazard and operability studies are a methodology for identifying and dealing with potential problems in
industrial processes, particularly those which would create a hazardous situation or a severe impairment
of the process. It is commonly known as HAZOP. It is sometimes also called Hazard and Operability
Analysis. It is said to be the most widely used method of hazard analysis in the process industries,
notably the chemical, petrochemical and nuclear industries. HAZOPs are conducted by a team of
people that are knowledgeable in the process, the team is led by a trained facilitator that uses a list of
guide words to lead the discussions.
SIMOPS (SIMultaneous OPerationS) is defined as performing two or more operations concurrently.

When installing a pipeline next t existing operating pipelines, a SIMOPs plan is required to ensure that
the operation and safety of the existing pipeline is not compromised.
A typical design chart is shown overleaf.
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Typical Design Chart
19
5.2.4 Project Execution

The project execution phase at this stage of the project development by Client is mainly characterised
by material procurement activities, construction planning and logistics. The engineering is completed to
enable specification of all materials required.
The main drivers for the project execution phase are characterised by:
• Project Management
• Contracts Plan
• Regulatory
• Material Selection
The key engineering activities involved during this phase are generally:
• Support to permitting, land acquisition, field survey, and construction activities
• Construction centerline staked and 25-50 m permanent ROW and temporary workspaces
marked, down to 8 m wide permanent ROW corridor)
• Engineering Plan
• Provide support to any minor re-routes that might be required to adjust to field conditions.
• As-built survey data collected, Quality assurance, and incorporated into the project
database.
• Prepare all Project data for handover to Operations
• Hydraulic/Flow Assurance confirmation
• Detailed Routing (Minimum 22 m wide construction corridor
• Procurement Plan support
• Construction Plan support
• HSE Plan support
Input:
• Output from Project Definition, FEL 2 and FEL 3
• Regulatory approvals
• Permit approvals
• Crossing approvals
The key engineering activities will be to finalise the Scada and Telecoms design, the stations design, and
prepare construction specifications. A multi-discipline engineering team will complete the design.
Construction drawings are prepared for the crossings, and any special pipeline sections at route
pinchpoints. Details on the drawings need to sufficiently clear to enable the construction site team to
understand the requirements and to build to these requirements. Ambiguous information will result is
site queries and loss of construction. Ambiguous information can also lead to misinterpretation of
instructions leading to construction not consistent with the design philosophy. This is one of reasons to
involve construction group in the design phase to ensure that handover from office engineering to site
team is clear and concise.
Construction engineering activities will include developing the material storage and logistic plans,
construction spreads, hydrotest water supply and disposal plans, hydrotest plans. The supply and
environmentally safe disposal of hydrotest water can sometimes be a key issue on remote location
pipelines, particularly in hot countries.
The project deliverables are not just pipeline engineering, but across the whole board from process,
piping, controls to civil works and environment for access roads, infrastructure for maintenance and
inspection to security fencing at the AGI’s and stations.
20
Operating and commissioning manuals will need to be prepared in readiness for the pipeline start-up.
The operating manuals will need to be clear and concise instructions on how to operate the system
(start up, shutdown and for safely how long, turndown, turn-up rates, re-start, and pigging requirements
and frequencies).
There will also need to be manuals for the plant, AGI’s / stations, and for the SCADA / telecoms.
A typical alignment sheet is shown below which shows the pipeline plan and topographical profile as
well as data such as:
• Pipe outside diameter

• Pipe wall thickness
• Pipe material
• Design factor / class location
• Coating
• Burial depth / soil cover depth, including special locations to mitigate against buckling (if
required)
• Intersection Points (IP’s) locations where pipeline changes direction
• Chainage (KP) kilometre point
• Location of horizontal and vertical bends
• Water table
• Existing services
• Crossing location
• Any other project specific salient features
21
5.2.5 Start-up and Operations

The start-up and operations is the last phase where the pipeline is commissioned and formally handed
over to the operating company. This is the true test that the installed system will meet the design
conditions originally stipulated.
The performance testing will involve introducing hydrocarbon into the pipeline, and ensuring that all the
associated systems are working properly. Personnel from the Operating company will be heavily
involved in the development of the commissioning plans and the introduction of hydrocarbons into the
pipeline.
The project team will ready all pertinent information obtained during the project for handover to the
Operating company. The information will include all data necessary to provide the physical description
of the pipeline and associated facilities as well as to document the integrity of the pipeline and
construction related activities. As a minimum this would comprise the following:
• Design basis
• As-built survey information
• Alignment sheets
• Crossing drawings
• Material specifications
• Vendor documents (for material and equipment)
• Line pipe material certificates
• Hydrotest data
• Construction records (weld sheets, joint coating sheets)
• Inspection records (NDT, etc.)
• GIS/PODS database
Implementing GIS and PODS at the FEL 3 Definition phase will enable a cradle to grave information
system that can be updated across the design and operating life span of the pipeline. It can also be
used to generate alignment sheets and detailed drawings during design, track materials during the
procurement and construction phase, record as-built survey information and to record maintenance and
inspection history during the operational phase.
The benefits of using GIS and PODS is that the project and as-built data can be stored with the GIS and
PODS database system with the pertinent information tagged spatially to their exact locations. The data
residing in the GIS and PODS database should have undergone a quality assurance process by the
project team prior to handover to operations.
22
Minimum data requirements, key activities and outputs for this phase and required for handover to
operations are:
• Execution phase documents
• Operating and Commissioning Manuals
• Summary Data Book
• Design Basis Data Book
• Design Calculations
• Quality Plans And Manuals
• Special Procedures
• Cost Summaries
• Manufacturing Data Book
• Tender Specifications
• Equipment And Material Specifications
• Purchase Orders
• As-Built Vendor Drawings
• Material And Testing Certificates
• Vendor Inspection Reports
• Special Manufacturing And Fabrication
• Procedures
• Heat Treatment Certificates
• Special Procedures
• Fabrication Data Book
• Pipeline Installation Data Book
• Contracts
• Job Hazard Analyses
• Monthly Progress Reports
• Non-Destructive Testing Summary And
• Radiographs
• Weld Procedures And Qualification Certificates
• Pipeline Facilities Installation Book
• Field Sketches, Survey Notes and Red-Line Mark-Up Data Book
23
• Construction Inspection Reports

• As-Built Drawings
• As-Built Survey Data - Electronic Copy
• Cathodic Protection Survey Data Book
• Video Survey Data Book
• Pressure Testing Data Book
• Hydrotest Reports
• Pre-Commissioning Data Book
• Commissioning Reports
• Populated GIS and PODS database
24
Appendix 5.1.1
Pipeline Route Selection Process
Table Of Contents
Page
5.1.1 Route Selection Process 26

5.1.1.1 General 26
5.1.1.2 Basis for Engineering 26
5.1.1.3 Primary Selection Factors 26
5.1.1.4 Corridor Selection in Project Key Stages 27
5.1.1.5 Routing Activities within Project Phases 30
5.1.1.5.1 Route Corridor options [FEL 1, Appraise] 30
5.1.1.5.2 Route selection [FEL 2, Select] 30
5.1.1.5.3 Route investigation and consultation [FEL 3, Define , FEED] 30
5.1.1.5.4 Design and approval of final route [Project Execution phase, detailed design] 30
5.1.1.6 Key Routing Principles and Influencing Factors 32
5.1.1.7 Public safety, content of the pipeline, operating conditions and location class 33
5.1.1.8 Pipeline Above Ground Installations (AGIs) 33
5.1.1.9 Environmental and Regulatory Steps 33
5.1.1.10 Terrain, subterranean conditions, geotechnical and hydrographical conditions 35
5.1.1.11 Geohazards 36
5.1.1.11.1 Types of Geo-hazards 36
5.1.1.11.2 Geotechnical Investigations 37
5.1.1.11.3 Geo-Hazard Pipeline Routing 38
5.1.1.12 Selection Criteria 39
5.1.1.13 Existing and future land use 42
5.1.1.14 Permanent access 43
5.1.1.15 Transport facilities and utility services 43
5.1.1.16 Construction , hydrotesting, operation and maintenance 43
5.1.1.17 Security 44
5.1.1.18 Risk/Threat Assessment 44
5.1.1.19 Data Collection and Management 44
5.1.1.20 Graphical Information System 46
5.1.1.20.1 General 46
5.1.1.20.2 GIS Routing Optimization Methodology 47
5.1.1.20.3 Identification of Factors Affecting the Route 47
5.1.1.20.4 GIS Data and Data Sources 48
5.1.1.20.5 GIS Data Processing and Analysis 48
5.1.1.20.6 GIS Suitability Map Generation 48
5.1.1.21 Light Detection and Ranging - LiDAR 49
25
5.1.1 Route Selection Process

5.1.1.1 General
The route selection process described below is a typical approach of routing a pipeline between the
known start and end points and any intermediate offtake points. A description covering all potential
eventualities would be impossible since no one pipeline routing selection process is similar to any other
because of differences in location, land use, terrain, infrastructure, local permits and regulations,
environment, and archeology. Furthermore, each route selection phase will depend on the project
schedule. Each terrain will have its own issues. It is entirely conceivable to complete and approve the
final route in the project planning (FEED, define) phase, whilst other projects may not do so until the
project execution (detailed design) phase.
Pipelines are routed to connect between a start point, intermediate take off points and an end point.
The final route selected must be:
• Safe
• Environmentally acceptable
• Economical
• Practical
No one routing process can be applied for all pipelines. This is because different factors, such as
product to be transported, pipeline size, pipeline material, location, land use, crossings required, land
ownership, terrain, infrastructure, local permits and regulations, environmental and archeology, have to
be considered for different pipelines.
Such factors will be key to defining when the route will be finalized and approved. For some projects the
route can be finalized and approved in the project planning (FEED, define) phase, whilst other projects
may not do so until the project execution (detailed design) phase.
5.1.1.2 Basis for Engineering

A pipeline route is a pivotal piece of information upon which the pipeline engineering depends. The route
will define the pipeline size, terrain, soils, and engineering analysis requirements. Engineering
assessment based upon an agreed alignment selection criteria is an important part of a linear project. To
be able to reach the best construction line and optimize its components, the phases namely — corridor,
route, alignment, and construction line selection — should be studied in the given order.
5.1.1.3 Primary Selection Factors

The detailed pipeline route selection is preceded by defining a broad area of search between the two
fixed start and end points. That is, possible pipeline corridors. The route can then be filtered with
consideration of public safety, pipeline integrity, environmental impact, consequences of escape of fluid,
and based on social, economic, technical environmental grounds, constructability, land ownership,
access, regulatory requirements and cost.
Economic, technical, environmental and safety considerations should be the primary factors governing
the choice of pipeline routes. The shortest route might not be the most suitable, and physical obstacles,
environmental constraints and other factors, such as locations of intermediate offtake points to end
users along the pipeline route should be considered. Offtake points may dictate mainline routing so as to
minimise the need or impact of the offtake lines or spurs.
Many route constraints will have technical solutions (e.g. routing through flood plains), and each will have
an associated cost.
26
5.1.1.4 Corridor Selection in Project Key Stages
Pipeline routing is an iterative process, which starts with a wide ‘corridor of interest’ and then narrows
down to a more defined route at each design stage as more data is acquired, to a final ‘right of way’
(ROW). Initially, a number of alternative corridors with widths up to 10 km wide are reviewed.
Typically the route alignment steps can be described as shown below (Fig. 1 and Table 1). Each project
will have its own specific corridor-narrowing process depending on project size and location.
Pipeline corridors should initially be selected to avoid key constraints. The route can then be further
refined through an iterative process, involving consultation with stakeholders and landowners and a
review of the EIA criteria, to avoid additional identified constraints. The ultimate aim is to achieve an
economically and environmentally-feasible route for construction.
Fig. 1 – Narrowing Down Of Pipeline Corridor During Project Stages
27
Table 1 - Narrowing Down Of Pipeline Corridor During Project Stages:

Key Descriptions
STAGE FRONT END LOADING
FEL 1 FEL 2 FEL 3 PROJECT START UP AND

BUSINESS FACILITY PROJECT EXECUTION OPERATIONS
PLANNING PLANNING PLANNING (EXECUTE) (OPERATE)
(APPRAISE) (SELECT) (DEFINE)
Cost Order of +/-30% +/-15% +/-5% Complete

Estimate Magnitude
Accuracy
Process Appraisal Feasibility Selection/ Approvals/ Operation

definition execute/
construction
Activity Desktop Route Route corridor Route selection, Detailed alignment, Maintain easement
Corridor options selection, and route investigation approval of final
identification of and consultation, route/construction
alternative route site survey, line, finalise
alignment negotiations negotiation,
options acquire land
Corridor 10 km-20 km 500 m – 1 km 100 m – 200 m 20 m – 36 m wide 8m wide easement

Width wide corridor of wide preferred wide specified construction ‘permanent corridor’
interest route corridor corridor (more corridor for ongoing
(large scale detailed maps) inspection, and
maps) required
maintenance
Imagery Maps of either Maps of either Map sheets of Plans for As-built plans (to the
1:25,000 or 1:10,000 or 1:2,500 scale can landowner same scale as the
1:50,000 scale 1:25,000 scale be used. agreements should original plans)
can be used can be used. normally be based should be issued to
depending on Alignment sheets on 1:2,500 scale, all original recipients
complexity of Aerial can be prepared or smaller. on completion of
the terrain. photographs from maps or the work. These
with a resolution aerial imagery of plans should include
of 250 mm or 1:2,500 scale. all details of any site
better, overlaid alterations or
with coordinates Special crossings deviations
at scales of should be
1:10,000 can detailed : scale
also be typically between
produced and 1:250 and 1:25
used depending on the
complexity of the
crossing.
28
Table 1 - Narrowing Down Of Pipeline Corridor During Project Stages:

Key Descriptions (cont.)
STAGE FRONT END LOADING

Imagery Maps of either Maps of either Map sheets of Plans for As-built plans (to the
1:25,000 or 1:10,000 or 1:2,500 scale can landowner same scale as the
1:50,000 scale 1:25,000 scale be used. agreements should original plans)
can be used can be used. normally be based should be issued to
depending on Alignment sheets on 1:2,500 scale, all original recipients
complexity of Aerial can be prepared or smaller. on completion of
the terrain. photographs from maps or the work. These
with a resolution aerial imagery of plans should include
of 250 mm or 1:2,500 scale. all details of any site
better, overlaid alterations or
with coordinates Special crossings deviations
at scales of should be
1:10,000 can detailed : scale
also be typically between
produced and 1:250 and 1:25
used depending on the
complexity of the
crossing.
Output Preliminary Route using Detailed routing : Finalised alignment As-built plans
routing plans route maps with 1:5,000 to sheets
scale 1:50,000 1:10,000 maps
Plans for
1:100,000 route Land acquisition/ landowner
maps Field wayleave agreements/
reconnaissance drawings permits/approvals
plans etc
Final field survey Land purchase

plans
Detailed crossing
Alignment sheets drawings
strip plans
Crossing
drawings
29
5.1.1.5 Routing Activities within Project Phases
5.1.1.5.1 Route Corridor options [FEL 1, Appraise]

This phase involves the initial desk-top studies to identify route corridor options taking into account
known key environmental and cultural sensitivities. It is to develop key pipeline routing information from
available topographical and geological maps, aerial photography and/or satellite imagery, and the
literature available in the public domain, such as town planning data. The information is used to identify
corridor options, key routing constraints visible from the maps and publications, and key engineering
data such as length and profile for use in costing and scheduling.
5.1.1.5.2 Route selection [FEL 2, Select]

A corridor should be selected by performing a key issues study, whilst ensuring as far as possible that
the corridor selected is suitable and is not likely to create significant problems at a later stage. The desk
study and visual appraisal, making use of all information available within the public domain, should
precede the adoption of a provisional route within the selected route corridor. Information regarding
geological, archaeological and environmental features should, in the first instance, be obtained from
published sources to establish the route prior to discussions with the relevant institutions.
The geographic limits within which pipeline route selection is to take place should be defined by
identification of the starting point of the pipeline and any intermediate fixed points. These points should
be marked on suitably scaled plans covering the area.
The route of interest should then be straddled across these points so that key issues and constraints
affecting the selection of the route can be plotted and assessed. The width of the corridor will depend
upon the nature of the terrain traversed, current and likely future population and degree of complexity
expected with regard to environmental, constructability and archaeological aspects. Where practicable,
this corridor should be selected to avoid urban areas, major road, rail and water crossings and
environmentally sensitive areas.
Existing and planned constraints to route selection occurring within the area of interest should be
identified to assist the selection of route options. The constraints identified should take into account the
complexity of terrain and information gathered. Key constraints and obstructions should be avoided as
much as possible
A preferred route should then be selected, taking into account all the technical, environmental and
safety-related factors that might be significant during installation and operation of the pipeline system.
The selection should follow a comparative study.
Consideration should be given to setting up and using a geographical information system (GIS), as
described below, to record and manage the data collected, at this phase of the project. Delaying such a
decision to a later phase will require extensive data catch-up.
5.1.1.5.3 Route investigation and consultation [FEL 3, Define, FEED]

This stage involves gathering more detailed information, highlighting and mapping constraints within the
route corridor so as to assist in the selection of a preferred final route. This allows the project to proceed
onto the next stage of negotiations. All the constraints and potential planning problems that could affect
the pipeline (e.g. timing or method of construction) should now be addressed and recorded. A traffic
management plan should be produced.
A QRA, risk or threat assessment exercise allows for the comparison of pipeline routing alternatives
based on the likelihood of occurrence of hazardous event and the associated consequences of the
events along each route.
30
A detailed investigation of the route and the environment in which the pipeline is to be constructed
should be made. Topographical, geotechnical, and soil resistivity field surveys should be carried out,
comprising a pipeline engineer, geotechnical engineers, environmental scientists, archaeologists,
anthropologists, with appropriate approvals from landowners. Access roads, construction camps, facility
sites, cathodic protection sites and main line valve sites should also be surveyed during this stage.
The data collected is also fed into the design and engineering of the pipeline.
Refinements to the pipeline corridor and locations for above-ground facilities should be made while in
the field to avoid environmentally and culturally sensitive areas.
The appropriate authorities and any third parties should be contacted to obtain details of any known or
expected development or encroachment along the route, the location of underground obstructions,
pipelines, services and structures and all other pertinent data.
Consultations should be held as early as possible during route finalisation with the planning and
statutory authorities (including local planning authorities, and government safety departments) and any
other appropriate organisations, landowners, third parties, etc.
Reviews of the preferred route should be carried out in the field. These should initially be based on the
desktop study.
Accompanied by the relevant landowner/occupier and the land agent, the proposed route should be
examined in more detail, in particular those areas that might have been difficult to determine from maps
and public rights of way during desk studies.
Consideration should be given to negotiations for use of access roads for construction or maintenance
purposes.
Land and environmental surveys should be made that cover sufficient width and depth around the
provisional route and have sufficient accuracy to identify all features that could adversely influence
installation and operation of the pipeline. This should be accompanied by further detailed consultation
with all affected third parties. Third-party activities along the pipeline route and related safety aspects
should be investigated.
Stakeholder, local jurisdiction and national government approval should be obtained in accordance with
statutory requirements.
A complete set of data relevant to design, construction and the safe and reliable operation of the
pipeline should be compiled from records, maps and physical surveys.
The selected route should be recorded on alignment sheets of an appropriate scale. The coordinates of
all significant points, such as target points, crossings points, bend starting and end points, should be
indicated. Contour lines should be recorded at intervals sufficient for design purposes, particularly with
regard to the installation and operational phases, and consideration should be given to the need for a
vertical profile of the route.
31
5.1.1.5.4 Design and approval of final route

[Project Execution phase, detailed design]
This is the final phase to define the best line and its components. Local planning authority and statutory
approvals, and landowner/tenant agreements, should now be finalized.
The route of the pipeline should be identified by a locating system such as markers placed along the
route.
Valve locations, AGI locations, river crossings, and geo-hazardous area crossings should be investigated
in detail, and readied for construction
The physical building and commissioning of the pipeline should now be able to commence in
accordance with the design criteria
5.1.1.6 Key Routing Principles and Influencing Factors

The key principles to take into account when performing route selection are :
a) Safety of the public and personnel - the route must provide a safe and secure environment
for the pipeline during construction and over its operational life and ideally be routed away
from populated areas
b) Economic – the route should meet the project’s economic objectives, without compromising
safety and environment and minimizing local economy impact on communities that the
pipeline passes through, and have the smallest footprint feasible (ideally the shortest
distance between pipeline start and end points).
c) Land ownership related factors e.g. the number of landowners, anticipated ease and cost to
obtain/purchase consents
d) Easement width
e) Contents of the pipeline and operating conditions, e.g. consideration of leakage of a high
vapour pressure liquids.
f) Environmental impact – the route must have a minimum negative impact on the environment
and minimum land use
g) Terrain and subterranean conditions, including geotechnical, hydrographical, and
meteorological conditions. This includes ground stability, including other land uses which
may create instability (e.g. mine subsidence, land development/excavation)
h) Cultural heritage sites
i) Existing and future land plan usage. This can be determined by research of public records
and consultation with land planning agencies which should identify:
• third-party activities
• agricultural practice
• existing facilities and services
• future developments
j) Existing and planned transport facilities and buried/above ground utility services
k) Construction, testing, operation and maintenance - the pipeline must be installable along the
route
l) Permanent access – the pipeline must ideally be accessible for inspection and maintenance
all year round over its operational life
m) Security – The pipeline system should be routed to minimise security concerns, particularly
due to trespass and sabotage, during both construction and operation.
n) Other hazards
o) Follow existing linear disturbances where possible (roads). Use of existing linear routes (e.g.
roads or power-lines) may avoid or reduce impact to sensitive areas. Although using routes
occupied by other infrastructure may affect safety and corrosion potential from for example
electrical interference.
32
5.1.1.7 Public safety, content of the pipeline, operating conditions

and location class
The main operating conditions in pipelines that can affect route selection are:
• The internal fluid
• Operational envelope
• Location
• Pipeline material, diameter and thickness
Various codes categorise fluid as to their hazard potential, and the most hazardous flammable and toxic
fluid should, where practicable, avoid built-up areas or areas with frequent human activity. Consideration
should be given to routing that minimises the possibility of external damage in these areas.
The pipeline route should be an appropriate distance from buildings in accordance with the codes being
used. Codes also use a system of area or location classification based on population densities or
number of buildings. Design factors are stipulated relevant to the classification levels.
Pipeline material, diameter and content, affect the probability of failure and associated consequences:
• Pipe fracture
• Maximum rate of release of contents
• Change of state of the fluid under atmospheric conditions
• Total volume that can escape under emergency conditions
The consequential impact of the above should be considered in the routing process, and ensuing QRA
and risk and pipeline threat assessments .
5.1.1.8 Pipeline Above Ground Installations (AGIs)

Similar to the pipeline route, the location of above ground installations (AGIs) installed on the pipeline
in-line must also be selected with care and attention. The selection of these locations involve
consideration and balancing of a number of factors, including pipeline hydraulics, safety and
environmental risk, site conditions, site access, existing power infrastructure, proximity to
residences/population.
5.1.1.9 Environmental and Regulatory Steps

The pipeline route, and its impact on the environment, will need to be considered, justified and approved
by regulators, the general public and land owners. Hence, consultation is a key part of routing.
Key environmental and regulatory steps are illustrated below.
33
Detailed assessments should be undertaken to ascertain the impact of the pipeline on environmentally
sensitive areas. When selecting the route and in-line station locations, care should be taken to identify
and minimise any possible effects on typically the following :
c) Ramsar sites (These are wetlands of international importance, designated under the Ramsar
Convention)
b) Sites of special scientific interest (SSSIs)
c) National parks and country parks
d) Nature reserves
e) Flora and fauna
f) Forests/tree preservation orders
g) Heritage sites/coasts
h) Special areas of conservation
i) Special protection areas
j) Areas of outstanding natural beauty (AONBs)
k) Ancient monuments, archaeological and ornamental sites
l) Natural resources, such as catchment areas and forests
m) Mineral resources
n) Indigenous population sites
o) Groundwater protection areas
The following should be attained, as far as practicable:

1) Location of AGIs (valve stations, metering stations, scraper trap stations) are such so as not
to be a noise nuisance to the local population, particularly during relief operations, valve
operation, blow-offs
2) Avoid contamination of ground water and watercourses
3) Minimise the volume of traffic
4) Minimise the number of trees to be removed
An environmental noise survey should be carried out where pipeline construction and permanent
facilities may give rise to noise complaints before the pipeline route is established, so that prior noise
assessment can be made and the route or the construction method changed if necessary to minimise
disruption.
Relevant planning and approval authorities should be contacted at an early stage to determine the
requirements and the extent/coverage of an environmental impact assessment (EIA), required for a
pipeline and its associated above-ground installations. If required, an EIA should cover the effect of
pipeline works on local amenities and take recognition of future developments.
Regulatory requirements will normally dictate that an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is prepared.
The EIS will normally address:
• Flora
• Specially protected (threatened) fauna
• Surface water and groundwater
• Soil and geology erosion
• Rehabilitation
• Construction pollution issues
• Risk and hazards
• Culture and heritage
• Archaeology
• Ecology (terrestrial and marine)
• Landscape and visual impact
34
• Land use and agriculture

• Hydrology
• Hydrogeology
• Traffic/access
• Noise/vibration
• Air quality
• Site stability
• Site contamination
• Lighting
• Tourism and leisure
• Socio-economic factors
• Safety
The output from the EIS should be used within the route selection process against the criteria outlined
below.
5.1.1.10 Terrain, subterranean conditions, geotechnical and

hydrographical conditions
The geography of the terrain traversed can generally be divided into surface topography and
subterranean geology. Both natural and man-made geographical features can be considered under
these two headings.
The principal geographical features which are likely to be encountered and should be taken into account
include:
Surface Subterranean
Crops, livestock, woodlands Earthquake zone
Natural beauty, archaeological, Geological features
Ornamental rivers, mountains Infill land and waste disposal sites, including
those contaminated by disease, radioactivity
or chemicals
Water catchment areas, forestry The proximity of past, present and future mineral
extractions, including uncharted workings,
pipelines and underground services
Population, communications, services Areas of geological instability, including faults,
fissuring and earthquake zones
Contouring, soil or rock type, water, Existing or potential areas of land slippage,
soil corrosivity subsidence and differential settlement
Designated areas, protected habitats, Tunnels
flora and fauna Ground water hydrology, including flood plains
Adverse geotechnical, hydrographic, and meteorological conditions should be identified and mitigating
measures defined.
Authorities, geological institutions and mining experts should be consulted on general geological
conditions, slippage areas, tunnelling and other possible adverse ground conditions. Where there is a
possibility that any of these conditions might arise during the lifetime of a pipeline, monitoring of the
conditions should be incorporated in the regular inspection and maintenance procedures adopted. This
can include measurement of local ground movements, fluctuation in water table levels and indicative
changes in pipeline stresses.
Each terrain, such as desert, mountain, forest, arctic, will have its own routing consideration
requirements and constraints.
35
5.1.1.11 Geohazards
A geo-hazard is identified as a geological, hydro-geological or geomorphological event or process that
poses an immediate or potential risk that may lead to damage or uncontrolled risk. The type, nature,
magnitude, extent and rate of geological processes and hazards directly influence pipeline route
selection. Therefore, the process of early-stage terrain evaluation and the identification and assessment
of geo-hazards and ground conditions are important as they can lead to extensive cost and time savings
in the design and construction of a pipeline. The process enables the routing of the pipeline through the
most suitable terrain, problem areas are identified, serious geo-hazards are avoided, where possible,
and risks are minimised and mitigated. In addition, terrain evaluation is undertaken so that the need for
expensive remedial measures or site restoration works is limited or prevented and the operability of the
pipeline is safeguarded through a proper appreciation of the terrain conditions. By minimizing the risk of
damage to the pipeline the risk to the human safety is reduced.
Terrain evaluation along the pipeline corridor can be achieved using a variety of low-cost techniques and
include satellite imagery and aerial photography interpretation, surface mapping and various other
remote sensing techniques (i.e. LiDAR surveys – see below). This data can be incorporated, together
with historical data on seismic events, geological features, meteorological processes and hydrological
data, within a geographic information system (GIS – see below) and detailed terrain and hazard models
developed.
Terrain evaluation supports the anticipation, identification and assessment of the physical hazards and
constraints within and outside of the pipeline corridor. It is essential that features outside the corridor be
evaluated, as hazardous events outside of the corridor may be triggered by construction activity within
the corridor and the resultant event may impact upon the pipeline.
The risks associated with geo-hazards or the likelihood of an event occurring and its consequences can
be qualitatively and quantitatively assessed using a scoring system or by a quantitative risk assessment
(QRA).
Safety of the pipeline is paramount in the routing selection. The extreme effect of a geological hazard on
the pipeline is a rupture and it is this event that terrain evaluation and risk analysis and seeks to avoid by
improving the decision-making progress used in selecting the most appropriate route for the pipeline.
5.1.1.11.1 Types of Geo-hazards

Geo-hazards are widespread phenomena that are influenced by geological and environmental
conditions and which involve both long-term and short-term processes. They range in size, magnitude
and effect. Many geo-hazards are naturally occurring features and processes but there are also many
geo-hazards that are caused by anthropogenic processes and these too need to be taken into account
during the pipeline routing exercise. See table 2 for some examples of geo-hazards.
36
Table 2 – Types of Geo-Hazards
5.1.1.11.2 Geotechnical Investigations

Geotechnical investigations and site-specific surveys aim to undercover the ‘good’ ground in which to
install the pipeline. The definition of ‘good’ ground can be considered to be ground with low gradients
that is devoid of landslides, cliffs, hard ground, rock outcrops, aggressive soils, difficult river crossings,
deep gullies, scour, meta-stable materials and spanning.
Conventional geotechnical site surveys used for civil engineering projects are not always appropriate for
major pipelines that may span hundreds or even thousands of kilometers. The terrain may vary
significantly along the narrow pipeline corridor and this variance needs to be identified so that potential
and existing geo-hazards are avoided.
Pipeline corridor selection, route definition and refinement procedures will seek to ensure that the
majority of the pipeline is installed in ground that, as far as is possible, avoids locations of identified
and/or predicted geo-hazards. Focused geotechnical investigations are required where unavoidable
hazards are identified so that appropriate geotechnical mitigation strategies may be planned.
Predicting the probability of a hazardous event occurring is a science that draws on a number of
approaches to derive an informed probability estimate. In particular, historical records of the frequency of
the particular event, an understanding of the events and the causes of the events, expert judgement and
probability stability analysis is used. However, the estimates are by no means a guarantee of the
occurrence or non-occurrence of a particular event. For this reason the estimates are termed “fit for
purpose” and support the need for an extensive risk assessment in the pipeline routing process.
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5.1.1.11.3 Geo-Hazard Pipeline Routing

As far as is possible all geo-hazards should be avoided by a pipeline route. This is rarely possible,
therefore the following guidelines are applicable with respect to geo-hazards (to be avoided where
practical):
Table 3 – Pipeline Geohazards
Geo-Hazard Description Routing Mitigation
Landslides Ground displacement and movement • Avoid if possible

of a mass of rock, earth or debris down • Minimise sidelong routing across the
a slope landslide, route parallel along the axis
of ground movement
Gullying, soil erosion & Removal of soils by water, wind or ice • Avoid areas of active erosion if
fluvial erosion action or by down-slope scree possible
• Minimise sidelong routing parallel to
erosion area, cross at 90°
Mobile sand dunes Fragile desert habitat that maybe • Avoid if possible
damaged or blown away by wind. • Minimise crossing length
Earthquakes & fault lines A fracture in the continuity of a rock • Avoid if possible
formation caused by a shifting or • Special design considerations (e.g.
dislodging of the earth's crust, in which finite element analysis) will be required
adjacent surfaces are displaced relative if un-avoidable
to one another and parallel to the plane • Special/engineered backfill
of fracture. techniques likely to prevent pipe
damage during an earthquake (such
designs are common in areas like
Japan)
• Special trench design (deepening)
Volcanoes The vent and the conical mountain left • Avoid

by the overflow of erupted lava, rock • Avoid existing flow canals
and ash.
Soft soils Soils that may not be able to support a • Methods to cross soft soils include
pipeline (swamp, peat, bog) support anchors screwed into hard
soil below the soft soil; support
mattresses under the pipeline to
reduce bearing pressure; neutral
buoyancy to ensure that pipe neither
sinks or floats after installation. It may
also be possible to remove weak soil
and replace with engineered backfill.
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Table 3 – Pipeline Geohazards (cont.)
Geo-Hazard Description Routing Mitigation
Underground cavities Areas of coal mining, caves, caverns, • Avoid if possible

subsidence areas • Methods to design for and cross
underground cavities are possible.
These include pumping concrete into
the underground mines (subject to
size and volume), the whole mine
need not be filled in, but sufficient to
limit settlement; use thicker wall pipe
acceptable for estimated settlements.
River channel migration River banks erosion leading to river • Feasible to estimate and design for
meander, and river bed erosion leading river meander and river bed erosion.
to bed channels of varying depth This will generally include sufficient
burial in river bed, and sufficient
deeper burial extent from river banks.
• River bank erosion prevention
methods can also be used.
• Minimise crossing length
Aggressive soils Contaminated soils • Avoidance will depend on type of

contamination, and if disturbed the
safety impact on local population and
works: environmental impact; and
disposal issues.
• Minimise crossing length
5.1.1.12 Selection Criteria

Selection criteria should be developed following local codes and standards, national regulatory and local
regulation requirements and detailed consultation with, and input from, the local community.
Typical pipeline codes and standards include:

• ASME B31.8 – Gas Transmission And Distribution Piping Systems (US/International Standard)
• ASME B31.4 – Pipeline Transportation Systems For Liquid Hydrocarbon Pipelines
(US/International Standard)
• CSA Z662 – Oil And Gas Pipeline Systems (Canadian Standards Association)
• NEN 3650 – Requirements For Pipeline Systems (Dutch Standard)
• AS 2885.1 – Pipelines—Gas And Liquid Petroleum Part 1: Design And Construction
(Australian Standard)
• SNiP 2.05.06-85* Trunk Pipelines (Russia, Developed By Vniist)
• VSN 51-3-85 Design Of Steel Field Pipelines (Russia, Developed By Vniigaz)
• Bs En 1594 - Gas Supply Systems _ Pipelines For Maximum Operating Pressure Over 16bar -
Functional Requirements
• IGE-TD/1 Edition 4 - Recommendation On Transmission And Distribution Practice –
Steel Pipelines For High Pressure Gas Transmission, May 2001
• BSI PD 8010 - Code Of Practice For Pipelines
• ISO 13623/En 14161 - Petroleum And Natural Gas Industries —
Pipeline Transportation Systems
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Each country will have their own regulatory, permitting, and safety requirements and local constraints
and environmental issues meeting the indigenous population and local environment for routing pipelines.
The routing engineer should be fully conversant with the local requirements, as any lack of
understanding could alienate populations or authorities the route passes, meaning that approvals and
permits will require extensive and detailed and protracted negotiations leading to schedule delays, and
may even be denied. Local issues should be clearly understood before any routes are selected and
before any external discussions take place. It is not uncommon that a permit rejection of just a small
section of the route through a local region can hold up the whole pipeline routing and construction.
Corridor, route, alignment and construction line selection phases have vital importance in linear
engineering structure projects such as pipelines. Each possible route should be assessed at every stage
with against selection criteria. Large-scale geo-hazardous areas have to be avoided during the first two
phases.
Technical assessment of the alternatives at each stage is crucial. Assessment at every phase provides
significant contribution in terms of timing, environment, safety, and cost. As evidenced in several
international projects, precaution is much better than remedial work. Failing to apply adequate route
assessment criteria, and the basic phases to select the best construction line, can lead to increased
costs, sometimes up to 500%. In some cases, it is possible to have environmental destruction beyond
the acceptable limits, e.g. pipeline located through farm fields and major active faults.
Table 4 below lists possible selection criteria. Such criteria should be ordered, reviewed for relevance,
ranked and then applied within routing evaluation. These criteria are also in line with best practice for
infrastructural and pipeline projects.
Table 4 - Key Route Selection Criteria
Community Criteria Environmental Criteria Technical Criteria/Project

Requirements
Minimise impacts on Minimise impacts on wildlife and their Minimise pipeline length. Shorter routes
people habitat may offer significant economic,
environmental, social and logistical
benefits.
Minimise community Avoid impacts on archaeology/cultural Minimise major terrain constraints -

disturbance and land use heritage unduly steep or rugged mountain
conflicts. ranges, extensive areas of rock, large
number of major river crossings, etc
each tend to increase the difficulty and
cost of construction and influence the
scale of potential environmental impact.
Minimise disturbance to Minimise visual impacts Minimise construction costs and

third-party infrastructure. difficulty - the route should consider all
construction aspects and impacts.
Minimise proximity to Avoid protected areas and areas of Minimise areas where construction is
dwellings/public centres. high ecological value. difficult, such as steep slopes, unstable
surficial materials, and high water
tables.
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Requirements
Minimise impact on Minimise disturbance to sensitive or Minimise areas of geohazards (fault
planning/land use. unstable landforms. crossing, fault zone)
Minimise impacts on Minimise disturbance to riparian areas Avoids rocky ground and unstable
mining, agricultural, urban (watercourse crossings). soils, thereby minimising the risk of
and infrastructure areas. subsequent soil erosion from rain and
wind leading to pipe exposure.
Account for public opinion Areas of conservation significance. - Avoid severe physical constraints such
and safety Minor deviations may avoid impact on as granite outcrops, erosion gullies and
regional ecosystems. very steep slopes (both longitudinal and
transversal)
Avoid of residences and Minimise environmental disturbance Avoid landmines

other sensitive land uses;
maintain a safe separation
distance from all
residences
Avoidance of potential Minimise clearing in forested/woodland Minimise topographic changes (avoid

native title and heritage areas highly constrained topography, e.g.
conflicts high elevation/steep terrain)
Avoid crossing property Minimise overall project footprint Avoid coal mining/subsidence
areas/underground features such as
caves, caverns
Avoid crossing Minimise landscape impacts by Minimise excavations

agricultural land avoiding crossings of ridges and mesas
(elevated area of land with a flat top
and sides that are usually steep cliffs)
Avoid crossing forested Avoidance of remnant vegetation, Minimise crossings (road, rail, river,
land nature reserves and other pipeline, buried services, power cables,
environmentally sensitive features overhead cables). Consider trenchless
technology.
Minimise impacts on native vegetation Minimise areas subject to liquefaction

(any extracted groundwater will need
careful disposal)
Avoid World Heritage/RAMSAR Minimise areas in landslide
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Requirements
Avoid protected areas Minimise crossing floodplains
Avoid contaminated land Avoid running parallel with high-voltage

(any extracted groundwater/soils will lines wherever possible and provide
need careful disposal) sufficient clearance for possible
maintenance
Minimise project footprint
In parcels of meadow and agricultural

land, follow boundaries as much as
possible; cross watercourses as
seldom as possible; disturb drainage
systems as little as possible; cause as
little crop damage as possible
5.1.1.13 Existing and future land use

The possibility of future development works should be taken into account to minimise the need for
diversions or alternative works at a later date. Information on future developments should be obtained
from local authorities that the route traverses through. Existing areas of development should be avoided
as far as possible. Where this is unavoidable, the safe distance of pipelines to buildings and structures
should be related to design parameters for the particular fluid transported as stated in the appropriate
codes, which categorise fluid as to their hazard potential, and the most hazardous flammable and toxic
fluid should, where practicable, avoid built-up areas or areas with frequent human activity.
Permanent above-ground equipment, located on or adjacent to the line of pipelines, should be sited
with the agreement of the landowners and occupiers concerned to minimise future obstruction, noise,
vibration, interference, and security.
Pipelines containing substances that could cause contamination of underground water supplies, rivers,
streams should, where possible, avoid crossing exposed aquifers or land immediately upstream of
waterwork intakes or reservoirs. Where avoidance is not possible, statutory water suppliers and private
groundwater extractors can require additional precautions to be taken. This is particularly important in
countries where the local population relies on ground water extraction as the sole source water for daily
use in drinking and cooking.
Water authorities should be consulted about all watercourse crossings, particularly in relation to future
widening and deepening. The larger watercourses are classed as “main rivers” and are likely to be
directly controlled by water authorities; lesser watercourses draining low-level areas might come within
the control of local authorities, landowners, and farmers. In other cases owners and occupiers should be
consulted. The jurisdiction of water authorities includes river embankments, sea and tidal defences and
secondary works to reduce the spread of floodwater. Where pipelines cross or are laid adjacent to any
such embankments, the relevant water authority should be consulted.
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Pipelines should be located to produce minimum disturbance to established agricultural practice.

Any potential third-party activities along the route should be identified and should be evaluated in
consultation with these parties. A control zone should be established to control all third-party activities in
order to safeguard and secure the pipeline against external interference as well as to protect the safety
of the parties involved.
The probability of third-party interference to the pipeline will decrease as the depth of cover is increased.
Pipeline protection analysis will need to consider the cost of protection against the threats posed, safety
and reputation.
5.1.1.14 Permanent access

The selected pipeline route should permit year-round 24-hr unhindered and adequate access to the
pipeline, and associated above-ground installations, from the public highways for the equipment and
materials necessary to carry out planned inspections, maintenance and emergency repairs. This may
require the building of new roads, and ongoing maintenance of access tracks.
Permanent access requirements should be taken into account at the time pipeline routing is being
negotiated with landowners and occupiers. Access rights may also have to be negotiated with parties
other than those through whose land pipelines will be laid.
Access facilities should be determined by the frequency of use, the testing and repair equipment likely to
be required, and the anticipated urgency of repairs.
5.1.1.15 Transport facilities and utility services

Particular regard should be given to the layout and levels of existing transport facilities and utility
services, and enquiries made regarding their foreseeable development. Local authorities that the pipeline
passes through can impose special conditions for pipeline routes. All relevant authorities should be
approached in good time, requesting details of their facilities and services.
Ideally pipelines should be routed to minimise disruption to existing facilities and services. The number
and lengths of crossings under or over transport facilities should be minimised, and the
recommendations of the relevant transport authorities should be taken into account.
5.1.1.16 Construction, hydrotesting, operation and maintenance

The route should permit the necessary access and working width for the construction, testing, operation
and maintenance (including any replacement) of the pipeline. The availability of utilities necessary for
construction, operation and maintenance should be analysed. Areas will be required to store materials,
and set up construction camps, all requiring highly-demanding area re-instatement to the original found
condition when the work finishes. All these will affect local populations and environments, and unless
adequately thought out and thoroughly planned could lead to local area route rejection, and jeopardize
the whole project.
For remote locations issues such as material logistics, material storage, labour camps and associated
environmental issues (sewage, drainage) need careful consideration and detailed planning.
Availability and suitability of water for hydrostatic test purposes and its subsequent discharge will need
early consideration. Trucking water in and out will be expensive. Water authorities may not allow water to
be used from nearby rivers, nor its disposal back into streams due to internal pipe debris and chemicals
that may have been used to treat the water prior to hydrotesting.
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5.1.1.17 Security
The pipeline system should be routed to minimise security concerns, particularly due to trespass and
sabotage, during both construction and operation. Typical issues that should be taken into account
include :
• Construction site access restriction (pipeline and facilities)
• Personnel and equipment security during construction
• Associated pipeline facilities during operation access restriction
• Sabotage to buried operating pipeline, and associated above-ground pipework and facilities
• Mitigation to reduce likelihood of interference from third-party activity
5.1.1.18 Risk/Threat Assessment

A QRA, risk or threat assessment exercise allows for identifying the likelihood of occurrence of
hazardous event and the associated consequences of the events along the route.
A risk assessment considers:
• The hazard – what can go wrong?
• The probability of the hazardous event
• The consequences of the event
• The relative importance of the event
• The mitigating activities that are required to manage the risk
Risk assessment methods are by no means guaranteed to provide a reliable estimate of the probability
of hazardous event occurring but they do provide estimates that guide the route selection process and
allow a pipeline route to be declared “fit for purpose”. Risk evaluation and risk management are an
essential input into the route selection process as they provide judgments on the significance of the
identified risks and they help to determine the most appropriate course for the pipeline at a risk level that
is deemed to be as low as is reasonably practical (the ALARP principle).
5.1.1.19 Data Collection and Management
Table 5 below summarises typical key data required for each route selection phase.
Table 5 – Typical Data Requirements
FRONT END LOADING

Maps Initial Site surveys Final site surveys Final constructed

reconnaissance route shown on as-
Satellite imagery survey • Topographic Helicopter surveys built drawings and
• Geotechnical (soil on GIS.
Air photos Key constraints type and LiDAR
identified from composition) Ongoing land
High quality digital initial consultations • CP/resistivity based ROW/
imagery of the survey easement surveys
terrain
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FRONT END LOADING

Information Set up GIS to • Land survey (land LiDAR surveys

available in the collate and heights and
public domain document available location of Helicopter surveys
data existing
infrastructure)
• Environmental
surveys for flora
and fauna
EIS –
Environmental
impact statement
GIS to
collect/collate/sort
field data. Slope
threshold, slope
criteria, cut and fill
operations
Constraint
mapping
Ongoing
reconnaissance
surveys
Helicopter surveys
LiDAR
Information
available from
existing adjacent
pipeline systems
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5.1.1.20 Graphical Information System
5.1.1.20.1 General
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are scientific and technological tools that enable the integration of
data from different sources into a centralised database from which the data is modelled and analysed
based on its spatial component. GIS-based tools and processes have been extensively used to address
the challenges of optimizing pipeline route selection and route networks based on the collection,
processing and analysis of spatial data such as topography, vegetation, soil type, land use, geology and
landslide areas.
Traditional manual pipeline routing uses available paper maps, drawings, aerial photographs, surveys
and engineer experience. GIS techniques combine all of these sources of data in a convenient
computer-based information system. The key to the GIS is that it has advantages in terms of speed of
data processing and analytical capability.
Fig. 2 is a simplified representation of how data is combined and processed in a GIS to produce models
and required outputs. Data, such as well locations, surface topography, land use activities, soil
conditions and infrastructure features, are combined based on their spatial component. This enables the
engineer to test real-world scenarios within the spatial models.
Fig. 2: Process To Optimize Pipeline Routes
GIS represents an innovative approach to pipeline routing that is both systematic and effective.
Optimizing a pipeline route is essentially an optimization between costs of the material and the costs of
the construction. Natural and man-made terrain obstructions cause spatial variations in construction
cost due to changing features like types of soils, intervals of slope. GIS allows the engineer to use
dynamic spatial models to aid in selecting an optimized pipeline route. The GIS software and data
enables the processing of a large amount of location-based information to find a least cost path (LCP)
between two locations by taking into account natural and manmade obstructions and features.
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5.1.1.20.2 GIS Routing Optimization Methodology

The GIS approach to pipeline routing optimization is based on relative rankings and weights assigned to
project specific factors that may affect the potential route. The result of this process is a least cost path
(LCP) which represents that most economic path between the origin and the destination points of the
pipeline.
Fig. 3 is a representation of the methodology flow used to determine the LCP
Fig. 3: Pipeline Optimization Methodology
5.1.1.20.3 Identification of Factors Affecting the Route

As mentioned in the previous section on selection criteria the identification of project-specific factors that
may constrain or impact on the pipeline is an important step and a vital input to the GIS. Several factors
such as geo-hazards, social issues and construction costs impact on the route and need to be taken
into account. At this stage a set of rules are determined that will be used in the routing exercise. Input
from experienced engineers is required to ensure that the appropriate features are identified and the
correct rules established. The accuracy of the subsequent analysis is dependent on the factors being
correctly identified as the analysis is only as good as the inputted data. Examples of some factors and
rules include:
Factor/Feature Rule
Roads • Avoid road crossings
• Proximity to roads is important
Railway lines • Avoid railway line crossings
Rivers • Avoid river crossings
Urban areas • Avoid built up/populated areas
• Avoid future development areas
Terrain/topography • Avoid steep slopes
• Use flat terrain where possible
47
Factor/Feature Rule
Environmental areas • Avoid highly-sensitive areas
Wetlands • Avoid wetland crossings
Water bodies • Avoid water bodies
Surface geology • Avoid surface/sub-surface rock
• Stable soils are important
5.1.1.20.4 GIS Data and Data Sources

Satellite imagery, maps, aerial photography, existing GIS data, LiDAR surveys and traditional
geotechnical and topographical surveys are all sources of data that should be gathered and
incorporated into the project GIS. The maps, satellite imagery and remote sensed data are scanned and
geo-referenced and are then used to derive spatial features such as roads, rivers, urban areas and
geological boundaries which form the GIS data to be used in the routing process.
5.1.1.20.5 GIS Data Processing and Analysis

Once the data has been captured it needs to be processed and converted into raster data. The raster
data is used to calculate the feature distance cost for each feature – the weighted cost as one moves
away from a feature. For example rivers are given a high cost and the further you move away from the
river the lower the feature distance cost becomes.
The significance of the effect of a single feature on the pipeline route varies for each feature. For
example, it is more important to avoid a deep valley crossing than it is to avoid a road crossing. The
analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is one of the structured methods that can be employed to
quantitatively rank each of the identified factors. Each factor is assigned a cost value which is
benchmarked with typical constructions costs. The input from experienced engineers is vital when it
comes to ranking and assigning weights to each layer.
5.1.1.20.6 GIS Suitability Map Generation

After the feature layers have been ranked the data layers are combined together into one single layer
based on the numerical value factor derived from the weighting process. The resultant layer is referred to
as the suitability layer and this layer forms the basis for the GIS analytical work.
The suitability map is used to create cost maps which related to relative construction costs. The highest
costs are in steep mountainous terrain, urban areas, roads and large bodies of water. Moderate costs
are associated with wetlands, forests and high slope areas. The lowest costs are to be found in areas of
relatively flat bare ground, agricultural land or less dense native vegetation. See Fig. 4 for an example of
a cost map.
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Fig. 4: Discrete Cost Map
The least cost path is the product of the GIS analysis and represents the path of least resistance from
the origin of the pipeline along a surface to the destination point.
The strength of the GIS is that re-routes can quickly be incorporated into the system and the
implications of the reroutes or alternative routes can be quickly assessed.
The combination of the data layers allows the engineer to test multiple pipeline network design and
selection scenarios easily and efficiently. The GIS automatically calculates the lengths of new pipelines or
pipeline networks. This allows for rapid total cost calculations and the running of multiple ‘what if’
scenarios to see the effect of changes to the pipeline design.
A GIS can produce a number of outputs quickly and efficiently in relation to pipeline routing:
• Survey request area delimination drawings
• Land allocation/permitting drawings
• Pipeline routing drawings
• Alignment sheets (see Fig. 5)
• Tabular outputs (i.e. MTOs)
• Pipeline coordinates
5.1.1.21 Light Detection and Ranging - LiDAR

LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) can measure the height of the ground surface and other features
during an airborne survey. It can provide models of the land surface at meter and sub-meter resolution,
depending on ground cover conditions, e.g. in forested and woodland areas.
49
The system comprises a scanning and ranging laser to produce topographic maps. Implementation
involves flight planning, data acquisition, and the generation of digital terrain models.
The basic components are a laser scanner, a global positioning system (GPS), and an inertial navigation
system. The laser scanner is mounted within an aircraft and emits infrared laser beams at a high
frequency. The scanner records the difference in time between the emission of the laser signal and the
reception of the reflection. A mirror that is mounted in front of the laser rotates and causes the laser
pulses to sweep at an angle, back and forth along a line. The position and orientation of the aircraft is
determined using GPS. GPS systems are located in the aircraft and at several ground stations within the
survey area.
The round trip travel time of the laser signals from the aircraft to the ground are measured and recorded,
along with the position and orientation of the aircraft at the time of the transmission of each pulse. After
the flight, the data from the aircraft to the ground are combined with the aircraft position at the time of
each measurement and the three dimensional XYZ coordinates of each ground point are computed and
combined.
Post-flight processing integration of the data points produces a horizontal position and vertical elevation
for each laser signal. Each data point can be identified by type, i.e. ground, vegetation, building, power
line or other object. Once correlated, it is simple to manipulate data, remove layers of data points and
create digital terrain models (DTM) for GIS.
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5.1.2 Google Earth in Pipeline Design and Route Selection

Introduction
Google Earth is a virtual globe, map and geographical information program. It maps the Earth by the
superimposition of images obtained from satellite imagery, aerial photography and GIS 3D globe.
Google Earth is client-based software that is installed on individual PCs and also can be viewed using
web browsers through a Google Earth plug-in. It is available in two versions: 1) Free license that uses
public satellite photos and maps from Google servers
2) Licensed Google Earth Professional that can be used by advanced users and also can be connected
to local licensed Google Earth servers with private satellite images and maps.
Google Earth is widely used by different industries to design, monitor and maintain earthwork and
construction projects. Municipalities and governments, for example, use Google Earth to design and
track the installation of water pipelines, cities and urban design, roads construction, earthworks etc.
Google Earth can be used in pipeline projects for initial pipeline routing, and to conduct preliminary
hydraulic profiles at desktop level. It can also be used for pipeline construction monitoring – see section
13.4.
As an initial pipeline routing tool, Google Earth enables plan and profile data to be extracted to begin
pipeline engineering design activities. Google Earth contains relatively up-to-date satellite imagery,
allowing the reasonably confident routing of pipelines during the design stage, and reducing the time
and effort spent in studying the landscape and elevation changes along pipelines. Several route options
can be evaluated in a relatively short time, allowing the economics of each option to be analyzed. The
satellite imagery is updated on a regular basis but the ability to display older satellite data enables
detailed analysis to be conducted on the legacy of land use or terrain changes (for example river
meander or changes in the built environment) where the pipeline route is being planned. The ability to
easily add facilities data such as plot plans into the system helps confirm that the most suitable location
has been chosen.
The following sections will focus on the use of Google Earth during initial pipeline routing.
Pipeline Routing
Routing
The pipeline routing exercise starts with the client-identified start and end points of the proposed
pipeline. These points are identified within Google Earth and the desktop routing process begins using
the network tool from the drop-down menus. Nodes are added to the network at each change of
direction until the start and end points are joined. Typically, several route options would be identified
during the routing process, due to various factors such as topography, vegetation, habitation,
environmental constraints, crossings of roads, rivers & railways etc. Each option would receive an
economic evaluation to select the best solution. All of these features are identified from the satellite
imagery and coverage can be located accurately (depending on the imagery scale). Once the initial route
has been established this can then be published with ease via e-mail to the design team and client and
transferred into the project geodatabase to be read by the GIS software. Google Earth Pro can also read
shape file data created within the GIS, enabling the route to be adjusted according to the geodatabase
data. Typically the Google Earth KML file extension is used to transfer the data.
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Keyhole markup language (KML) will be used to represent the pipeline route in Google Earth. KML is an
XML notation, developed for use with Google Earth, for expressing geographic annotation and
visualization within Internet-based, two-dimensional maps and three-dimensional Earth browsers. An
example KML file is shown in the KML module section. KML data are often distributed as zipped
(compressed) KMZ files. The contents of a KMZ file are a single root KML document (notionally
"doc.kml") and optionally any overlays, images, icons, and COLLADA 3D models referenced in the KML,
including network-linked KML files.
Plan and profile output example
Profile
The profile of the route can be displayed in Google Earth by using the menu functions associated with
the network tool. By right clicking on the route itself a menu appears, and the profile is displayed when
the ‘display profile’ option is chosen. The elevation datum is based on the World Geodetic System
(1984) (WGS84) projection parameters, the system used by most GPS systems worldwide. The
hydraulics analysis software can then use this profile to start the preliminary analysis of the pipeline, and
if required, the route can be changed to give a smoother profile dependent upon the behaviour of the
inventory being transported. If the project intends to adopt a project-specific projection then the
elevation values can be replaced, however the shape of the profile remains constant i.e. the differential in
height between highs and lows remains the same.
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Route Optimisation
The initial route is refined through an iterative process of route optimising where the aim is to deliver a
pipeline route that has the shortest length possible and where environmental issues, construction
complexities and excessive profile changes have been mimimised wherever possible. Using a
combination of GIS-based tools and Google Earth imagery the routing engineer is able to address the
challenges of optimising pipeline route selections. The approach is based on the concept of least cost
path (LCP), where the choosen route represent the route that will “cost” the least relative to the cost to
transverse an area based on discrete cost maps. These cost maps consider factors such as
environmental constraints, geology, geomorphology, terrain topography, construction and socio-
economic and political conditions. The aim is to determine areas that are to be avoided and areas that
are more favourable for pipeline activities.
Discrete cost map example
After the discrete cost maps are determined, the initial route is modified so as to provide the optimum
route through the area. In conjunction with this the route is further analysed to determine if the chosen
route transverses any side slopes. Freely available digital elevation data are used in the GIS to create a
digital elevation model (DEM) for the area through which the pipeline is routed. From this DEM, gradient
slope models are produced and used to identify any potential side slope areas along the pipeline route,
see example overleaf.
53
Side slope avoidance example
Once the route has been refined the optimised route and slope analysis can be published to Google
Earth and shown as KML features (the route) and images (the slope analysis).
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Flythroughs
A flythrough along the proposed pipeline route is a very useful feature of Google Earth as the client and
design team can obtain an immediate appreciation of the terrain the pipeline is passing through. Various
attributes salient to the pipeline route can be displayed during the flythrough. The flythrough is started
via the tools menu or the play tour button in the left hand side console, and can be saved as a KML file
for exporting into other applications.
Example of a flythrough in Google Earth
GIS interface
An important functionality of Google Earth is the ability to seamlessly transfer data into and out of the
project GIS. Typically, the Google Earth Pro version of the software enables more functionality than the
free version. GIS data, as shapefiles, are easily displayed in Google Earth, enabling the display of
environmental and constraint data. This can be saved as a KMZ file and then distributed to the client
and design team for further analysis and comment.
Benefits:
Google Earth allows the pipeline routing to be carried out with a high degree of confidence, the Google
Earth elevation data also enabling the initial hydraulic analysis to be carried out. As a desktop-based
application the need for field surveyscan be delayed until the front end engineering design (FEED) stage.
The campaigns to collect additional survey data can also be refined to those specific areas identified
during the desktop routing exercise. Time is also saved during the initial stages of a pipeline project by
the ability to seamlessly transfer the data into project GIS geodatabases and publish the routing and
elevation data to the client and design team.
The work done in this section used the free Google Earth client and Google Earth Web browser plugin.
For advanced usage with proprietary satellite photos the Google Earth Enterprise server (which requires
licensing) can be used.
55
56
6 Earthworks
The terrain, soil types, and geohazards traversed by the pipeline are key factors to consider in the
design, the construction and the operation and maintenance of a pipeline project. First, the terrain
typically affects pipeline hydraulics, above ground stations, and pipeline protection. Second, soils types
will affect heat transfer, pipeline restraint, and constructability. Finally, geohazards often require special
design and construction considerations.
This earthworks section offers guidelines on how to prepare the ROW in different types of terrains, on
the earthworks design, on the measures recommended to reduce the impact on the environment, and
finally on the approach to health and safety.
Section 6.1 describes the typical cross sections of the ROW in 10 different types of terrains with a table
indicating the recommended dimensions for constructability. Indeed earthworks include preparing the
right of way, digging the trench, ensuring trench side stability, soil handling and storage, backfill and
excess spoil disposal, and finally reinstatement. Therefore the ROW configuration must allow smooth
development of all those operations.
Section 6.2 deals with the earthworks design and in particular the pipeline trench design.
The recommendations to reduce impact of the earthworks operations on the environment are detailed in
section 6.3.
Finally statistics have shown that pipeline trenches and earthworks operations are a major source of
fatalities in the pipeline industry. Therefore, health and safety is paramount, and all pipeline construction
method statements and procedures must be developed around safety. This is the subject of section 6.4.
6.1 Typical ROW Cross-Sections for Large-Diameter Pipelines
The following drawings show typical ROW cross-sections for large-diameter pipelines in 10 different
types of terrain.
1
Cross Section n°1 Base case
2
Cross Section n°2 Rock ROW
3
Cross Section n°3 Sand dunes area
4
Cross Section n°4 Wetland with dry construction
5
Cross Section n°5 Shabka
6
Cross Section n°6 Side slope
7
Cross Section n°7 Wetland with underwater construction
8
Cross Section n°8 Arctic conditions
9
Cross Section n°9 Environmentally sensitive areas
10
Cross Section n°10 Ridge
11
12
1: Base 2: Rock 3: Sand 4: Wetland 5: Sabkha 6: Side 7: Wetland 8: Arctic 9: Environ- 10: Ridge
(all distances in meters) case ROW dunes with dry slope with conditions mentally
area construction underwater sensitive
6.1.2
construction areas
A Angle (trench top) (degree) 15 N-A 30 45 45 15 30 N-A 15 15
B Traffic lane 6 6 12 N-A 5 6 N-A 6 N-A N-A
C Recommended ROW 40 40 80 42 40 40 40 40 12 30
D Depth (trench) (42” pipe) 2.4 2.1 3.2 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4
E - 30 30 55 35 35 35 40 40 N-A N-A
G Angle (slope) (degree) N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A ≥15 N-A N-A N-A ≥30
L - 11 11.5 13 16.5 13 11 15 14 7 8
M Material area N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A 17 16 N-A N-A
M1 Material area 1 10 10 25 13 10 17 N-A N-A N-A 8
M2 Material area 2 10 10 25 7 7 5 N-A N-A N-A 8
N Snow + ice road N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A N-A 1 N-A N-A
R - 24 24 43 N-A 28 29 40 34 12 14
SM - 1.5 1.5 1 1.5 3 1.5 2 3 2 1

SW - 1.5 1.5 3 1.5 2.5 1.5 1 3 1 3
Table of the dimensions shown on the cross sections
TB - 1.5 1.5 3 2.5 1.5 1.5 2 2 1.5 1.5

TT Trench top 2 1.5 8 8 4 2 10 2 2 2
V Cover (Indicative - check code) 0.9 0.8 2 0.9 1.1 0.9 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.9
W Working area 14 15.5 18 11 13.5 13 10 16 N-A N-A
Y Top soil 0.3 0.1 N-A 0.3 N-A 0.3 N-A 0.3 0.3 0.3
Z Backfill N-A N-A ≥1 ≥1 ≥1 N-A ≥1 N-A N-A N-A
EM Economic ROW (material area) 13 12.5 30 18.5 15 19.5 25 20 3 6
EW Economic ROW (working area) 17 17.5 25 16.5 18 15.5 15 20 9 N-A
6.2 Earthworks Design/Trenching
6.2.1 Introduction
Trenching is the favoured pipeline installation method. In spite of its apparent simplicity,
thorough analysis is required at the design stage of the numerous interrelated factors. This
chapter provides an insight to the factors, issues and solutions for trenching which may be
present and required to achieve a successful, design code and legally compliant pipeline
trenching solution.
6.2.2 Why Are Pipelines Buried?
6.2.2.1 General
Pipelines are buried for a number of reasons. These include:
• To avoid the pipeline becoming a barrier to people, animals and vehicles
• To minimise visual impact
• To reduced the risks to the pipeline from third-party interference. This can
be either voluntary (e.g. hot-tapping, vandalism, terrorism) or involuntary
(e.g. vehicle, machine or tool impact)
• To improve protection of the over-ground environment from a catastrophic
pipeline failure such as an explosion, a high-pressure leak, or a toxic release
• To use the soil as a part of the pipeline design. E.g. soil cover can provide
restraint, and favour or hinder heat transfer
• Cost – in most cases burial will result in a lower overall capital and maintenance
cost
These reasons, together with the pipe characteristics, the soil type, and the nature of the carried
product, are considered in the trench and the backfilling requirements. They are discussed in
more detail below.
6.2.2.2 Community access

The most obvious reason for burying a pipeline is to make its presence virtually invisible to the
above-ground community. In populated areas, the need for roads and access ways make the
burial of pipelines a necessity. Moreover, pipelines often cross privately-owned land and it would
not be acceptable to effectively divide properties into two or more parcels. Even in areas devoid
of activity, it is often advisable to bury pipelines to allow hiking, hunting, off-road driving but also
to preserve natural landscapes.
6.2.2.3 Wildlife
Direct loss of habitat
Pipeline construction results in changes in the habitat value of the land. Habitat discontinuities in
forested landscapes and may also serve as conduits facilitating the spread of undesirable plants
and animals (Seabrook and Dettmann, 1996; Parendes and Jones, 2000), thus creating a loss
of habitat for indigenous species.
Habitat fragmentation
Pipelines dissect continuous habitat patches resulting in smaller patch sizes and higher edge-
to-interior ratios. The loss of interior habitat is of concern for edge-sensitive species and smaller
overall patch sizes may result in the loss of area-sensitive wildlife.
Reduced access to vital habitats
As barriers to wildlife movement, pipelines reduce access to vital habitats for a variety of wildlife
species. Wide-ranging mammal species can lose access to important habitats when
movements are restricted by pipelines. Critical habitats required by wildlife species can be
separated on either side of a pipeline, jeopardizing local populations (Fig. 1).
13
Disruption of social structure

Decreased animal movement can undermine processes that help maintain regional populations
over time. Barriers to movement can block the exchange of individuals among populations,
eliminating gene flow and disrupting the ability of “source” populations to support declining
populations nearby. Barriers to dispersing individuals also eliminate opportunities to re-colonize
vacant habitat after local extinction events.
Population fragmentation and isolation

Pipelines create barriers to movement that subdivide animal populations. Local population
extinctions may occur due to stochastic genetic and demographic events, environmental
variability and natural catastrophes. Population extinction is more likely to occur in smaller
populations, such as those produced by habitat fragmentation.
Disruption of processes that maintain regional populations

The dispersal of individuals between populations has been shown to be important for the
maintenance of genetic viability within local populations, and for maintaining local and regional
populations in the face of population extinctions.
Fig. 1 – Wildlife and pipelines
6.2.2.4 Third-party risk

The industry categorises “third-party” incidents as incidents caused by persons not involved
with operating or maintaining the pipeline – farmers, homeowners, construction crews and
excavators – i.e. people who in the course of their normal activities may cause pipeline damage.
The root causes of third-party damage of pipelines are complex, random, and difficult to
forecast and control. Third-party damage is the most common cause of incidents to pipelines,
which can cause a hole or a complete rupture of the pipeline. Fig. 2 shows the third-party risk
relative to other risks.
14
Fig. 2 – Incidents by cause and size of leak (after Porter et al. 2004). Source: European gas
pipeline incident data group (EGIG)
In most situations, the ground directly over a buried pipeline will be used in the same way as
adjoining land. This means that third-party interference (whether intentional or not) can be
encountered especially in rural areas where people are more likely to perform earthworks
without first getting clearance from the local administration who would know about pipeline
presence. In general, mechanical damage occurs after the pipeline is in service due to activities
in the pipeline right-of-way. Such damage may occur slowly (e.g. from rocks) or quickly (e.g.
excavation equipment). Activities associated with mechanical damage occurrences typically
include:
• Drainage and agricultural activity
• Infrastructure construction (buildings, road-making, excavation, drilling, fencing,
horizontal drilling and trenching)
• Exposure to projectiles: rocks, shrapnel, bullets (exposed pipelines)
• Unauthorized hot tapping and grinding
The risk of external interference can be mitigated by the following:
• Increasing awareness of the pipeline, e.g. land owner liaison and over-ground
markers
• Monitoring of the right-of-way, e.g. flying, walking and or driving the ROW at
regular intervals
• Providing increased resistance to penetration in the pipe itself, e.g. increasing
the wall thickness
• Physically preventing contact with the pipe (see Fig. 3): when this cannot be
achieved by exclusion (e.g. by fencing each side of the right of way) or by the
use of barriers (e.g. by placing a slab of concrete on top of the pipe), separation
from third-party activity can be achieved by increasing the burial depth
• Legal and voluntary systems that require third parties to consult pipeline and
other buried services operators before commencing excavation. Some
countries use ‘one-call’ systems to provide a central communication point so
that third parties can quickly and easily obtain from a single source detail of all
relevant buried services
15
Fig. 3 – Concrete slab protecting the pipeline
Avoiding third party interference is essential to protect a pipeline’s integrity. A pipeline failure can
have catastrophic consequences both in unpopulated areas (e.g. a major oil release damaging
the natural environment) and in populated areas (e.g. an explosion). Fig. 4 shows the aftermath
of a pipeline explosion in Ghislenghien, Belgium. Two factories were destroyed, claiming the
lives of 24 people and injuring 132. The pipeline was buried 6 m underground, carrying gas at
70 bars. Damage to the pipeline probably occurred as a mechanical soil stabiliser, involved in
the final stages of a car park construction project, was driven into the ground causing damage
to the wall of the pipeline. The damage took the form of evenly-spaced gouges in the steel wall
of the pipeline. Two weeks after the completion of the car park the gas pressure was increased
in the pipeline, which then ruptured at a 350 mm long gouge because of the high localised
stresses.
Fig. 4 – Aftermath of the explosion at Ghislenghien, Belgium
16
6.2.2.5 Restraint
Applying soil cover on a pipeline provides restraint to movement of the pipe in all directions.
The friction between the pipe coating and the soil provides restraint against pipe expansion
in the longitudinal direction and can be strong enough to lock longitudinal movement of the
pipeline due to thermal expansion caused by temperature changes.
Structures installed below the surface of the earth may support the weight of the materials
above it, depending upon certain characteristics of the fill and the structure’s design. The fill
characteristics (principally internal soil friction) tend to influence (positively or negatively) the
gross weight of the material above the pipe structure. How much of the vertical load is applied
on the pipeline is dependent upon the relative compressibility (stiffness) of the pipe and the soil.
For a very rigid pipeline, the side fills may be very compressible in relation to the pipe and the
pipe may carry practically all the load. Trench loads on a pipe are often calculated with the
widely-recognized and conservative Marston equation which was developed at the Engineering
Experiment Station of Iowa State College from a series of experimental studies.
6.2.2.6 Insulation/heat retention

Underground temperatures throughout the year vary much less than over-ground temperatures
as the soil acts as a buffer to atmospheric temperature variations. Burying a pipeline can
therefore be a means of insulating the pipe or the product it contains from extreme
temperatures or variations of temperature. This can be used to preserve the pipeline
temperature and prevent an energy loss/gain which would require reheating or cooling at the
receiving end, or which could simply lead to unacceptable problems such as freezing of the
product.
6.2.3 Pipeline Trench Design

Please refer to Appendix 6.2: “Pipeline Trench Design” and further design recommendations.
17
6.3 Environment
All pipeline construction projects will potentially have impacts on the environment to one degree or other.
The degree of impact can depend on the sensitivity of the receiving environment, the construction
techniques used, and the size of the project (pipeline length).
The degree of impact on the environment is initially identified during the environmental impact
assessment (EIA) process. Impacts are given a detailed rating, which takes into account factors
including the sensitivity of habitat, proximity to other sensitive receptors, and how the pipeline will be
constructed. As part of the EIA process mitigation measures to actively reduce, or offset the
environmental impact of the project are suggested, and these measures are incorporated into the
projects environmental management plan (EMP). The EMP defines the environmental objectives for the
construction project, and provides clear guidance for environmental best practice for all activities for the
personnel involved. The EMP can also be used as a basis for the training of site personnel in
environmental best practice.
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Process

In order that environmental impacts can be reduced, negated, and/or offset as far as is practicably
possible, appropriate mitigation measures are agreed as part of the EIA process and incorporated into
the overall plan for construction works.
The EIA process follows recognised standards that are recognised by national governments, clients,
trade associations, World Bank and international finance organisations.
If undertaken properly an environmental assessment aids all those involved in the project and planning
process (including the project developer). It ensures that the developer has focussed on the
environmental considerations of the project at an early stage, rather than being forced to reconsider an
alternative solution once construction is underway.
The first requirement for assessing the impact of a proposed activity is a survey. A thorough survey,
including an assessment of all available evidence, will enable any impacts to be accurately assessed and
allow appropriate mitigation to be developed and agreed.
Mitigation measures can take a number of forms. The most common forms are outlined in the following
table:
Avoidance Where viable, the project or activity will be redesigned to avoid impacts
Reduction Reduction will be considered when all options for the avoidance of impacts
have been exhausted or deemed to be impractical (e.g. reduced working
width, reduced construction hours/ numbers of construction vehicles etc.).
Compensation Where the potential for avoidance of and reducing impacts has been
exhausted, consideration will be given to environmental compensation (e.g.
the creation of alternative habitat to offset that which has been
disturbed/destroyed).
Remediation Where adverse effects are unavoidable, consideration will be given to limiting
the level of impact by undertaking remedial works.
18
Typical Impacts
Environmental impacts from pipeline projects depend on local conditions, and the techniques employed
in construction. However there are a number of potential impacts that are characteristic for terrestrial
pipeline construction spreads:
• Habitat disturbance – Can take the form of temporary or permanent disturbance/alteration

to pre existing habitat over the length of the pipeline spread
• Soil erosion – Wind or water erosion of the trench slope or stored soils during construction,
or of the spread during/following construction. Erosion can vary according to the terrain, soil
type, and degree of vegetation cover, construction methods, and weather conditions
• The spread of weeds/alien/invasive species, and/or contaminated soils through soil tipping
and excavation, and by construction vehicles tracking along the pipeline spread
• Potential impacts to statutory designated areas, protected/vulnerable species, or

protected/vulnerable habitats due to construction activities
• Potential socio-economic impacts, such as construction noise, dust generation, access to

public rights-of-way, employment (positive and negative) supply chain, impacts on farming
activities, in particular livestock and visual impacts to locals and visitors to an area
• Health impacts from construction activities, including introduction of new infectious diseases
from workforce in remote communities, camp conditions, security and pollution
• Impacts on watercourses – River crossings and stream diversions have impacts on

watercourses. Other impacts could include increased siltation in rivers, and the risk of
pollution by construction machinery (fuel/lubes spills)
• Impacts on known/unknown archaeological sites/artefacts may be damaged or disturbed by

construction activities
• Impacts on wildlife – As well as habitat disturbance, pipeline projects can create direct
disturbance to wild animals by noise and dust creation, particularly during sensitive lifecycle
periods (such as breeding). Open construction spreads, as well as completely reinstated
projects can create linear features in the landscape, which can be a temporary barrier to
migration pathways in the same way as roads and railways
Typical Mitigation Measures

Many of the following mitigation measures are considered as environmental best practice by the pipeline
construction industry. These measures typically apply to pipeline projects undertaken across all habitat
types.
• Habitat disturbance and soil erosion can be mitigated by appropriate soil handling
techniques during construction; limiting the amount of topsoil stripped to the absolute
minimum required, and for as briefly as possible. In addition regular watering of stripped
topsoil areas can help reduce dust generation and surface wind erosion, as can limiting
traffic and speed of traffic on the pipeline spread. Appropriate storage of stripped and
excavated soil, and limiting the gradients of slopes/trench sides during construction and
timing construction works to avoid the wettest times of the year are also important
considerations
19
• The spread of invasive or alien species and contaminated soils along pipeline routes can be
mitigated by appropriate weed control measures, limiting vehicle movements, appropriate
separate soil storage and machinery washing points at regular intervals along pipeline routes
• Impacts on statutory designated sites can be reduced at the pipeline routeing study stage
by avoiding such areas, wherever possible. Other measures include keeping the width of the
construction spread to a minimum, and timing works such that they avoid sensitive periods
for protected/vulnerable species and/or habitats. Construction techniques such as horizontal
directional drilling (HDD) can also be used to avoid particularly sensitive areas
• Careful selection and maintenance of construction equipment helps to minimise noise and
airborne emissions to the local community
• Sustainable use of resources, including fuel, water, fencing, skids and temporary road
material (including associated borrow pits) may have the additional benefit of reducing waste
• Mitigating impacts to watercourses can be achieved by ensuring appropriate site drainage

has silt settlement or filtration prior to discharge. Ensuring that any open-cut river crossings
are timed to coincide with periods of lowest sensitivity (avoiding breeding/spawning periods,
and periods of highest water flow, as well as undertaking crossing works as quickly as
possible); alternatively HDD construction techniques are used, particularly on wider river
crossings. Impacts to watercourses from accidental fuel or lube oil spills can be minimised
by ensuring that no refuelling of equipment takes place in close proximity to watercourses.
The potential for accidental releases of fuel and/or lube oils and grease to watercourses can
be further reduced by using machinery that is in a good state of repair (appropriately
maintained) and new
• Impacts to known/unknown archaeological, religious sites and artefacts can be mitigated at

the routeing stage by avoiding known areas. An archaeological watching brief can also be
maintained during topsoil stripping and trench excavation to prevent undue damage to any
previously unknown areas
• Minimising the extent of open trench allows the passage of wildlife and communities who
need access across the working width
• Careful reinstatement of pipeline working width, following the completion of construction

activities, reduces the potential for pipeline projects to have a residual impact on habitats.
Consideration of reinstatement should be undertaken early in the construction process, and
may entail seed collection, tree felling, specialist machinery for topsoil stripping (such as
turfing), the need to source local plant material, or the requirement for water to establish
plants. Where possible pipelines are often routed through agricultural land whereby, although
there is a temporary disturbance to habitat and farming land, typically due to the seasonality
of the land use, complete reinstatement occurs very quickly. Post construction monitoring
should be undertaken (for a minimum period of 2 years) to ascertain the overall success of
the reinstatement works and assess the recovery of the environment. Monitoring is
particularly important in those areas where habitat is of significance for conservation.
Careful consideration should be given to ensuring that the ground conditions are conserved,
by storing and replacing topsoil and soil layers in the correct order, and controlling
decompaction and drainage
20
All the measures aimed at mitigating the impacts from construction activities can form part of a site
environmental management plan (EMP). The EMP transfers the commitments made during the routeing,
financing and consents identified in the EIA document into practical guidance, for the construction
contractors to cost and implement as part of the construction works. It can also form the basis for
appropriate environmental training of personnel working on site.
Pipeline Construction in Different Environments

There are a number of environmental impacts that are more habitat-specific, and as such require
differing approaches to their mitigation strategies.
• Soft soils – These are prone to compaction during construction works, and can often require
the use off bog mats to reduce soil damage. During very wet periods soft soil sections of the
pipeline spread can be temporarily closed off to prevent undue compaction. Reinstatement
involves the removal of the bog mats and ripping up of the soils, prior to re-profiling to
alleviate the compaction
• Sand dunes – Dune systems are particularly sensitive (particularly in the low-lying more
stable areas) and are often susceptible to flash flooding, and as such pipeline routeing
should identify such areas and re-route if necessary. Dust generation can be a problem, but
this can reduced by keeping vehicle movements and speeds to a minimum. Reinstatement
is of particular importance and difficulty in sand dune areas as they are often mobile in
nature, and require some specialist reinstatement techniques. The dunes need to be re-
contoured as close to their original state as possible, also reinstating the original drainage
channels and watercourses
• Peatland – As with other soft soil environments, measures to protect and mitigate
compaction will be required. Draining water from the excavation can lead to an imbalance in
the peat, which can damage its integrity. As such appropriate water quality and erosion
control measures will need to be used, such as geotextiles, straw bales, or rock riprap.
There is also the potential for the pipeline trench to act as a drainage channel. To prevent
this inert plugs can be placed in the trench at intervals to prevent poor drainage
• Side slopes – The potential for erosion of the trench on steep slopes can be mitigated by the
placing of trench plugs at regular intervals to prevent the free flow of water and silt through
the trench. Slopes should be graded to avoid soil creep, and the use of pre-existing planting
or erosion control geotextile matting should be maximised to aid slope stabilisation. Early
establishment of vegetation is important on side slopes
• Swampy areas – Similar measures should be taken as in peatland and soft soil environments
to mitigate against soil compaction. In addition pipes laid through swamps are susceptible to
water build up in the excavated trench; dewatering may be useful but care should be taken
of the discharge location. In addition sediment traps or filtration measures to reduce silt in
the water should be taken prior to discharge of trench water
• Forested areas – To minimise the degree of tree clearance required, the working width of the
pipeline spread should be reduced as much as possible. Machinery working in such
environments should be able to work safely in a reduced space. Where tree roots have been
cut, but the trees not felled, the crown of the tree should be reduced accordingly to reduce
water stress, and protect the tree from any long-term damage. Measures should also be
taken to avoid disturbance to nesting birds, or species/habitats of conservation importance.
Account should be taken of tree canopy species that would typically travel across the
working width, walkways or access points may need to be provided
21
• Ridge – Ridges are constrained, and as such will require that the working width be reduced.
There is a lack of available space for the storage of equipment and excavated material, so
activities require careful advance planning. Side casting can have large-scale visual impacts,
and although reinstatement of the contours is particularly difficult, it is important to restore
the original contours as closely as possible. To stabilise soils and minimise erosion early
reinstatement of vegetation should be considered, as well as potentially re-contouring land
to minimise the overall visual impact
• Tundra – Tundra habitats may include permafrost. The working season is first determined by
borehole investigations, which provide information about the depth and extent of the
permafrost, and in turn help guide appropriate construction and reinstatement techniques.
Modelling may need to be undertaken to ascertain the thermal effects of the permafrost on
the pipeline and contents, and vice-versa. Insulation measures may be required for the
pipeline prior to operation. Accurate reinstatement of the strata profile is particularly crucial in
permafrost habitats, as it is important to appreciate how the ground may alter its physical
properties seasonally
The tables in Appendix 6.3 give an overview of the measures to reduce the impact of the works on the
environment.
22
6.4 Health and Safety
Earthworks sites have the potential to be among the most dangerous due to the variety of work that is
carried out in and around the area of work. Without appropriate controls one of the greatest risks is the
collapse of the sides of excavations. Too often this has and will continue to result in fatalities and serious
injuries. The following information highlights the real dangers of earthworks past and present.
• During the period 1990-2000 there were 771 fatalities involving excavations in the USA
• USA reports that pipeline trenches are one of the major source of fatalities in the pipeline
industry
• 38% of the fatalities that occur are in trenches less than 3 m deep
A large proportion of excavation accidents are avoidable if the correct control measures are put in place.
Any organisations and companies involved have a responsibility to protect the health and safety of all
personnel (including sub-contractors and visitors), to ensure the health and safety of everyone involved
or impacted by the earthworks operation. Although earthworks are carried out in a wide range of
environments most of the hazards, and therefore the control measures to reduce the impact of the
hazards, are generic irrespective of the work location.
Examples of general hazards include:
• adverse weather • ground conditions • ambient temperatures

• heavy loads • lifting • pipe movement
• work equipment • working at height • emergency response
• confined spaces • hazardous materials • noise
• local community • vibration • illumination
• wildlife
During earthworks activities, one of the most significant risks to personnel is the collapse of the walls of
excavations or trenches. This can happen quickly, with very little warning, therefore appropriate controls
must be put in place before work begins in the area. Great care must be taken in the design of the work
area taking into account the soil type and environment. Consideration must also be given to using
sloping walls to protect the integrity of the trench walls. In the case of any trench over 1.2 m deep
shoring, sloping or stepping must be used to improve the stability of the trench. Once the trench has
been dug it should be inspected daily or after any event which may alter its integrity.
Adverse weather can greatly increase the risk of earthworks in all environments. All types of soil are likely
to become more unstable if very wet or dry which can lead to the collapse of side walls. Shoring of the
sides of the excavation or trench boxes can be used to protect workers when they are in the trenches.
Heavy rainfall can also lead to the flooding of trenches. Pump systems may be required to remove water
from the ground and consideration should be given to the length of the trench dug out if heavy rain is
expected. High winds can also hamper lifting and pipe movement operations. These types of operations
should be ceased if operators feel it is unsafe to continue or an appropriate limit should be identified and
put in place. Lift plans should be in place for all pipe lifting operations. Weather can also affect the ability
of machinery to operate so consideration of the best time of year to carry out projects is essential.
Extreme temperatures can also impact on the health and safety of personnel. Reactive measures could
also include providing appropriate heating, cooling and areas of shade.
Ground conditions, heavy loads and vibration can also have an effect on the integrity of the excavations.
Unstable ground conditions can lead to problems with the operation of plant and machinery.
23
Creating a track for plant to operate on may be the best option to avoid the risks of it sinking or
becoming bogged down. Heavy loads such as pipe and excavated material should be placed away
from the edge of the excavations so as to avoid exerting extra pressure on the walls which could
increase the risk of collapse. Vibration caused by plant movement or machine operation could also
affect the ground conditions and the integrity of the excavation. By ensuring appropriate preparations
are taken when developing the ROW, acceptable ground conditions can be achieved. Limiting and using
the correct size of plant and machinery can also reduce the effects of vibration.
Working at height will also be a common hazard across a variety of working environments. This could be
the dangers associated with working at the top edge of the trench or access and egress from plant
machinery. Suitable barriers can be used to keep people back from the leading edge of the trench. All
staff should be given and use appropriate PPE which may include fall arrest equipment. For such
equipment personnel must be trained and deemed competent before its use.
Specific training must be given to those performing work in confined spaces and it would be advisable
to operate a permit-to-work system in those situations due to the high risks associated with this type of
work.
Another generic hazard is work equipment. Due to the nature of the job there will be a large variety of
work equipment in use during earthworks including heavy plant machinery, lifting equipment, generators,
compressors, ladders and hand tools. All equipment should be fit for purpose and be given a visual
inspection prior to use. Electrical equipment should be inspected on a regular basis and records should
be kept. Lifting gear should be certified by a third party and also inspected by operators prior to use.
Where applicable guards must be available and in use at all times on machinery. Operators should be
trained and competent in the operation of all machinery that they will use. Faulty equipment should not
be used in any circumstance.
Illumination of the work area must be considered for earthworks as poor lighting can be a hazard in all
types of environment, leading to an increase in workplace accidents such as trips and falls. Assessment
must be made based on the amounts of natural light available in the area and the requirement for
artificial lighting to maintain lighting levels. At the planning stage of the project the requirement for night
working should be assessed and suitable lighting plans put in place if required.
Ensuring that the health and safety impact on the local community is reduced to as low as reasonably
practicable is important in all earthworks. Providing information to the local population regarding the
work being undertaken can highlight any potential risks. Another aspect is ensuring good site security is
in place to reduce the risk of people entering the work area without authorisation.
Risks associated with wildlife can vary widely throughout the different earthworks environments. Where
there is a risk to the workforce from disease-spreading or poisonous animals, emergency plans should
be in place to control the risks. Where animal attacks are likely fencing can be used to restrict access to
the work area. Medication may be required to prevent disease and information must be passed onto the
workforce regarding these risks.
There is the potential for exposure to hazardous materials with the malfunction of work equipment i.e. oil
spills or contact with materials pre-existing on the site. A thorough analysis of the work area should take
place before any work is carried out to ensure the land is not contaminated. Monitoring should continue
throughout the lifespan of the project. Spill kits should be available to deal with any spillage that occurs
on site and personnel should be provided with any necessary RPE or PPE. While digging the trenches
workers may also be exposed to excessive levels of dust. Dust suppression through spraying water or
use of appropriate RPE can be used if necessary to deal with this issue.
24
Due to the remote nature of many earthwork locations employers must develop and regularly test an
emergency response policy. This would include ensuring good communication channels, having good
first aid/medical provisions and trained first aid providers on site. Planning of the quickest, safest routes
to hospitals and other local facilities must also be undertaken. An important feature of this would be
identifying and providing the best mode of transport to get to these locations. Regular tests of
evacuation and emergency procedures should be carried out to ensure the effectiveness of these plans.
There are many other hazards that can arise in certain earthworks operations. The tables in Appendix
6.4 give an overview of how we can employ systems to reduce the risks from the main hazards of the
work and maintain the health and safety of all personnel involved.
Health and safety relies upon three key elements to ensure safe working practices during earthworks:
• ENGINEERING – Engineering controls/guarding/automation of

systems/preventative maintenance
• PROCEDURES – HSE policy/procedures/monitoring and measuring/audits/risk

assessments
• BEHAVIOURAL – Communication systems/health and safety as a personal

value/leading by example
Although each element is important in its own right the system only works when all three elements work
together to ensure the health and safety of all involved in the projects.
25
Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Appendix 6.2
Appendix 6.2
Pipeline Trench Design
Follow up from section 6.2 in volume 1: Earthworks Design
Table of Contents
Page
6.2.3 Pipeline trench design 26

6.2.4 Trench depth 31
6.2.5 Trench integrity 41
6.2.6 Installation 44
6.2.7 Dewatering 53
6.2.8 Backfilling 56
6.2.3 Pipeline Trench Design
6.2.3.1 General
Many types of trench exist, suited to different purposes and soil conditions. Trench shape and width are
discussed in this section. Trench depth is studied in section 6.2.4 and modifications to the trench shape
to guarantee its integrity are detailed in section 6.2.5.
Geotechnical aspects of pipeline trench design include:
• Trench wall stability
• Influence of spoil pile
• Influence of equipment track pressure
• Minimum required width of right of way arising from trench depth, width and spoil heap
• Trench width
Fig. 5 illustrates a typical V-shaped trench design suited for most soil types. Other trench shapes can be
better suited to specific soil types: examples are illustrated for rocky, sandy and cohesive grounds in Fig.
6 to Fig. 8.
26
Fig. 5 Typical trench cross-section (general soils).
Fig. 6 Typical trench cross-section (rocky ground).
27
Fig. 7 Typical trench cross-section (sand) with berm. The same trench design is used without a berm.
Fig. 8 Typical cross-section (cohesive soil).
28
Asymmetric designs can be used to lock the pipeline in horizontal bends. In such case, the trench
extends on the outer side of the bend, as shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9 Asymmetric trench designs. Dimensions in mm.
6.2.3.2 Trench Wall Stability

The main factors influencing trench side slope stability include:
1. Soil undrained shear strength, or soil angle of friction
2. Trench depth and side slope inclination
3. Distance between toe of the spoil pile to the top edge of the trench and the height
(or surcharge) of the spoil
4. Equipment track pressure together with the distance from the track to the trench
5. Dynamic vibration impact from equipment
6. Season that work is being carried out in (wet, dry, frozen ground, summer, winter)
Based on clay soils as an example, for a clay soil with an average undrained shear strength of about
12 kPa, unstable conditions may occur unless the trench has a slope inclination of greater than 45º,
and if the spoil is located approximately 1 m away from the edge of the trench. For clay with an average
undrained shear strength greater than 20 kPa, stable trench conditions are likely for vertical trench walls
and the spoil placed at the edge of the trench.
The angle of the spoil pile also needs to be adequately designed and specified to ensure that spoil does
not collapse towards the trench thus comprising the trench itself. The spoil/topsoil height should be
limited to about 2 m, and the inclination be about 40º or lower. These are just general guides, and will be
affected by trench depth and soil properties.
Equipment track pressure will affect the trench stability. Based on two track pressures, 90 kPa and 140
kPa, typical guidelines for a 2 m trench depth include trench slope to be 40º to 60º, and provision that
the track set-back be at least 2 m from the edge of the trench. Unless adequately designed for,
repeated passage of heavy equipment can lead to remoulding and deep ruts in the soil, thus slowing
down the construction, and potentially even equipment sliding into the trench. Fig. 10 shows the typical
interaction between clay soil strength, trench slope and equipment track pressure.
29
Fig. 10 Soil Strength vs Trench Slope for Equipment Track Pressure
6.2.3.3 Right of Way (ROW) Width

The ROW width is of prime importance to ensure adequate working conditions whilst minimising cost
and environmental impact. The ROW is divided into two parts: the spoil side and the working side. The
soil side width is affected by trench design, spoil pile stability and spoil swelling factors (which could be
up to 30%). The working side is affected by trench inclination and set-back of the equipment from
trench edge, together with construction considerations such as pipe supports, side booms, traffic lane
and storage.
6.2.3.4 Trench Width

The trench width is influenced by a number of factors, namely: safety, soil characteristics, outer pipe
diameter, trench depth, minimum available width of excavator bucket, type of crossings, and any special
purpose requirements. In turn, the trench width affects the loading on the pipe.
The width at the trench bottom is dependent on the overall pipe diameter, the coating, the number of
pipes in the same trench, and any other services placed in the same trench. The distance between the
pipe end and the edge of trench bottom can vary from 150 mm – 300 mm. The trench bottom width
must be sufficient to allow for compaction of the soil at the haunches and on the sides. The width at the
trench top will depend on the soil that the trench has been cut into and safety requirements. The side
slope angle could be as shallow as 10º – 30º, leading to very wide top of trench widths. Trench safety is
of paramount importance to ensure that those working in the trench are safe and protected from trench
collapse and trench flooding. This is discussed in more detail in section 6.2.5.
Crossing of roads and tracks often requires minimum disruption and construction on a short schedule.
Consequently, the trench width design at road crossings needs careful consideration, with options of
shoring the trench considered (see section 6.2.5.3).
Together with the trench depth and characteristics of the fill over the pipe, the trench width will produce
the load which must be supported by the pipe and its bedding. Generally speaking, the wider the
trench, the greater the load on the pipe. Beyond a certain point this effect stops and widening the trench
further does not impact the loading on the pipeline anymore.
30
6.2.4 Trench Depth
6.2.4.1 General
Pipelines are often buried under locations where human activity is intense. Vehicle crossing in particular
can potentially impose important concentrated loads to a buried pipe and damage it. In areas where
vehicle crossing is likely or certain (under a road or track, or under farm land), it can be necessary to
bury the pipe at an increased depth. The typical depth range is the following, depending on soil
conditions and land use :
Main Roads and Light Roads: - 1.2 m to 8.0 m
Fields: - 0.6 m to 8.0 m
The crossing of other buried pipelines also sometimes makes it necessary to bury pipes at greater
depth, if only on a limited pipeline length.
6.2.4.2 Ground use

Depending on the land use, pipelines have to be buried at a minimal depth to avoid likely damage from
third-parties. For example, under farmland, pipelines may have to be buried deep in order to avoid
damage from soil pressure caused by heavy equipment and from earthwork required by cultivation (see
Fig. 11). In cities, pipelines should avoid running under private land where the landowner might conduct
earthworks that could result in pipeline damage.
Fig. 11 Deep burial of pipelines is sometimes necessary under farmland.

a) Gravel mole plough. b) Plough shown out of the ground.
(a) (b)
The American codes ASME B31.4 and ASME B31.8 provides a range of cover depths for various types
of land and its use. These are summarised in Fig. 12. These burial depth requirements can be
overridden by local regulations, sometimes by company codes, and sometimes by the landowner during
negotiations.
31
Fig. 12 Burial depth Vs land use.
Where required minimum cover depths cannot be met, the pipe can be encased, bridged, or designed
to withstand any anticipated external loads. The cover depths shown are minimum requirements for
guidance only, and actual cover depth requirements will need to take into account actual local
conditions, deep ploughing, and any local erosion issues.
32
6.2.4.3 External loading

The load exerted on the pipeline by the soil cover can be beneficial for the pipeline system as it can be
used to lock the pipe into place and mitigate adverse pressure and temperature effects. The load on a
buried pipe is created by the weight of the soil lying above it as well as the above-ground loading.
Increasing the trench depth increases the soil load but reduces the traffic load, as illustrated in Fig. 13.
An optimum cover depth can therefore be found to minimise the pipeline loading. Road crossings are
covered in more detail in the next section.
Fig. 13 Soil and traffic loading pressure Vs cover depth to Top of Pipe.
6.2.4.4 Road and railroad crossings

Discussion and research on the cased/uncased approach to pipeline crossings of roads and railroad
have been underway since the late 1950s and 1960s. For example, American Railway Engineering
Association (AREA) Bulletin #738 provides an extensive review for pipeline crossings of railroads.
Where buried piping is subjected to frequent overhead traffic or occasional heavy loads, consideration
shall be given to providing the pipe with an external protective sleeve or casing, which is typically made
of steel, concrete or plastic. In the past, the use of casing was mandatory for constructing jointed
pipelines under all obstacles that could not be constructed by an open-cut method, particularly
transportation arteries. Today it is generally considered that an adequate design will provide structural
integrity for either cased or uncased crossings. Fig. 14 shows typical cased and uncased crossings for
roads and railways.
The decision to case a pipeline crossing of a highway or railroad involves the following considerations.
• Existing regulations by local, state, and federal agencies
• Site conditions (soil, water table, traffic, population density, and potential future construction
activities)
• Economic considerations
• Pipeline function and commodity transported
• Carrier pipe material
33
In recent years, the increasing trend is to install crossings and to change existing regulations to permit
such an option. For adequately designed carrier pipe, alternatives to casing include concrete-coated
pipe or concrete slabs over the pipeline through the road or the railroad Right Of Way. Advantages of
pipeline casings are listed below.
• Mechanical protection for pipe from external live and dead loads
• Easy and cheap future removal or replacement of pipe
• Frost-line insulation from transported commodity in temperature sensitive soils.
• Sub-base and crossing protection in the event of a pipe leak
• Protection from third-party damage
However casings also have disadvantages, which are listed hereafter.

• Higher cost to owner due to the following requirements: larger bore-hole for casing, two
installations, insulators and spacers between pipe and casing, end seals, and annular space
grouting.
• Potential shielding of the pipeline cathodic protection system
• Potential shorting of the pipeline cathodic protection system
• Potential exposure of carrier pipe to corrosive condensation inside the casing
Fig. 14 Typical crossings.
Cased crossings Uncased crossings
6.2.4.5 Waterway Crossings

The installation of underwater crossings is a challenging undertaking. Revisions to the pipeline profile
and joint design may be required depending on the installation method. For pipelines pulled along the
channel bottom, special pull heads, lugs, sleds and flotation tanks are normally required on the leading
end of the pipeline. It may even be necessary to modify the original design if conditions change during
construction.
Laying from a barge, or floating the pipe into position and sinking requires divers and expensive marine
equipment, both of which have limited operational hours. Design and installation of ballast weights,
concrete jackets, and flotation devices required for these methods also require special consideration.
34
Because of the difficulty associated with repairs, waterway crossings should be hydrotested immediately
upon installation completion and prior to connecting to adjacent sections of land piping. The line should
then be backfilled by dumping or chuting the backfill material. In certain cases, it is possible to allow
natural backfill of the pipeline by water course sediment.
River banks and river beds will change with time. Specialist studies should be conducted to determine
the pipeline end-of-life condition of the river banks and river bed to ensure that the pipe has sufficient
cover to take into account bed erosion, and that the pipe has sufficient burial depth across the width of
the crossing to account for any river bank meander (Fig. 15). Additionally, the use of the river should be
taken into account for determining the design burial depth.
Fig. 15 Evolving meanders of a river
6.2.4.6 Third-party protection

Generally speaking, increasing the depth of cover will lead to a decreased probability of third-party
damage incident. Fig. 16 shows the percentage of damage incidents as a function of the depth of cover.
35
Fig. 16 Probability of damage vs cover depth.
6.2.4.7 Restraint/upheaval resistance
In operation, the pressure and temperature of the fluid induces stresses in the pipeline. On one hand the
internal pressure, which is normally higher than the atmospheric pressure, creates both “hoop” and
longitudinal stress in the pipeline. This will lead to a tendency for the pipe to straighten at bends (the
Bourdon effect). This movement can be compounded by the temperature of the fluid which will cause
thermal expansion (or contraction) of the pipe. Should the soil not provide enough longitudinal restraint
by friction, the pipe will tend to move along its axis.
Comprehensive analysis of the restraint, movement and the resulting stresses within the pipeline is
required to ensure that pipeline stresses will be within acceptable limits. Analysis often shows high levels
of movement at bends and at the ends of a pipeline, where the pipeline comes above ground.
Movement can be controlled by additional soil loads or the incorporation of anchors. Alternatively,
expansion loops or bends can be incorporated to allow movement without unacceptable stresses.
Movement can also result in upheaval buckling. This can occur at an overbend or a vertical imperfection
in the bottom profile of a trench and can result in the pipeline coming out of the ground (see Fig. 17) and
possibly pipeline buckling. If the pipeline upstream and down stream of the overbend or imperfection is
locked in position and expansion of the pipeline occurs from these fixed points then the pipeline relies
upon the soil overburden to keep it in place. If this overburden is insufficient then the pipeline could
move vertically. Furthermore, the more it moves vertically then the lower the soil overburden becomes,
hence allowing even greater movement.
36
Fig. 17 Pipeline upheaval buckling
The greater the burial depth, the greater the restraint on a pipe will be both in the axial and radial
directions. This is, however, only true up to a point where the soil load does not increase anymore with
soil cover. Fig. 18 illustrates the evolution of soil resistance with the cover height and the pipe diameter.
Fig. 18 Soil resistance as a function of cover and of the outer pipe diameter.
Soil Resistance [kN]
Soil Resistance [kN]
In addition to burial depth, backfill resistance is also a function of several soil parameters, including soil
density, resistance to shearing, and specific cover geometry. Soil properties used to determine the
backfill resistance should be taken as lower bound values for the upheaval buckling analysis. The pipe-
soil resistance will depend on the nature of the backfilling process (see section 6.2.8) and on all the
uncertainties related to the backfill behaviour.
37
Ratcheting
Where below-ground pipeline movement occurs, at locations such as bends, the effects of ‘ratcheting’
have to be considered. This is where a pipeline moves, eg due to thermal expansion, but does not
return to its original location on cooling and then expands from its revised cold location to a new point.
That is, the pipeline moves on each pipeline thermal cycle from a different start point. This movement
can be caused or compounded or caused by soil falling in the void left by the pipeline when it moves
thus removing the space for the pipeline to contract into upon pipeline cooling.
Movement at horizontal bends

As previously mentioned, thermal expansion force tend to localise in bends, generating a lateral force on
the soil which could then fail. The pipe is restrained by the weight and shear strength of the soil as
shown in Figure 19.
Fig. 19 Restraint on outside of bend to restrict horizontal movement.
6.2.4.8 Geohazards
Burying a pipeline is also a means of protecting it from geohazards such as adverse weather (lightning,
heavy wind, ice showers) but also floods, top-soil landslides, forest fires and erosion of the supporting
soil. Burial also acts as a buffer against steep over-ground temperature changes during the day-night
cycle but also the seasonal cycles.
It is important to take into account the impact of fault lines and earthquakes in the design process.
Trench depth, design and backfill compaction can improve a pipeline’s response behaviour to fault line
movement or an earthquake.
6.2.4.9 Insulation/heat retention

Pipeline burial provides thermal insulation of the pipeline and therefore allows the effects of above-
ground ambient temperatures to be reduced and allows heat loss or gain to the transported fluid to be
reduced.
38
Fig. 20-a shows the evolution of temperatures over a year in Ottawa, Canada, at different depths. The
temperature of the ground surface remains almost in phase with the air temperature. Below the surface,
the soil temperature follows the same trend, albeit with a delay as it takes time for heat to be conducted
through the soil. The time lag increases linearly with depth. At a depth of 5 to 6 m the maximum ground
temperature occurs about 6 months later than the average maximum temperature of the surface in
summer.
Fig. 20-b shows the corresponding temperature variation amplitude change with depth (the “trumpet
curve”). The amplitude of a temperature variation at the soil surface is normally about equal to that of the
corresponding one for air. The amplitude decreases exponentially with distance from the surface at a
rate dictated by the time necessary for one complete cycle. For depths below 5 to 6 m, ground
temperatures are essentially constant throughout the year. The average annual ground temperature is
practically constant with depth, increasing about 1ºC per 50 m depth due to geothermal heat flow from
the centre of the earth to the surface.
Fig. 20 Heat insulation from soil cover in Ottawa, Canada:

(a) Annual variation of soil temperatures.
(b) Depth dependence of the annual range of ground temperatures.
39
In addition to an annual cycle, the ground temperature undergoes both a daily cycle and fluctuations
associated with changes in the weather. These variations are confined to the near surface region, daily
cycles penetrating about 0.5 m and weather cycles about 1 m below the surface. The "penetration
depth" is defined as the depth at which the amplitude of a temperature variation is reduced to 0.01 of
its amplitude at the surface. In addition to the nature of the soil, moisture has a significant impact on
the penetration depth.
Almost every man-made change in terrain modifies both surface and sub-surface ground temperatures,
although in most cases such modifications are not made for the express purpose of changing the
ground thermal regime. Situations can arise, however, where it may be desirable to modify ground
temperatures deliberately, for example to reduce the rate of heat loss from a pipeline. It should be
appreciated that these temperatures can be modified only to a limited extent because man has no
appreciable control over climate, which determines values on a regional basis. In general, ground
temperatures can be modified by changing either surface conditions or ground thermal properties.
The most obvious method of changing surface condition is to place an insulating layer near or at the
surface to reduce frost penetration. Increasing the snow cover by the use of snow fences is another
example. The thermal capacity of the ground can best be altered by changing its moisture content,
for example, by flooding.
The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (OHTC) characterises the heat retention capacity of a pipe-soil
system: the lower the OHTC the better the insulation of the pipe. Looking at Fig. 21, increasing cover
depth decreases the OHTC and can provide insulation properties in the right soil conditions. However,
below the water line heat transfer suddenly increases.
Fig. 21 Heat transfer coefficient Vs Depth of Cover

(W/m2-K)
(m)
40
6.2.5 Trench Integrity
6.2.5.1 General
Guaranteeing the trench integrity is essential for the safety of the workers in and around the trench as
well as being necessary for the completion of pipeline construction. Trench design is key to trench
integrity and needs to be considered early within pipeline construction projects, so that adequate costs
and schedule are allowed for pipeline construction.
Where ground conditions are such that trench walls will not remain vertical, the contractor may choose
to use sloping side walls or to use solid sheeting to support the trench walls. In all cases, the critical
dimension is the trench width measured at the top of the pipe. Fig. 22 shows the different factors
affecting trench stability.
Fig. 22 Factors affecting trench stability.
6.2.5.2 Access/safety
Like all construction activities, pipeline construction can potentially be dangerous to workers. However,
very high safety standards can prevent most accidents and result in a very safe working environment.
Safety statistics from the Australian Pipelines Industry Association are shown below in Table 1.
Table 1 Safety statistics of pipelines construction from the Australian Pipelines Industry Association.
Month Lost time injuries Medical Total man hours LTIF Rate
(inc fatalities) treatment injury in quarter
Sept 2006 2 4 461,097 2.17
Dec 2006 1 12 980,097 1.02
Mar 2007 0 4 480,342 0
Jun 2007 2 9 447,454 4.47
Sept 2007 1 11 327,654 3.05
Dec 2007 3 15 1,477,182 2.03
Mar 2008 1 4 555,345 1.8
Jun 2008 2 11 1,279.358 1.56
41
Sloping and Stepping

Not all work is done outside of the trench: activities such as inspection, joint coating, and welding often
require workers to go down in the trench. Workers should not enter a trench with vertical walls over
1.2 m deep as the trench could collapse and pose a safety threat. At greater depths, shoring, sloping, or
stepping is required to improve the stability of the trench (its “stand-up” time which is a function of the
ratio between depth and width). T-shaped sloping and stepping drastically increases the width of the
trench at ground level as the depth of the trench increases, as shown in Fig. 23.
Fig. 23 Sloping and stepping.
6.2.5.3 Use of shoring, sheeting and trench boxes

Different soil types behave differently, depending on the condition of the soil at the time of excavation.
Typical collapsing behaviours are shown in Fig. 24 for different types of soft soils. Sandy soil will tend to
collapse straight down, wet clays and loams tend to slab off the side of the lower trench. Firm, fairly dry
clay tends to crack some distance from the trench wall. Wet sands and gravels tend to slide into the
excavation at about a 45-degree angle.
Fig. 24 Collapsing of trench walls in soft soil.
Wet clays and loams “slab off” Firm dry clays and loams crack
Wet sands and gravel slide Sandy soil collapses straight down
42
In excavations where the open ditch method (sloped walls) is not sufficient, trench walls likely to collapse
must be supported by proper shoring to mitigate the risk of cave-in. Shoring jacks, with or without
sheeting, are a quick and efficient shoring system because the excavator can work continuously (Fig.
25). For deep trenches and unstable ground, the best shoring system is a trench box (Fig. 26), a large
mobile box with enough strength to withstand the side pressure of deep excavations. The primary
concern is for safety, and all applicable regulations should be strictly observed.
Fig. 25 Shoring methods
Fig. 26 Typical trench box
43
6.2.5.4 Trench bottom preparation

Trench load design for all pipes is based upon stable bedding and firm foundations. It is essential,
therefore, that the trench bottom remains stable during backfilling and under all subsequent trench
operations. Any departure from a stable foundation can nullify the efforts of both the designer and
contractor because it can result in localized pipe stress concentrations which may cause structural
failure.
When unstable or rocky trench bottoms are encountered, it will be necessary to over excavate and
restore the trench bottom to a stable uniform foundation with selected materials capable of properly
supporting the pipe. Select native materials, crushed stone, gravel, slag, coral or other granular
materials are commonly used for this purpose. The amount of granular material necessary to stabilize
the trench bottom will vary according to the field conditions encountered. Adequate compaction must
be applied to guarantee a stable reformed pipe bed.
Any material that might damage the pipe coating should be removed from the trench bottom, including
rubbish left by the construction workers. Organic materials (“biodegradable”) should also be removed as
their decomposition could lead to damage to the coating and pipe.
The pipe may be laid on a flat or shaped trench bottom of suitable undisturbed native material or, in the
case of over-excavating, on a restored flat bedding base. It is important to achieve a smooth trench
bottom before laying the pipe to ensure that the entire pipe barrel has a continuous and uniform line
bearing support. The soil curvature should be controlled to ensure that the pipe does not deform
excessively under its own weight and the backfill load.
As stated above, upheaval bucking can be initiated by imperfections in trench bottoms, providing a
further reason to ensure correct trench bottom preparation. A trench bottom imperfection may cause
the pipeline to form an overbend by elastic bending when installed, and upheaval buckling could occur
at such a point in operations, if the pipeline is locked in position upstream and downstream of the
imperfections. Pipeline expansion, coupled with insufficient local overburden, can cause the pipeline to
move upwards, potentially driving the pipeline locally out of the ground. Expansion to cause upheaval
buckling is normally associated with pipeline operating temperatures at least 50°C above the pipeline
temperature at backfilling.
6.2.6 Installation
6.2.6.1 Right of way

The Right Of Way (ROW) is the actual width of land, usually purchased as an “easement” rather than a
fee, required to safely maintain and operate the pipeline and protect it from future development.
In order to perform pipeline installation safely and efficiently, a corridor of 20-30 m is typically required
(see Fig. 27) for a single line. Once the pipeline has been installed, the permanent ROW is typically only
8-10 m wide. At river crossings, the ROW during construction is typically significantly larger (usually 30-
50 m). The installation of twin lines would also require a larger ROW.
44
Fig. 27 Construction and permanent ROW.
Fig. 28 shows a typical ROW during pipeline installation in agricultural areas. Excavated material is
separated in two heaps: the topsoil one is obtained from scraping the area on top and on both sides of
the trench (see “topsoil strip width” in Fig. 28 ). The subsoil heap is made of material excavated
exclusively from the trench. This separation is important in non-desertic area to ensure future vegetation
growth on the ROW after reinstatement. To prevent decomposition of the organic material into compost,
the topsoil heap should not exceed 2 m in height. Developing nearby tree roots are a potential danger to
pipelines, thus the felling of trees close to the ROW might be required, not only during construction but
also during the life of the pipeline.
Fig. 28 Typical ROW cross-section in agricultural areas.
The ROW is often not owned by the pipeline operator and it is therefore necessary to have an
agreement with the landowners in place regarding the temporary use of their land; the potential
degradation of the topsoil over the pipeline; and future abandonment and re-instatement requirements.
45
Fig. 29 Typical ROW cross-section in desert areas.
Fig. 29 shows a typical ROW during pipeline installation in desert, and wasteland areas. Two spoil heaps
are not required in this instance.
Fig. 30 shows a typical ROW cut through a forest.
Fig. 30 Right of way through a forest
46
6.2.6.2 Spoil Management

Construction operations produce large volumes of material to store and also surplus excavated
materials that will be disposed of or re-used elsewhere. The types of spoil generated will depend on
location, depth, and method (e.g. digging, horizontal directional drilling, boring etc.). It can comprise soil
or rocks. The stored material needs to be handled with care to allow re-use, with the subsoil stored
separately from the topsoil. The handling and disposal of the surplus subsoil also needs careful disposal,
or re-use if possible. Spoil that cannot be managed on site will need to be removed.
Increased costs on projects in recent years has led to increasing pressure and incentive to minimise the
amount of construction spoil sent to landfill sites, but to do so depends on being able to reduce, recycle
and reuse more of it. That, in turn, calls for reliable information about how construction sites handle
wastes, and spoil from ground engineering operations. Traffic generated by poor spoil management
plans will lead to construction delays. Geotechnical surveys will need to define areas of contamination
and the type of contaminant early in the design to allow appropriate management strategies to be
developed. Contaminated spoils will require carefully-engineered management plans, not to mention the
health and safety risks for the site employees.
Reduction, reuse or recycling of spoil can be a viable option only if considered early in the design,
operation and management of the works taken as a whole and not as a separate activity at a discrete
later stage, i.e. this needs to be planned in detail at the design stage.
Some examples are given below for spoil management in rugged mountain terrain areas where the
excess spoil is used for site restoration or erosion control.
Erosion control can only be practiced once the bulk earthworks and major drainage work have been
completed. In steep terrain this is not routine, and the spoil management strategy is the key to providing
a stable platform for erosion control. It is convenient to review practices in four categories, these are
illustrated in Fig. 31, and described more fully in Table 2, in roughly historical sequence:
Traditional - The traditional approach, as also used on many low-cost roads and railways, is
simple downslope disposal or side tipping. This has a high visual impact, plus risks of ensuing
soil instability, loss of natural vegetation, and sediment contaminating streams and rivers. This is
now considered environmentally unacceptable in most situations.
Stabilised Traditional - This is a development of downslope disposal, with a supplementary

stabilisation of the tipped spoil by revegetation and erosion control techniques. This approach
is difficult, and usually works out to be an expensive option.
Full contour restoration - The full replacement of soil on steep mountain slopes is
environmentally attractive, but very difficult to achieve in practice.
Engineered spoil tips - Even in severe terrain there will often be stable embayment areas at
intervals on or close to the ROW that can be used for engineered disposal, with appropriate
compaction, drainage, erosion control and revegetation. This leaves “smoothed” contours
along the right of way. This approach appears to be the best environmental option overall.
Unexpectedly, from experience this appears to be the minimum cost option in many situations.
A good modern alignment will minimise the extent of sidelong cuts and associated spoil volumes.
The pipeline industry has tended to look at terrain in two dimensions, but rugged terrain requires the
three-dimensional approaches of the roads industry, and careful planning of earthworks. The engineered
spoil tip approach that we have come to favour requires the advance location, sizing and licensing of
stable engineered tip sites, as part of this planning.
47
Fig. 31 Earthworks management – examples of spoil management strategies
Extracts from “Performance management for site restoration in rugged terrain”, by M Sweeney, A
Gasca, RPC Morgan and J Clarke, in Int. Conf. on “Terrain and geohazard challenges facing onshore oil
and gas pipelines”, London June 2004, pub Thomas Telford Ltd, p 687-700.
48
Table 2 Earthworks on mountain pipelines – spoil management strategies
49
6.2.6.3 Trafficability
As part of the ROW design, it is necessary to consider the ability of construction vehicles to travel and
operate on the right of way. When the ground is soft, vehicle “trafficability” can be reduced or prevented
completely. This problem is of prime importance as it can affect dramatically the construction cost and
schedule or even lead to a change of pipeline route.
Special equipment might be needed (e.g. low ground pressure vehicles, mats) and special requirements
(e.g. time of construction, drainage of groundwater) might need to be considered. For example, in
tropical countries, it might be necessary to build the pipeline during the dry season when rainfall is
lowest, and the soil is hardest. On the contrary, in permafrost, it might be necessary to construct during
the winter when the ground is frozen and has a higher bearing capacity.
Construction vehicles can get immobilised on soft terrain in different ways. First, a vehicle can simply
sink in the ground at rest if the soil bearing capacity is too low, i.e. the soil simply does not provide
sufficient vertical resistance (Fig. 32-a). Once the wheels or tracks of a vehicle are sunk, the vehicle has
to climb a very steep local slope and will often be stuck since the soil often does not provide enough
traction resistance. Second, insufficient horizontal resistance leads to a reduced or nil mobility (Fig. 32-
b). Enough traction resistance should be available to overcome the combined resistance of the
following.
• soil
• slope
• vegetation
• obstacles
Third, slipping of the wheels or tracks as the vehicle moves causes the so-called slip-sinkage effect
which causes a vehicle to sink gradually as it advances (Fig. 32-c). However tires running in an existing
rut can benefit from the pre-compaction of the soil which reduces the slip-sinkage. This is known as the
multipass effect (Fig. 32-d).
Fig. 32 Tire-soil interaction. (a) Sinkage at rest. (b) Horizontal resistance. (c) Slip-sinkage.
(d) Multipass effect
(a) (c)
(b) (d)
50
Adhesion of soil between ruts can also lead to a dramatic decrease in traction resistance and should
therefore be assessed whenever the soil exhibits high cohesion.
The mobility of construction vehicles has to be assessed both on the original pristine ground but also
after remoulding by traffic which can dramatically reduce trafficability. Hence it might be possible for
vehicles to cross a patch of terrain a “few” times but not more. The sensitivity of the soil to remoulding is
often expressed as the ratio of the undisturbed and remoulded compressive strengths:
q undisturbed
St = q remoulded
Besides the ability to perform earthworks for the pipeline construction at hand, care should be taken to
minimise the environmental impact and avoid damage to nearby buried pipelines which might not be
able to bear the pressure of construction vehicles. Notable methods for estimating trafficability are listed
below.
• Methods based on Bekker’s work rely on the plasticity theory and soil friction and cohesion
factors. These are complex but nevertheless empirical. They are proven to work well and are
often used to develop new vehicles or elaborate new soil models.
• Newtonian methods are relatively new, hence not proven in the field. They are the subject of
modern research but are not yet used in practice.
• WES methods were developed by the US Army waterways experiment station (WES) and are
based on soil penetration resistance and wheel numerics. They provide a simple “go” or “no-go”
verdict using a single field measurement: the cone index (CI). Like Bekker’s, the WES method is
extensively field-proven.
The original WES method is exposed in the NATO Reference Mobility Model (NRMM) which was
developed by the US Army during World War II. The full model makes use of the following parameters to
assess soil trafficability.
• Cone index
• Soil type
• Stickiness, slipperiness
• Vehicle characteristics
The full model also allows to calculate an estimate of a vehicle “speed made good” and of its power
efficiency. A simplified version of the NRMM is often used to produce only a go/no-go verdict. It makes
use of the cone index (CI), the remoulding index (RI) which characterises the behaviour of the soil after
remoulding by traffic, and the vehicle cone index (VCI) which has to be determined for every type of
vehicle. Reference documents listing the VCI of typical construction vehicles are widespread.
Assessment of trafficability should make use of a proven technique but also of sensible engineering
judgement regarding parameters like slipperiness (snow, ice), slopes, obstacles, vegetation, etc. Other
factors also have to be taken into account, e.g. damage to the environment, damage to adjacent
pipelines, building foundations, overhead power lines etc.
The ROW trafficability conditions should be examined before the ROW route is finalised. Complex tire-
soil interaction (e.g. multipass effect, slip-sinkage) can sometimes determine whether vehicles will be
operable or not on soft ground, hence a detailed trafficability analysis is essential whenever conditions
seem critical (Fig. 33).
51
Fig. 33 Soil trafficability
(a) Pipeline laying in wet soil
(b) Excavators which sunk due to poor soil conditions.
52
6.2.7 Dewatering
6.2.7.1 General
Removal of ground water in the trench is required for different reasons. First dewatering is necessary to
be able to excavate a flat, smooth, and stable bottom to lay the pipe. Furthermore, a dry soil is needed
during installation to ensure a firm stable foundation. Groundwater movement can also cause material to
run off from under the pipe, which could then bend under its own weight as could be unevenly
supported. Groundwater removal is also necessary to allow safe and convenient access to the workers
who will often perform various tasks in the trench such as inspecting, welding, coating, or repairing.
Pipeline buoyancy can also be a problem if water accumulates at the bottom of the trench (Fig. 34).
Migration of fine materials (“fines”) in or out of the pipe zone can result in loss of pipe support and must
be prevented. This can be accomplished through the use of waterstops or geofabrics.
Water should be removed from the trench before final grading of the bedding. The trench should be kept
dry during all phases of pipe installation. This can be done in several ways:
• Over-excavate the trench bottom and fill with crushed stone or other angular material to provide
a French drain under the pipe. This drain will carry the water to interceptor sumps where it can
be pumped away
• The groundwater table can also be lowered with well points wherever soil conditions permit.
They should be located at intervals dictated by soil properties and placed reasonably close to
the trench walls. They should be sunk to a depth below the elevation of the trench bottom.
Several well points can be joined together to be handled by one pump
• In some cases the trench dewatering system may consist of a geotextile in addition to open-
graded crushed rock. Fine sands in a fluctuating water table environment are vulnerable to
foundation problems and may require a geotextile encapsulation of the drain
Depending on the nature of the soil, the water might contain a lot of silt. Special measures have to be
taken in that case such as the use of specialised pumps or filter sumps.
Removing the water from the trench is only half of the problem: the water has to be carried and
disposed of. For this, permits from authorities may have to be obtained. It is also necessary to perform
an analysis of the extracted water to ensure it will not contaminate its disposal area.
Fig. 34 Groundwater in pipeline trench (requiring buoyancy control)
53
6.2.7.2 Wellpointing
Sub-ground dewatering or wellpointing is a method of controlling or lowering the level of sub-ground water.
When faced with having to excavate below the existing sub-ground water level the simplest and most cost-
effective method would be to deploy a wellpoint system. In modern practice wellpointing is considered most
suitable for relatively shallow excavations up to 6.5 metres deep in stratified soils, especially where the water
table must be lowered very near to an underlying bed of clay or impermeable rock.
Wellpoint systems typically consist of the following (Fig. 35):

• A small diameter pipe (known as a riser pipe) fitted with a fine filter (wellpoint filter) this filter prevents
fines entering into the system and being removed from the ground in the pumped water
• This riser pipe would be connected above ground to a flexible pipe via a control valve to the
header pipe which in turn connects to the suction connection of a specialist vacuum wellpoint
pump
• The discharge side of the wellpoint pump is connected via the discharge pipe to a settlement
tank (which further collects any fines) and then on through the discharge pipe to the discharge
point
• Once the pump is switched on it creates a vacuum and pulls water out of the ground thus
lowering the sub-ground water level and pumps the water to the designated discharge point
• The wellpoints are jetted into the ground using a high-pressure water pump (jetting pump)
delivering water down a steel tube (jetting tube) to a maximum working depth of 6.5 metres
• The wellpoint filter and riser pipe are installed, along with a granular filter pack to aid drainage,
and then connected to the system
Wellpoint systems are very effective in a wide range of soils from fine silty sand to coarse gravels. Single
stage wellpoint systems are used to a maximum depth of 6.5 metres. For deeper excavations twin stage
wellpoint systems can be deployed.
The equipment used falls into two categories the above-ground equipment which can be reused and is
usually hired or rented; and the equipment below ground (risers and filters) which are normally regarded
as disposable items and as such are sold to the customer. The pumps that are required for wellpointing
duties are critical to the efficiency of the system and must have excellent air handling and air separation
capabilities. As such they are regarded as specialised units.
If well pointing is implemented, a location to dispose of the water must be found and appropriate
permits must be obtained.
Fig. 35 Wellpointing
54
6.2.7.3 Water run-off control

Installing an interceptor drain (Fig. 36-left) allows water flow and prevents material from running off from
under the pipe. It is a gravel trench that is excavated into a relatively impermeable soil layer and installed
to collect and remove groundwater as it flows across the impermeable layer. The trench is typically
placed across a contour of a slight to moderate sloping area to intercept groundwater to prevent it
influencing slope stability. Generally, trenches are constructed 2-3 feet wide and are lined with a quality
geotextile that does not clog. There is a 1-2 foot overlap of the geotextile above the gravel and below
the backfill in the trench. Alternatively, a French drain (Fig. 26 right) can be installed. It is a ditch covered
with gravel or rock that redirects surface and groundwater away from an area.
In order to prevent rainwater from running off in slopes during construction and create the same
problems as groundwater (See Section 6.2.2.7.1), some measures should be taken in regions where
such problems could arise. Fig. 37 shows trench breakers placed at regular intervals in a slope.
Fig. 36 Interceptor drain (left) and French drain (right).
Fig. 37 Water run-off control with trench breakers.
55
6.2.7.4 Buoyancy
During construction, the pipe is filled with air. If the wall thickness to pipe diameter ratio is low (typically
for large diameters), the pipeline can be lighter than water and therefore float, making the pipe laying
impossible. If dewatering is not possible, buoyancy control is achieved by adding weight to the pipe
(concrete, sandbags, slabs) or by anchoring the pipe to the ground at regular intervals.
6.2.8 Backfilling
6.2.8.1 General
Once the trench has been excavated and water has been extracted, backfilling can commence as
proper bedding needs to be put in place before the pipe can be laid. The terminology for various parts of
a trench is shown in Fig. 38. Once the bedding is in place, the pipeline is installed. The upper bedding
and the sidefill can then be installed by workers. Finally the main backfill can be applied in lifts with
minimal direct intervention by workers. The layers can be made of different materials and the main
backfill itself can be composed of several layers of different materials. This would allow, for example,
using fine soil close to the pipe not to damage it, and coarser soil on top.
It is crucial for all the backfill layers close to the pipe to be carefully installed as the soil settlement
caused by the load of the main backfill could lead to excessive pressure on the pipe, which would then
deform and become oval. Excavators often have to observe a maximum soil drop height to avoid
damaging the pipe.
Fig. 38 Pipe trench installation terminology
6.2.8.2 Backfill material

If the in-situ soil is not suited for the backfilling operation, it might be necessary to import soil. For this,
permits have to be obtained from the relevant authorities and a location has to be found to dispose of
the excavated soil. In-situ material can sometimes be crushed and screened to then be used as backfill.
The selection of a suitable backfill material is made according to the following criteria.
• Nature of the soil (cohesion, permeability)
• Granulometry (presence of rocks, clods, or boulders and abrasion properties)
• Density
• Suitability to compaction by normal methods
56
The financial, environmental, social and logistical problems associated with the importation of selective
bedding and backfill materials has contributed to the drive to introduce coatings which minimise the use
of imported materials. Examples of the problems associated with the importation of selective bedding
and backfill materials are
• The high material costs
• The cost of removing excess spoil from site
• Aggregate taxes
• Damage to roads and the environment
• Local disruption and adverse public relations
• Inaccessibility
The alternative to importing backfill is to employ crushing and screening equipment to process
indigenous spoils. This alternative has become common on many construction projects and has
overcome many of the problems associated with laying pipe in difficult ground conditions and the
expense of removing excess spoil from site.
6.2.8.3 Coating interaction

In some cases, the type of pipe coating has to be matched to the selected type of backfill material to
avoid damage to the coating due to rock penetration or excessive abrasion. Additional protective
measures can be used to protect the pipe such as using geotextiles (see Section 6.2.8.9) to separate a
layer of fine material around the pipe from a layer of coarser material on top (generally denser and/or
cheaper).
A conservative approach is often taken in the selection of bedding and backfill materials used to create
the pipeline habitat, particularly in a trench containing many rock outcrops or a high percentage of flint.
A detailed assessment of the interaction between the coating system and the backfill can lead to a
relaxation of the bedding and backfilling requirements, hence decreasing the costs.
On one hand, processing of spoils on site, or the importation of selective materials to create a suitable
habitat around the pipe is extremely expensive and can be impractical in more remote locations. On the
other hand, multilayer (3-layer polyethylene, 3LPE) coating systems that may limit the use of processed
or imported materials are more expensive than their thin film (fusion bonded epoxy, FBE) counterparts.
Cost savings may accrue if the higher cost of the coating system is counterbalanced by the savings
associated with the following:
• A reduction in the amount of coating damage sustained during transportation, handling and
construction
• A reduced requirement for imported or site-processed bedding and backfill to create the
pipeline habitat
• A reduction in the amount of indigenous material requiring removal from site due to importation
of selective material
Early consideration of geotechnical conditions in coating selection and backfill design can prove
beneficial technically, environmentally and economically as illustrated in the figures below. Fig. 39a
compares the cost of importing bedding and backfill (and removing spoil from site) for varying
percentages of a 100 km, 610 mm diameter pipeline, and hence the potential cost saving associated
with reducing the amount of imported material employed. Fig. 39b shows the same comparison but for
processed bedding and padding in the case of the FBE coating. It has been assumed in this
assessment that an FBE coating would always require imported or processed material for bedding and
backfilling in adverse ground conditions, and that the 3LPE coating would be capable of being bedded
and backfilled in indigenous spoil.
57
Fig. 39 Cost associated with bedding and padding
(a) Cost associated with using imported materials for bedding

and padding for a 24” 100 km pipeline.
(b) Cost associated with using site-processed materials
The economic viability of a more expensive coating depends on being able to recover the increased
application costs through a reduction in the amount of imported or site-processed bedding and backfill
required to prepare the pipeline habitat. An early study is therefore essential to optimize the technical
solution as well as minimise the costs.
58
6.2.8.4 Rock excavation

When it is necessary to dig a trench in rocky soil, two solutions exist: rock trenching using specialised
equipment and blasting with explosives (Fig. 40). Blasting is commonly used because of its cheap cost
and speed of operation but the excavated trench is irregularly sloped and requires greater excavation
efforts. Furthermore, irregular trench walls resist compaction. Specialised rock trencher machinery is
available and produces high quality trenches albeit at a greater cost.
Fig. 40 Rock blasting
6.2.8.5 Types of bedding

When an imported bedding material is used, the bottom of the trench should be over-excavated. The
proper amount of bedding material is then added to achieve the final grade. The bedding material may
be crushed stone or other angular material placed on the trench bottom or by using the natural material
providing it is properly compacted. The depth of the material should be at least one-eighth of the pipe
diameter but in no case less than 4 inches. The bottom of the excavated trench must be firm, even, and
stable to provide uniform support.
6.2.8.6 Trench foundation

When the bottom of the trench is not sufficiently stable or firm to prevent vertical or lateral displacement
of the pipe after installation, the first step is to develop a non-yielding supplementary foundation for the
pipe, irrespective of other bedding requirements. Supplementary foundations may be of various types to
provide an adequate and non-yielding base (e.g. made of concrete).
6.2.8.7 Initial backfill/coating damage

Initial backfilling takes place after the pipe has been installed according to the engineering specifications.
The initial backfill extends from the bedding material, up the sides of the pipe, to a level approximately
12 inches over the top of the pipe. The initial backfill should be carefully placed as soon as possible to
maintain proper pipe alignment and to protect the pipe. This material should free from large stones or
clods. The bedding or initial backfill should be sliced under the "haunches" of the pipe to fill the voids
and consolidate the material in this area. This assures uniform support of the pipe. (Fig. 41). Backfilling in
lifts should be done when the bedding material is no higher than about one quarter of the pipe diameter
if it is to be effective.
59
Multi-layer pipeline coatings such as dual powder systems and 3-layer HDPE have been shown to
provide superior resistance to damage, both accidental damage during handling and transportation and
resistance to the increased loads arising from the use of larger trench backfill.
Fig. 41 Pipe bedding
6.2.8.8 Final backfill

The final backfill extends from the initial backfill to the top of the trench. Final backfill shall be placed in
lifts of typically 300 mm. No rocks or stones should be present in the final backfill within one meter of the
top of the pipe. Selected backfill material may be required for the top 300 mm or more as specified by
the engineer. Usually a front end loader or a bulldozer is used to push the spoil bank into the trench at
an angle so that impact on the pipe zone is minimized. The surplus material should be stored over the
trench. After the compression (after approx. four weeks) the remaining surplus material will either be
spread out on the working strip or removed from the construction site to a material disposal site.
6.2.8.9 Geotextiles
Crushed rock or other coarse aggregate is recommended and used as a bedding material to improve the
load bearing capacity of pipe. Deeper layers of these materials have been employed to stabilize the base of
the trench. Loss of pipe support can occur when open-graded materials are used on sites having fine to
medium sands at the base of the trench and a water table which fluctuates rapidly in the pipe zone. This is
caused by water moving rapidly through the fine to the coarse material and carrying the fine sands with it. To
prevent movement of the fine sands into the voids of the open-graded bedding material, the material can be
encapsulated in a geotextile material. Geotextiles are also used to prevent damage to the pipe from pebbles
or rocks which might migrate from another layer of the backfill (Fig. 42).
Fig. 42 Controlling migration of bedding material with geofabric
60
6.2.8.10 Compaction
Soil compaction can be required for different reasons. To prevent soil settlement due to over-ground
traffic, a high level of compaction is needed, especially at road crossings. Compaction also increases the
pipeline restraint and is therefore often necessary to avoid burying the pipeline too deep, especially in
side-bends and over-bends where the restraint needs to be highest.
When it is necessary to achieve a high degree of compaction, it may be advisable for the design
engineer or contractor to consult a geotechnical engineer. Success in the mechanical compaction of
backfills is entirely dependent upon the control exercised during this operation. The selection and use of
suitable compaction equipment must be made with care so that the pipe will not be disturbed or
damaged. Pneumatic tampers, vibratory pads (hand-held and walk-behind) and self-propelled trench
compactors are specifically designed for this work. Extreme care should be taken when using heavy
mechanical equipment such as sheepsfoot rollers, dozers and loaders. Most soil materials may be
compacted by mechanical means in lifts. However, it is necessary to determine if the field moisture
content is in the optimum moisture range in order to obtain the desired compaction with normal
compactive effort. If the soil permits, adequate compaction may be obtained by careful water flooding
as discussed in the following section.
Proctor tests provide curves like the one shown in Fig. 43. They allow the maximum density of a soil to
be quantified as a function of water content. Achieving a 100% Proctor compaction level would equate
to being on the horizontal dashed line shown in Fig. 43. It is not uncommon to require 90-95% Proctor
density for sensitive pipelines prone to upheaval, or when the design requires a fully-restrained system.
Fig. 43 Maximum compaction Vs. water content.
Poor compaction and weight of soil on pipe can cause the pipe to ovalise over time due to poor side
support, and introduce ovalisation bending stresses in the pipe. A typical percentage pipe deflection
over time for a range of compaction densities is shown in Fig. 44.
61
Fig. 44 Deflection of pipe due to compaction
6.2.8.11 Water compaction

The water method of compaction, known as flooding or jetting, when conducted in lifts, produces
supersaturation of the backfill material, which, for any given soil, will produce a degree of consolidation
that can be predicted with reasonable accuracy. The desired range of compaction can be obtained with
water in native granular or sandy materials which would include most sandy and silty soils and even
those with some clay content. However, materials which are predominantly clay cannot be satisfactorily
compacted by supersaturation because of cohesion and low permeability of the soil. Water jetting
should not be allowed to disturb the initial backfill or the bedding which can result in pipe displacement
or damage.
6.2.8.12 Compaction abuse

The selection and use of suitable compaction equipment must be made with care so that the pipe will
not be disturbed or damaged. A falling weight "stomper" or drop hammer should never be used for
compacting even with a substantial cover over the pipe. These impact devices can damage the pipe
and/or force it out of alignment.
6.2.8.13 Compaction measurement

Compaction is typically calculated by comparing the measured soil density to the maximum soil density
for a given level of moisture content. The most reliable method to measure density and water content is
to extract a sample and carry it to a laboratory. A nuclear density gauge (Fig. 45) provides an alternative
which has the advantage of providing immediate readings, albeit of a lower precision.
62
Fig. 45 Nuclear density gauge to measure soil density.
6.2.8.14 Berming
Two reasons motivate the building of a berm on a right of way. On one hand, it provides an easy way of
locating the exact pipeline location for maintenance and/or repair purposes, and helps reduce accidental
third-party damage by providing a clear indication of the pipeline’s location. A typical bermed pipeline is
shown in Fig. 46. On the other hand, a berm can be used as additional cover to restrain the pipeline.
Fig. 46 Berm on a pipeline ROW
63
Fig. 47 Lateral pressure at bends
Looking at Fig. 47, a berm can be placed on the outside of a bend to strengthen the soil in the direction
of the slip surface and increase lateral restraint. Capping (typically 300 mm thick) is normally applied to
avoid erosion from wind and rain.
64
Appendix 6.3
Environmental Control Measures
65
66
Conditions of Environmental Justification Mitigation
Excavation Considerations
All Habitats Erosion of Soil strata should be kept Top and sub-soil must be stored separately to preserve the seed bank for reinstatement purposes.
stored soils by separate to avoid cross- If the soils are to be stored for a long period of time, they must be re-seeded or protected by silt
wind/water must contamination and loss of fencing or stock pile berms and geo-jute matting to aid reinstatement and prevent any soil
be minimised the seed bank for erosion/loss.
reinstatement purposes. The topsoil, normally stored on the right of the running track, must not exceed 2m in height to
Soils stored for long prevent degradation of the soil structure. Subsoil comprising the excavated trench material are
periods of time may also stored separate from the topsoil to preserve the integrity of the soil structures and ensure
be subject to erosion. successful reinstatement of the pipeline spread.
Soil erosion There is the potential for Trench plugs or shuttering can be installed along certain intervals of the trench vulnerable to
within trench erosion within the trench erosion to help support the sides of the open trench, allowing the free flow of people/traffic along
slope leading to trench the adjacent running track. If soil erosion is likely to lead to trench collapse during the lower-and-lay
collapse. exercise then trench boxes must be installed at vulnerable locations to prevent this happening.
Installation of trench plugs and in-trench drainage on slopes as erosion can continue after
backfilling if the trench becomes a preferred path for groundwater or seepage leading to tunnelling,
cavitations and collapse of backfill.
Weeds/alien/inva There is the potential for Where there are known invasive species, they should be dealt with according to industry best
sive species and mixing and contamination practice and disposed of as set out in any statutory guidelines. Contaminated soils must be stored
contaminated of alien/invasive species separately from any uncontaminated soil, and stored prior to disposal or treatment on an
soils through soil excavation impervious membrane to prevent mixing or leaching in the host area.
and top-soil stripping. Minimise the time for topsoil storage.
Weed control should be considered where alien species are identified or weeds are likely to create
a problem in adjacent areas (to be used in accordance with instructions).
Separate and store topsoil adjacent to spread for reinstatement.
Post construction monitoring to ensure reinstatement is successful and control excessive weed
growth.
All Habitats Pests and Potential for air, soil and Particular attention should be given to the individual landowner biosphere. Soils from within animal
diseases other vector-transmitted disease affected areas must be stored separately from uncontaminated areas/fields and must not
pests and diseases being be moved from one area/field to another.
transmitted along the Advice should be sought from local agricultural and vetinary specialists.
pipeline route Wheel washing and protective clothing may be required in some areas.
Care to be taken with construction workforce hygiene to avoid spread of plant and animal
diseases.
Statutory Construction activities Contractors must ensure that they adhere to and comply with the legal requirements for the
designated have the potential to protection of wildlife and habitats. Particular attention must be made to those commitments
areas/protected impact/destroy habitats detailed in the environmental statement/impact assessments and approved method statements,
species/ and the associated flora applicable planning conditions and/or licence conditions.
vulnerable & fauna. Disturbance to A policy of no hunting/fishing/gathering to be implemented and rigorously enforced.
habitats nesting birds and New access roads may provide access to previously inaccessible protected areas and precautions
breeding wildlife at certain should be put in place to prevent unauthorised persons using the access roads (e.g. install security
times of the year or posts or locked gates).
impact of areas of
ecological importance.
Drainage Water may build up in the All relevant consents must be obtained from appropriate agencies before any trench de-watering is
trench in heavy rainfall or carried out.
from ingress of The use of sediment traps or water treatment/filtering methodologies should be used to ensure
groundwater from that there is no pollution of water bodies. Where practicable and with the consent of the owners
surrounding water table. discharge to neighbouring fields via silt buster and filtered through a series of sediment traps. All
severed land drains to be re-connected across the pipeline spread.
67
68
All Habitats Noise Noise can be a nuisance Machinery should be checked to ensure it is working efficiently and working hours agreed with
to local populations and local environmental health officers (or equivalent) so as not to cause unnecessary disturbance.
cause disturbance to Where there are statutory guidelines for the control of noise on construction sites these must be
wildlife. adhered to. Ambient noise levels should be recorded at noise sensitive locations prior to
commencement of the pipeline construction works and again as various construction activities
likely to cause a problem take place.
Storage of Possible soil/watercourse Fuel tanks and oils stored on site should be bunded and stored away from sensitive areas. Spill kits
fuels/oil, refuelling contamination from should be readily available throughout the construction area carried by vehicles, and particularly
of vehicles and fuel/oil leakages. where a mobile plant is located and employees trained in their use and application.
plant.
Temporary Such as neighbouring Consultation should be held with relevant landowner, land users and local communities to agree a
obstruction of land, access tracks etc diversions or alternative access points.
other land users Fencing or suitable arrangements should be made where animals are kept in adjacent land.
Protection of Nearby watercourses Vehicles/machinery should not be re-fuelled within specified distances of any watercourses, wells
watercourses have the potential to be or source protection zones.
from pollution. contaminated by fuel or Fuel and chemicals (such as bentonite or polymers) to be stored outside the specified distances of
chemical spills. any watercourses, wells or source protection zones.

Increased turbidity due to Route all right of way drainage away from watercourses and ensure adequate means of sediment
run-off from right of way settling and filtration prior to discharge near watercourses.
can pollute rivers. Schedule open cut crossings of rivers at time of lowest sensitivity (i.e. outside of
breeding/spawning periods), impose time limits on construction of sensitive river crossings and
maintain river flow across the construction area.
All Habitats Compaction Soil can become Bog mats (a series of connected wide sleepers, sourced from sustainable hardwoods) temporary
compacted through roads or trackway can be used on soft ground e.g. areas of peat/tree roots.
machinery tracking. Standard reinstatement procedures include sub-soiling or ripping to remove the compaction of the
working width prior to reinstatement.
Minimise access along the spread (use muster points and buses for moving staff to working areas).
Prevent driving off the right of way by ensuring an adequate number and suitable location of
access points and maintaining the right of way access roads (including the road along the ROW).
Energy efficiency Protection of local Policies relating to reuse, recycling and minimisation of the use of natural resources should be
and protection of resources implemented.
natural resources Consideration to be given to alternative use of materials in locations to minimise waste, transport
and use of natural materials (such as for skids, collection of stone for slope stabilisation,
translocation of vegetation, crushing excavated material for pipeline padding etc).
Local recycling programmes (i.e. timber).
Maintenance of machinery to ensure efficient running.
Use of local supply chain/employment where possible.
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All Habitats Reinstatement Reinstatement should Route surveys and preconstruction record of conditions should be undertaken.
endeavour to return the Reinstatement should endeavour to return the areas affected by pipeline construction to their
pipeline working width to original condition.
its original condition Reinstatement of sensitive ecological areas should be in accordance with agreements with relevant
authorities, the environmental statement. Conflicts with landowner’s requests for ‘improvements’ in
these areas should be carefully controlled.
Post-construction monitoring should be undertaken for a minimum of 2 years.
Operation of the pipeline should include land liaison and remediation specialists.
Translocation, seed collection, use of locally-sourced plant material, temporary plant nurseries and
seed suppliers to be in accordance with EIA, landowner and regulatory authorities requirements.
Replacement of subsoil and topsoil should match adjacent contours.
Installation of erosion control measures where required, such as geojute erosion control matting, to
enhance reinstatement on slopes or highly erodible soils.
Community Engage in local liaison Clear demarcation as to contractor and client responsibilities.
liaison during construction to Provision of liaison personnel to ensure that local communities, landowners and land users
advise on construction understand how the construction activities will affect them.
activity Agreement of mitigation measures and methods to be used for community liaison.
Engage local employees in the local community liaison process where possible.
Soft Soil Compaction Soil can become Bog mats (a series of connected wide sleepers, sourced from sustainable hardwoods) can be used
compacted through on soft ground e.g. areas of peat/tree roots.
machinery, people, Standard reinstatement procedures include removal of the bog mats followed by sub-soiling or
natural processes, e.g. ripping to remove the compaction of the working width.
rain where bare ground is In extreme wet conditions sections of the pipeline spread can be temporarily closed to prevent
left for long periods of compaction by vehicle movements along the running track, and re-opened once the surface has
time. dried out.
Prevent driving off the right of way by ensuring an adequate number and suitable location of
access points and maintaining the right of way access roads (including the road along the ROW).
Sand Dune Area Separation of Depending on the type of If a definite separate strata has been identified and logged this should be stored separately to
strata sand dune environment preserve the seed bank (if there is any present, particularly in stable dune valleys) for reinstatement
strata may need to be purposes. Because of the potential mobility of the excavated material it should not be stockpiled
kept separate to avoid for long periods, and the trench backfilled as soon as is practical after the lower and lay operation.
cross-contamination and Tie-in locations should always be guarded with trench boxes to prevent trench wall collapse.
loss of the species mix
for reinstatement
purposes. Stored material
will be subject to wind
erosion.
Flash flooding Flash floods can wash Pipeline routing should identify areas subject to potential flash flooding.
pipe, personnel and Construction in areas identified should be undertaken at times of low risk.
equipment away Equipment and pipe should not be stored in risk areas for longer than absolutely necessary
Dust generation Dust from the sand Dust generation should be kept to a minimum by restricting the movements of all vehicles along
dunes/desert has the the running track and strict speed restrictions for through site traffic. That traffic engaged with the
potential to impact on direct construction activities such as spread preparation, excavation, lower-and-lay should not
construction activities. generate too much dust in calm conditions.
Reinstatement Potentially sand is highly Recontour sand dune areas to as close as original contours as practicable, reinstating original
mobile and is difficult to drainage and watercourses.
reinstate. Consider sand stabilisation techniques during reinstatement such as erosion control materials.
Peat Area Dewatering of Potential to unbalance Appropriate water quality management plan and erosion control measures shall be adopted for
trench the integrity of the peat discharge water. Erosion protection may include water discharge flow dissipaters such as rock
area by dewatering riprap, geotextiles or straw bales.
isolated sections. Manage the discharge of silty water appropriately and provide filtration methods.
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Peat Area Drainage Potential for pipeline to Inert plugs can be placed at specified intervals along the trench to prevent poor drainage.
function as a field drain
and alter bog ecology.
Erosion Use of the ‘stone road’ Pipeline is laid within a stone road, provide support and a stable platform from which the machinery
method. can excavate the trench. It also reduces erosion and compaction.
Reinstatement Removal and Removal of vegetation (which stabilises the underlying peat) should be minimised (i.e. pipe trench
replacement of only). Consideration should be given to removal of turfs and laying temporary roads over existing
vegetation. vegetation (timely removal of the road is vital for successful reinstatement).
Turfs must be watered if they are being stored for considerable periods to avoid shrinkage, turfs
should not be stacked so as to avoid compaction and destruction of the seed bank.
Reinstate subsoil layers in original order when backfilling. Minimise amount of material imported
into the peat bog during backfilling or reinstatement.
Turfs stored in Turfs stored in a flood Turfs should not be stored above a maximum height away from flooding areas and should have
flood plain plain have the potential to gaps in between them to allow the free flow of water.
re-direct or block water
flow during a flood event.
Compaction Turfs can become Bog mats (a series of connected wide sleepers, sourced from sustainable hardwoods) can be used
compacted through on soft ground e.g. areas of peat/tree roots. Keep vehicle movement to a minimum and use low
machinery tracking. pressure ground vehicles where possible. Fencing can be put in place to prevent encroachment
and damage to bog outside working width. Ensure an adequate number and suitable locations of
access points and maintain the right of way access roads (including the road along the ROW).
Side Slope Erosion/Soil There is the potential for Trench plugs that prevent erosion can be installed along certain intervals of the trench, that allow
creep erosion within the trench the free flow of people/traffic and the exit of wildlife should it become trapped. The slope should be
and on the slope. graded to avoid soil slip/creep and maximise the use of existing planting to aid slope stabilisation.
Ensure an adequate compaction of backfill material during trench infilling.
Install in-trench drainage on slopes.
Swampy Areas Drainage Water may build up in the All relevant consents must be obtained from appropriate agencies before any trench de-watering is
trench in heavy rainfall carried out.
events. The use of sediment traps or water treatment/filtering methodologies will be used to ensure that
there is no pollution of water bodies.
Effect on ground Trenching may affect A relevant consent/licence must be sought in order to continue works.
water sites previously unknown
ground water locations.
Forested Areas Reduced working Working width is reduced A reduced working width to minimise damage to surrounding trees/roots will be required.
width to minimise impact on Machinery must be compact enough to work within reduced spaces without being unsafe. A
any trees, roots or general rule of thumb is that the roots extend to the edge of the canopy.
overhang. Where roots are cut there should be equivalent crown reduction to prevent water stress and long
term damage.
Consider additional space requirements for deep trenches or crossings where additional excavated
material may need to be stored.
Protected Construction activities Contractors should ensure that they adhere to method statements outlined as part of the EIA
species/ have the potential to regarding work within designated areas.
woodland disturb nesting or Disposal of wood arising from vegetation clearance should be in accordance with land agreements.
restrictions/ breeding wildlife at certain Canopy bridges to be considered in forestry areas where animal communities may not be able to
requirements times of the year or access feeding areas.
impact of areas of
ecological importance.
Reinstatement Access for pipeline Woodland topsoil to be stored and replaced following construction in accordance with agreements
operations and inspection and environmental requirements.
often require easement to Careful routing to avoid opening up permanent access routes through forests and minimise long
remain free of trees. term visual effects.
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Forested Areas Access Opening up cleared Restrictions to access to be implemented to prevent unauthorised logging, hunting, diseases etc
routes through forests being introduced to remote locations.
creates access.
Ridge Reduced working Narrow ridges require Provision for storage and replacement of excavated material needs to be carefully planned, side
width reduced working width casting can have large-scale visual effects.
and lack of space for
effective storage of
excavated material.
Reinstatement Reinstatement to original Reinstate as close as practicable to original contours.

contours may not be Consider recontouring adjacent land on the ROW to minimise visual impact.
possible. Install adequate drainage on cut side slopes to minimise erosion due to run-off and surface water.
Tundra Working in Seasonal restrictions to Thorough borehole investigation of pipeline route and a full assessment of the depth and extent of
permafrost zones working. permafrost pior to construction to determine the most effective construction period, construction
and reinstatement methods.
Modelling of permafrost effect on pipeline route and pipeline route on permafrost areas (e.g.
increased thaw as a result of heat generated from pipeline).
Consider chilling of oil/gas to minimise thaw.

Carefully consider the location of pump and compressor stations as they can alter the temperature
of the oil/gas being transported.
Reinstate subsoil layers in original order when backfilling, especially in wetland areas.
Ensure sufficient trench padding around pipe and consider the use of pipe supports within the
trench (i.e. sandbags).
Insulate areas/slopes that are unstable if thawed quickly with woodchips or other suitable
materials.
Install geotechnical monitoring at locations that become unstable when thawed.
Install monitoring for pipeline movement (i.e. heave).
Consider weighting pipe in permafrost areas where land heave may occur.
Appendix 6.4
Health and Safety Control Measures
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Soft Soil
Hazard Hazard description Control measures
Adverse weather Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. very hot or cold Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities. Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm
temperatures, high winds etc, and protection from the elements is limited. water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temperatures. Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes
Soil becoming unstable if very wet or dry and people/equipment being in direct contact with this. unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles. Lifting operations should cease
Cranes lifting during high winds. when the gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to continue.
Ambient temperature Extremes of temperature and the effect that it will have on personnel in the work area. Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities. Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm
Additionally the effect that it may have on the soil structure and stockpiling and the likelihood of the water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temperatures. Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes
soil becoming unstable. unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles.
Ground conditions Unstable conditions if very dry or very wet, which would apply equally to people in the work area, Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the trench edges/surfaces. The backfilling/soil stockpiles. Appropriate ground support to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work
access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the track is area, especially when carrying loads. Cranes to use outriggers during all lifting operations. Ground to be assessed by a competent person
unsupported and likely to move. prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being used for lifting heavy loads. Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress
Potential for the trench walls to become dislodged or erode. routes to their work areas to avoid any soil slippage areas. Appropriate compaction of trench walls or shuttering to be put in place to
prevent collapse of walls onto people in the area.
Confined space The trench itself may be identified as a confined space, especially if personnel are required to work Permit to work system may be used, only trained and competent personnel to enter the trench, all other personnel to be kept away/out of
within or near to the trench. the restricted area through use of fencing/barriers. Have appropriate emergency response plan in place and trained first aiders available.
Appropriate rescue equipment should also be located near to the work area.
Heavy load Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to the skids and then again into the trench. Potential Remove all excess personnel from the area and cordon off the lifting radius to remove unnecessary personnel and equipment. Only trained
for the skids to collapse or move unexpectedly, with personnel and other equipment in the area. and competent personnel to operate equipment and to be allowed access to work area.
Contact between the pipe-handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts. Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench is sufficiently
vehicles/machines in the area may be made if uncontrolled. Top soil and backfilling material which compacted to withstand additional weight. Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area. Ensure that
is stockpiled on either side of the trench and work area must be controlled due to potential contact stockpiles of backfill materials and top soil are appropriate in size e.g. have a wide enough base and not be so high that it would promote
with machines, personnel, equipment and wildlife. unnecessary slippage of soil – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiled materials or walking/working too close to
the base.
Illumination Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night-time activities may impact on operational Ensure that adequate lighting is put in place if working in hours or dusk or darkness – use of generators and tower lights as appropriate.
requirements; includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them. Remove any
machine operators not able to see signallers’/slingers’ instructions. excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area. Ensure that all personnel wear reflective stripes on coveralls, vests, hard hats etc.
Lifting Includes all lifting activities from trenching machines removing excess soil, pipe movement from All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be regularly inspected by third party (as per country requirements) and have appropriate certification
flatbed to skids to trench, crane and other machine operations. available. Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (including reporting any defects). Appropriate maintenance programme to be
The infilling process of the trench with backfill and topsoil and the interface between people, in place and used. Only use certified lifting equipment and tackle. Skids to be in place and constructed/positioned by trained and
materials and equipment. competent personnel prior to lifting. Taglines to be used on pipe ends, particularly when windy. All lifting activities to be co-ordinated by
slinger/signaller. Appropriate communications system to be in place between slinger/signaller, machine operators and any other relevant
personnel. Only lift with equipment that has an appropriate lifting capacity for the load – the SWL should be identified on the equipment.
Noise Generated from the machines and equipment on site. If personnel are working close to equipment Use of hearing protection if operators are not contained within sound-proof booths/cabins.
their hearing may be affected as a result. Additionally any machine/vehicle operator may be Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to determine if hearing protection is required to satisfy local legislative
impacted depending on the cab’s soundproofing. requirements or best practice. Silencers to be installed on equipment where possible e.g. compressors/generators etc. All equipment to be
inspected and regularly maintained to ensure excessive noise is not generated.
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Soft Soil
Pipe movement Through lifting from trucks, positioning on skids, transferring to trench and then positioning within Only limited personnel in the work area and suitable barriers to be in place to prevent unauthorised access.
the trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally personnel will be working in and around Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities. Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through
the pipe joint when positioning is taking place within the trench area, becoming susceptible to appropriate means (radio with separate channel).
being trapped or struck by the pipe joint. Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, compacted soil etc.
Pre-determined access/egress routes and appropriate communications on the details to all personnel.
Working at height Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or Any soil at the top or edges of the trench shall be compacted and free from loose areas/materials.
leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching machines, positioning pipe etc. Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs.
Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders.
Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as its surface may be slippery and the pipe may shift unexpectedly.
Use appropriate ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline as necessary.
Personnel not to be positioned inside trench when there are activities at the surface of the trench.
Fall arrest equipment to be used when deemed necessary by risk assessment and only to be used by trained, competent personnel.
Work equipment Lifting equipment, cranes, trenching machines, trucks and trailers, all hand tools, ladders, All work equipment shall be fit for purpose and shall be visually inspected and tested on a daily basis (normally by the operator), and any
generators, compressors etc.: all must be considered for any potential defects such as oil leaks, defects should be reported.
damaged cables, missing guards and contact with moving parts; be appropriate for the job/task All machines and lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right certification in place and
and be used correctly. available.
Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to be inspected daily by operators, and periodically by third-party inspectors.
Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to be in place and records kept.
Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc. to
prevent contact with chemicals.
Only trained and competent personnel to operate any equipment whether machines, cranes, grinders etc.
Only approved parts to be used when replacing items and to be fitted by trained, competent personnel.
Hazardous materials – personal Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc. to
exposure contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations. prevent contact with chemicals.
Exposure to dust when infilling the trench. Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers.
Only trained, competent personnel to dispense/refuel machines and equipment.
Appropriate waste receptacles to be available for contaminated PPE or rags.
Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill mat in case of spillage.
If very dry and excessive dust on roads, dust suppression to be in place e.g. water bowser.
RPE to be used if necessary.
Emergency response The location of the work area may be detrimental due to the time it may take to get medical Check all communication processes, radios between work groups, cell/satellite phone coverage to ensure that communications remain
assistance. available in the event of an emergency situation.
Have trained first aiders and/or medics with appropriate equipment available.
Check local facilities (hospitals) for quickest/safest route and be aware of time it takes to reach them.
Appropriate mode of transport for IP to nearest medical facility to be available and procedure in place at all times.
ERP drills to be regularly tested and documented identifying shortfalls – procedures to be updated to reflect findings.
Appropriate personnel to be trained in ERP functions and training to be kept up-to-date.
Repatriation of IP to suitable location – procedure to be in place and tested.
Impact with local community/area See noise above.

Restricted access/egress points or safe walk routes etc. to be identified.
Consider agricultural works in area and how pollution and contamination can affect the local businesses.
Wildlife Possible contact between workers and dangerous animals/plants. If in area with known dangerous animals/plants have appropriate warning systems in place and ensure that the ERPs are suitable and
Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by wildlife etc. consider the potential animal attacks.
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Sand Dune Area

Adverse weather Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. very hot/cold Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
temperatures, high winds etc. and protection from the elements is limited. Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in cold and non-iced water in high temperatures. Restricted
Sand becoming unstable if very dry and people/equipment being in direct contact with this. areas or access identified. Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or when the operator feels that
Cranes lifting during high winds. it is too dangerous to continue. Suitable PPE to be made available for the weather type to protect the employee from the elements e.g. sun
umbrellas etc.
Ambient temperature Extremes of temperature and the effect that it will have on personnel in work area. Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities. Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm
Additionally the effect that it may have on the sand structure and stockpiling and the likelihood of water recommended in cold and non-iced water in high temperatures.
the sand becoming unstable and shifting. Restricted areas or access identified if the sand is likely to be unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
backfilling/sand dunes.
Ground conditions Unstable conditions if very dry or very wet, which would apply equally to people in the work area, Restrict areas or access if the sand becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and backfilling/sand
crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the trench edges/surfaces. stockpiles. Appropriate ground support to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work area,
The access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the track is especially when carrying loads. Cranes to use outriggers with appropriate ground support underneath during all lifting operations. Ground to
unsupported and likely to move. be assessed by a competent person prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being used for lifting heavy loads, and appropriate
ground coverings to be put in place prior to accessing area. Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress routes to their work
areas to avoid any sand slippage areas or areas of potential encasement.
within or near to the trench. the restricted area through use of fencing/barriers. Use appropriate CSE equipment as deemed necessary. Have appropriate emergency
response plan in place and trained first aiders available. Appropriate rescue equipment should also be located near to the work area.
Heavy load Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to the skids and then again into the trench. Potential Remove all excess personnel from the area and cordon off the lifting radius to remove unnecessary personnel and equipment. Only trained
for the skids to collapse or move unexpectedly, with personnel and other equipment in the area. and competent personnel to operate equipment and to be allowed access to work area.
Contact between the pipe-handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts. Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench is sufficiently
vehicles/machines in the area may result if uncontrolled. supported to withstand additional weight. Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area. Have a “ready to lift”
Sand and backfilling material which is stockpiled on either side of the trench and work area must warning siren or similar in place. Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials and sand are appropriate in size e.g. have a wide enough base
be controlled due to potential contact with machines, personnel, equipment and wildlife. and not be so high that it would promote unnecessary slippage of sand – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiled
materials or walking/working too close to the base. Cover if appropriate.
Also see “confined space” above.
Illumination Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night-time activities may impact on operational Ensure that adequate lighting is put in place if working in hours or dusk or darkness – use of generators and tower lights as appropriate.
requirements; includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them. Ensure that
machine operators not able to see signallers’/slingers’ instructions. appropriate eye protection is worn in the event of excessive natural light to prevent being dazzled and burning to the eye. Remove any
Not being able to see due to the brightness of natural light. excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area.
Ensure that all personnel wear reflective stripes on coveralls, vests, hard hats etc.
Lifting Includes all lifting activities from trenching machines removing excess sand, pipe movement from All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be regularly inspected by third party (as per country requirements) and have appropriate certification
flatbed to skids to trench, crane and other machine operations. available. Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (including reporting any defects). Appropriate maintenance programme to be in
The infilling process of the trench with backfill and sand and the interface between people, place and used. Only use certified lifting equipment and tackle. Skids to be in place and constructed/positioned by trained and competent
materials and equipment. personnel prior to lifting. Taglines to be used on pipe ends, particularly when windy. All lifting activities to be co-ordinated by slinger/signaller.
Appropriate communications system to be in place between slinger/signaller, machine operators and any other relevant personnel.
Only lift with equipment that has an appropriate lifting capacity for the load – the SWL should be identified on the equipment.
Always use appropriate lifting tackle for the task.
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Sand Dune Area

their hearing may be affected as a result causing tinitus. Additionally any machine/vehicle operator Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to determine if hearing protection is required to satisfy local legislative
may be impacted depending on the cab’s soundproofing. requirements or best practice. Silencers to be installed on equipment where possible e.g. compressors/generators etc. All equipment to be
the trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally personnel will be working in and around Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities. Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through
the pipe joint when positioning is taking place within the trench area, becoming susceptible to appropriate means (e.g. radio with separate channel). Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, sand with
being trapped or struck by the pipe joint. appropriate ground supports etc. Pre-determined access/egress routes and appropriate communications on the details to all personnel.
Working at height Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or Any sand at the top or edges of the trench shall be cordoned and appropriate shuttering installed, and be free from loose areas/materials.
leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching machines, positioning pipe etc. Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs. Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing
access ladders. Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as its surface may be slippery and the pipe may shift unexpectedly. Use
appropriate ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline as necessary. Personnel not to be positioned inside trench when there are
activities at the surface of the trench.
Fall arrest equipment to be used when deemed necessary by risk assessment and only to be used by trained, competent personnel. Have a
suitable method of retrieving personnel from the trench in the event of an incident or being engulfed in sand.
generators, compressors etc.: all must be considered for any potential defects such as oil leaks, defects should be reported. All machines and lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right
damaged cables, missing guards and contact with moving parts; be appropriate for the job/task certification in place and available. Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to be inspected daily by operators, and periodically by third-
and be used correctly. party inspectors. Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to be in place and records kept. Spill kits to be available on site in case of
spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc. to prevent contact with chemicals.. Only
trained and competent personnel to operate any equipment whether machines, cranes, grinders etc. Only approved parts to be used when
replacing items and to be fitted by trained, competent personnel.
Hazardous materials – Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE (safety glasses or goggles) and RPE e.g. impervious
personal exposure contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations. gloves and suits etc. to prevent contact with chemicals. Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers. Only trained,
Exposure to sand being blown, potential for eye damage. competent personnel to dispense/refuel machines and equipment.
Appropriate waste receptacles to be available for contaminated PPE or rags. Chemicals to be used with drip tray/spill mat in case of
spillage. If very dry and excessive dust on roads, dust suppression to be in place e.g. water bowser.
Repatriation of IP to suitable location/country – procedure to be in place and tested.
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Peat Area
Adverse weather Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. high winds, Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
heavy rain etc. and protection from the elements is limited. Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temperatures.
Soil becoming unstable if very wet and people/equipment being in direct contact with this. Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
Cranes lifting during high winds. backfilling/soil stockpiles.
Trenches being waterlogged and machine/personnel access to this. Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to
continue.
Trenches to be drained of excess water.
Earth to have appropriate erosion protection in place to prevent unplanned movement of trench walls.
crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the trench edges/surfaces. backfilling/soil stockpiles.
The access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the track is Appropriate ground support to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work area, especially when
unsupported and likely to move. carrying loads. Cranes to use outriggers during all lifting operations.
Ground to be assessed by a competent person prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being used for lifting heavy loads.
Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress routes to their work areas to avoid any soil slippage areas.
within or near to the trench. the restricted area through use of fencing/barriers.
Have appropriate emergency response plan in place and trained first aiders available.
Heavy load Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to the skids and then again into the trench. Potential Remove all excess personnel from the area and cordon off the lifting radius to remove unnecessary personnel and equipment.
for the skids to collapse or move unexpectedly, with personnel and other equipment in the area. Only trained and competent personnel to operate equipment and to be allowed access to work area.
Contact between the pipe-handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts.
vehicles/machines in the area may be made if uncontrolled. Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench is sufficiently compacted to withstand additional weight.
Peat/turf stacks may be stacked too high, increasing the likelihood of the stack falling, thus coming Bog mats to be used for access/egress to the work area by all vehicles to improve stability of vehicles/machines and to help prevent tipping.
into contact with personnel and/or equipment. Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area.
work area must be controlled due to potential contact with machines, personnel, equipment and Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials and top soil are appropriate in size e.g. have a wide enough base and not be so high that it would
wildlife. promote unnecessary slippage of soil – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiled materials or walking/working too
close to the base.
Illumination Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night-time activities may impact on operational Ensure that adequate lighting is put in place if working in hours or dust or darkness – use of generators and tower lights as appropriate.
requirements; includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them.
machine operators not able to see signallers’/slingers’ instructions. Remove any excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area.
Ensure that any excessively boggy areas are marked appropriately to avoid contact in dull or dark conditions.
81
Peat Area
Lifting Includes all lifting activities from trenching machines removing excess turfs, pipe movement from All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be regularly inspected by third party (as per country requirements) and have appropriate certification
flatbed to skids to trench, crane and other machine operations. available.
The infilling process of the trench with peat turfs and the interface between people, materials and Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (including reporting any defects).
equipment. Appropriate maintenance programme to be in place and used.
Additionally the potential for the machines/cranes to become unbalanced, and their loads Only use certified lifting equipment and tackle.
dislodging due to soft ground conditions. Skids to be in place and constructed/positioned by trained and competent personnel prior to lifting.
Taglines to be used on pipe ends, particularly when windy.
All lifting activities to be co-ordinated by slinger/signaller.
Appropriate communications system to be in place between slinger/signaller, machine operators, and any other relevant personnel.
“stone road” or other suitable platform to be in place to provide suitable ground support for machines/vehicles.
impacted depending on the cab’s soundproofing. requirements or best practice.
Silencers to be installed on equipment where possible e.g. compressors/generators etc.
All equipment to be inspected and regularly maintained to ensure excessive noise is not generated.
the trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally personnel will be working in and around Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities.
the pipe joint when positioning is taking place within the trench area, becoming susceptible to Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through appropriate means (radio with separate channel).
Mud on road affecting trucks delivering pipe – may slide/slip if excess mud on road surface. Pre-determined access/egress routes and appropriate communications on the details to all personnel.
Put in place appropriate wheel wash stations for all vehicles to use prior to accessing public roads.
Working at height Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or The edges of the trench shall be free from loose areas/materials and appropriate “stone road” or similar be in place to aid stability and
leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching machines, positioning pipe etc. prevent unnecessary erosion.
Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs.
82
Peat Area
Hazardous materials – Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc. to
personal exposure contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations. prevent contact with chemicals.
Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers.
Impact with local community/area See noise above. See noise above.
Unauthorised access to working area by local community. Restricted access/egress points or safe walk routes etc. to be identified.
Potential pollution and contamination of agricultural crops which may enter the food chain. Consider agricultural works in area and how pollution and contamination can affect the local businesses.
Side Slope
Adverse weather Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. dry, high winds Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
or excessive rain etc. and protection from the elements is limited. Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temperatures.
Soil becoming unstable if very wet or very dry and people/equipment being in direct contact with Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
this. May cause landslides. backfilling/soil stockpiles.
Cranes lifting during high winds. Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to
continue.
Ambient temperature Extremes of temperature and the effect that it will have on personnel in the work area. Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
Additionally the effect that it may have on the soil structure and stockpiling and the likelihood of the Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temperatures.
soil becoming unstable. Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
backfilling/soil stockpiles.
83
Side Slope
crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the trench edges/surfaces. backfilling/soil stockpiles.
The access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the track is Appropriate ground support (bog mats) to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work area,
unsupported and likely to move. especially when carrying loads. Cranes to use outriggers during all lifting operations.
Dust likely to be generated in dry conditions causing slip hazards for machines and potential damage Ground to be assessed by a competent person prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being used for lifting heavy loads.
to health Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress routes to their work areas to avoid any soil slippage areas.
There may also be the remnants of tree roots etc. which could be a trip hazard to personnel or a Appropriate use of PPE/RPE (respirators, goggles/glasses).
collision point for vehicles/machines. All tree roots above the surface should be clearly identified through hazard tape/barriers etc. or removed where possible.
Contact between the pipe-handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other vehicles/machines Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts.
in the area may be made if uncontrolled. Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench is sufficiently compacted to withstand additional weight.
Top soil and backfilling material which is stockpiled must be controlled due to potential contact with Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area.
machines, personnel, equipment and wildlife, it may slip from its stored position. Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials and top soil are appropriate in size e.g. have a wide enough base and not be so high that it would
promote unnecessary slippage of soil – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiled materials or walking/working too
close to the base.
Illumination Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night-time activities may impact on operational requirements; Ensure that adequate lighting is put in place if working in hours or dust or darkness – use of generators and tower lights as appropriate.
includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, machine operators Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them.
not able to see signallers’/slingers’ instructions. Remove any excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area.
The infilling process of the trench with backfill and topsoil and the interface between people, Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (including reporting any defects).
materials and equipment. Appropriate maintenance programme to be in place and used.
Only use certified lifting equipment and tackle.
Skids to be in place and constructed/positioned by trained and competent personnel prior to lifting.
84
Side Slope
Working at height Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or Any soil at the top or edges of the trench shall be compacted and free from loose areas/materials.
leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching machines, positioning pipe etc. Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs.
This will also include personnel working towards the top of the work area and the potential for Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders.
slipping/sliding to lower level. Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as its surface may be slippery and the pipe may shift unexpectedly.
Hazardous materials – Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from refilling or leaks, Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc. to
personal exposure contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations. prevent contact with chemicals.
85
Side Slope
Impact with local community/area See noise on previous table. See noise on previous table.
Swampy Area
Adverse weather Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
e.g. very hot or cold temperatures, high winds, humidity etc. and protection from the elements is Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temperatures.
limited. Land becoming unstable if very wet/flooded and people/equipment being in direct contact with Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
this. backfilling/soil stockpiles.
Cranes lifting during high winds. Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to
continue.
Ambient temperature Extremes of temperature and the effect that it will have on personnel in the work area. Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
Additionally the effect that it may have on the soil structure and stockpiling and the likelihood of the soil Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temperatures.
becoming unstable. Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
Higher risk of biting, disease-ridden insects. backfilling/soil stockpiles.
Appropriate insect-based information, instruction and training to be given on appropriate behaviour, repellent, clothing colour, vaccinations,
treatment etc.
Ground conditions Unstable conditions if very wet, which would apply equally to people in the work area, crawler cranes, Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the trench edges/surfaces. backfilling/soil stockpiles.
The access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the track is Appropriate ground support (bog mats) to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work area,
unsupported and likely to move/equipment able to sink. especially when carrying loads. Cranes to use outriggers during all lifting operations.
Excess water build-up in trench area causing access concerns and emergency concerns should Ground to be assessed by a competent person prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being used for lifting heavy loads.
anyone fall in. Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress routes to their work areas to avoid any soil slippage areas.
Suitable drainage system/water removal system to be put in place to remove or control excess water within trench area. Personnel may
benefit from wearing life vests if working in close contact with deep or fast-running water.
86
Swampy Area
Contact between the pipe-handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts.
vehicles/machines in the area may be made if uncontrolled. Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench is sufficiently compacted to withstand additional weight.
Top soil and backfilling material which is stockpiled on either side of the trench and work area must Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area.
be controlled due to potential contact with machines, personnel, equipment and wildlife. Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials and top soil are appropriate in size e.g. have a wide enough base and not be so high that it would
Large capacity of water being removed from the trench is also a heavy load which may impact or promote unnecessary slippage of soil/materials – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiled materials or
affect personnel in work area or area of discharge. walking/working too close to the base.
Ensure that personnel are kept away from excess water levels through barriers and acceptable process of waste water removal and storage.
Illumination Poor illumination from dawn, dusk and night-time activities may impact on operational Ensure that adequate lighting is put in place if working in hours or dust or darkness – use of generators and tower lights as appropriate.
requirements; includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them.
machine operators not able to see signallers’/slingers’ instructions. Remove any excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area.
The infilling process of the trench with materials and the interface between people, materials and Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (including reporting any defects).
equipment. Appropriate maintenance programme to be in place and used.
87
Swampy Area
Working at height Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading Any soil at the top or edges of the trench shall be compacted and free from loose areas/materials.
edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching machines, positioning pipe etc. Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs.
Work equipment Lifting equipment, cranes, trenching machines, trucks and trailers, all hand tools, ladders, generators, All work equipment shall be fit for purpose and shall be visually inspected and tested on a daily basis (normally by the operator), and any
compressors etc.: all must be considered for any potential defects should be reported.
defects such as oil leaks, damaged cables, missing guards and contact with moving parts; be All machines and lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right certification in place and
appropriate for the job/task and be used correctly. available.
Appropriate tracks must be in place that can manoeuvre across swampy terrain without getting stuck.
Hazardous materials – Contact with diesel through refuelling process, hydraulic and pneumatic oils from Spill kits to be available on site in case of spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc. to
personal exposure refilling or leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations. prevent contact with chemicals.
Emergency response The location of the work area may be detrimental due to the time it may take to get medical assistance. Check all communication processes, radios between work groups, cell/satellite phone coverage to ensure that communications remain
available in the event of an emergency situation.
Appropriate personnel to be trained in ERP functions and training to be kept up to date – particular attention should be paid to waterborne
diseases, insect bites and water based injuries e.g. drowning.
88
Forested Area
Adverse weather Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
e.g. high winds etc. and protection from the elements is limited. Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temperatures.
Cranes lifting during high winds. Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
backfilling/soil stockpiles, damaged trees.
Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reaches 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to
continue.
Ground conditions Unstable conditions if very dry, very wet, and potentially not be free from obstruction Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
e.g. tree roots which would apply equally to people in the work area, crawler backfilling/soil stockpiles.
cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if working at the trench edges/surfaces. Removal of any surplus tree roots which will not further damage the forest area.
The access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the track is Appropriate ground support to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work area, especially when
unsupported and likely to move. carrying loads. Cranes to use outriggers during all lifting operations.
Excess mud being transferred to the public highway and causing slip hazards for Ground to be assessed by a competent person prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being used for lifting heavy loads.
work vehicles and general public. Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress routes to their work areas to avoid any soil slippage areas.
Suitable wheel wash station to be put in place to remove any excess mud/materials from wheels or area or appropriate diversion to be put in
place.
Confined space The trench itself may be identified as a confined space, especially if personnel are required to work within Permit to work system may be used, only trained and competent personnel to enter the trench, all other personnel to be kept away/out of
or near to the trench. the restricted area through use of fencing/barriers.
Also relates to the available work area being restricted in order to limit the impact on the forest. Have appropriate emergency response plan in place and trained first aiders available.
Machines to be of an appropriate size (compact) so as not to cause further or unnecessary damage to the forest or adversely impact
personnel sharing the work area.
Heavy load Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to the skids and then again into the trench. Potential for Remove all excess personnel from the area and cordon off the lifting radius to remove unnecessary personnel and equipment.
the skids to collapse or move unexpectedly, with personnel and other equipment in the area. Contact Only trained and competent personnel to operate equipment and to be allowed access to work area.
between the pipe-handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other vehicles/machines in the area Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts.
may be made if uncontrolled. Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench is sufficiently compacted to withstand additional weight.
Top soil and backfilling material which is stockpiled on either side of the trench and work area must be Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area.
controlled due to potential contact with machines, personnel, Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials and top soil are appropriate in size e.g. have a wide enough base and not be so high that it would
equipment and wildlife. promote unnecessary slippage of soil – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiled materials or walking/working too
Potential of trees to fall if dislodged during work activities or weakened coming into contact with people, close to the base.
plant, equipment etc. All trees in the surrounding work area to be monitored and checked to ensure they are of strong standing and rule out the likelihood of falling
unexpectedly.
includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, machine operators not Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them.
able to see signallers’/slingers’ instructions. Remove any excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area.
89
Forested Area
Lifting Includes all lifting activities from trenching machines removing excess soil, pipe movement from flatbed All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be regularly inspected by third party (as per country requirements) and have appropriate certification
to skids to trench, crane and other machine operations. available.
The infilling process of the trench with backfill and topsoil and the interface between people, materials Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (including reporting any defects).
and equipment. Appropriate maintenance programme to be in place and used.
Noise Generated from the machines and equipment on site. If personnel are working Use of hearing protection if operators are not contained within sound-proof booths/cabins.
close to equipment their hearing may be affected as a result. Additionally any machine/vehicle operator Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to determine if hearing protection is required to satisfy local legislative
may be impacted depending on the cab’s soundproofing. requirements or best practice.
Pipe movement Through lifting from trucks, positioning on skids, transferring to trench and then positioning within the Only limited personnel in the work area and suitable barriers to be in place to prevent unauthorised access.
trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally personnel will be working in and around the pipe Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities.
joint when positioning is taking place within the trench area, becoming susceptible to being trapped or Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through appropriate means (radio with separate channel).
struck by the pipe joint. Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, compacted soil etc.
Working at height Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading Any soil at the top or edges of the trench shall be compacted and free from loose areas/materials.
edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching machines, positioning pipe etc. Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs.
Tree felling at the preparation stage. Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders.
Confined work area which will increase the potential of impact between machines/personnel and trench Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to be inspected daily by operators, and periodically by third-party inspectors.
works. Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to be in place and records kept.
Appropriate equipment to be selected to suite the size of the work area but also the scope of activities.
90
Forested Area
If very dry and excessive dust on roads, dust suppression to be in place e.g. RPE to be used if necessary.
Ridge
Adverse weather Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions due to Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate cooling/heating facilities.
the open nature of the surroundings with limited protection e.g. high winds, torrential rain etc. and Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold and non-iced water in high temperatures.
protection from the elements is limited. Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
Soil becoming unstable if very wet or very dry and people/equipment being in direct contact with this. backfilling/soil stockpiles.
Cranes lifting during high winds. Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reach 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to
continue.
Ground conditions Unstable conditions if very dry or very wet resulting is potential landslide situation, Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading edges or trench and
which applies equally to people in the work area, crawler cranes, pipe delivery trucks, particularly if backfilling/soil stockpiles.
working at the trench edges/surfaces. Appropriate ground support to be put in place for crawler cranes and trucks to safely access and egress the work area, especially when
The access/egress routes to the specific work area also need to be considered if the access track is carrying loads. Cranes to use outriggers during all lifting operations.
narrow, has little space for vehicle manoeuvring. Ground to be assessed by a competent person prior to equipment/machines accessing area and being used for lifting heavy loads.
Tree roots and other items may cause uneven ground conditions for people and Personnel to be provided with clear access and egress routes to their work areas to avoid any soil slippage areas. Any tree roots/trunks to
vehicles. be removed where possible or clearly identified if no alternative.
Appropriate support mechanisms to be in place prior to any vehicular or personnel access to support the ridge sides and reduce slide
potential and ground to be suitably compacted – this also applies to backfill material and having appropriate barriers in place to prevent
slippage of materials.
91
Ridge
Confined space The trench itself may be identified as a confined space, especially if personnel are required to work within Permit to work system may be used, only trained and competent personnel to enter the trench, all other personnel to be kept away/out of
or near to the trench. the restricted area through use of fencing/barriers.
Heavy load Pipe being lifted from flatbed by crawler crane to the skids and then again into the trench. Potential for Remove all excess personnel from the area and cordon off the lifting radius to remove unnecessary personnel and equipment.
the skids to collapse or move unexpectedly, with personnel and other equipment in the area. Contact Only trained and competent personnel to operate equipment and to be allowed access to work area.
between the pipe-handling equipment, the pipe and personnel and other vehicles/machines in the area Slinger/signaller to be in place and to co-ordinate and control all lifts.
may be made if uncontrolled. Ensure the ground at the leading edge of the trench is sufficiently compacted to withstand additional weight.
Top soil and backfilling material which is stockpiled on either side of the trench and work area must be Never lift loads over anyone’s head or other equipment/vehicles in the area.
controlled due to potential contact with machines, personnel, Ensure that stockpiles of backfill materials and top soil are appropriate in size e.g. have a wide enough base and not be so high that it would
equipment and wildlife. promote unnecessary slippage of soil – ensure that personnel are prevented from climbing up stockpiled materials or walking/working too
Potential impact on neighbours, other vehicles and personnel in work area if for example, a pipe is close to the base.
dropped from the ridge area. Work area to be restricted access in order to minimise impact should any materials or equipment go over the edge of the ridge.
includes potential impact between equipment/machines, contact with personnel, machine operators not Ensure that lighting is not positioned in a manner that will cause a hazard to machine/crane operators by dazzling them.
able to see signallers’/slingers’ instructions. Remove any excess or unnecessary personnel from the work area.
Lifting Includes all lifting activities from trenching machines removing excess soil, pipe movement from flatbed All lifting equipment and lifting tackle to be regularly inspected by third party (as per country requirements) and have appropriate certification
to skids to trench, crane and other machine operations. available.
The infilling process of the trench with backfill and topsoil and the interface between people, materials Daily visual inspection to be completed by operator (including reporting any defects).
and equipment. Appropriate maintenance programme to be in place and used.
Noise Generated from the machines and equipment on site. If personnel are working Use of hearing protection if operators are not contained within sound-proof booths/cabins.
close to equipment their hearing may be affected as a result. Additionally any machine/vehicle operator Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to determine if hearing protection is required to satisfy local legislative
may be impacted depending on the cab’s soundproofing. requirements or best practice.
trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities.
personnel will be working in and around the pipe joint when positioning is taking Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through appropriate means (radio with separate channel).
place within the trench area, becoming susceptible to being trapped or struck by the pipe joint. Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, compacted soil etc.
92
Ridge
Working at height Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading Any soil at the top or edges of the trench and ridge shall be compacted and free from loose areas/materials.
edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching machines, working at the edge of the ridge Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs.
etc, positioning pipe etc. Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders.
Tundra
Adverse weather Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. very cold Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate heating facilities.
temperatures (-50C), high winds etc. and protection from the elements is limited. Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold temperatures.
Winter sees permafrost on the ground so solid underfoot, in summer the top layer of permafrost Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable during summer time, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading
melts which can make the ground soggy/slippery and people/equipment being in direct contact edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles.
with this. Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reach 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to
Cranes lifting during high winds. continue.
93
Ridge
Working at height Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface or leading Any soil at the top or edges of the trench and ridge shall be compacted and free from loose areas/materials.
edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching machines, working at the edge of the ridge Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs.
etc, positioning pipe etc. Soles of boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders.
Being attacked, bitten or affected otherwise by wildlife etc. consider the potential animal attacks
Tundra
Adverse weather Personnel and equipment coming into direct contact with extreme conditions e.g. very cold (-50C), Appropriate rest shelters to be in place with appropriate heating facilities.
high winds etc. and protection from the elements is limited. Regular access to liquids and food as appropriate – warm water recommended in extreme cold temperatures.
Winter sees permafrost on ground so solid underfoot, summer top layer of permafrost melts which Restricted areas or access identified if the soil becomes unstable during Summer time, keep unnecessary personnel away from leading
can make the ground soggy/slippery and people/equipment being in direct contact with this. edges or trench and backfilling/soil stockpiles.
Cranes lifting during high winds Lifting operations should cease when the gusting or wind strength reach 20mph or when the operator feels that it is too dangerous to
continue.
94
Tundra
Noise Generated from the machines and equipment on site. If personnel are working close to equipment their Use of hearing protection if operators are not contained within sound-proof booths/cabins.
hearing may be affected as a result. Additionally any machine/vehicle operator may be impacted Noise assessment to be completed in immediate work area to determine if hearing protection is required to satisfy local legislative
depending on the cab’s soundproofing. requirements or best practice. Silencers to be installed on equipment where possible e.g. compressors/ generators etc. All equipment to be
trench. See lifting and heavy load details. Additionally personnel will be working in and around the Slingers/signallers to co-ordinate any lifting activities. Open communications between each group of personnel in the work area through
pipe joint when positioning is taking place within the trench area, becoming susceptible to being appropriate means (radio with separate channel). Suitable and stable grounding to position pipe in new location e.g. skids, compacted soil
trapped or struck by the pipe joint. etc.
Working at height Any drop from or to a different level may potentially cause harm e.g. working at the surface Pre-determined access/egress routes and appropriate communications on the details to all personnel. Any soil at the top or edges of the
or leading edge of the trench, access or egress to cranes, trenching machines, positioning pipe etc. trench shall be compacted and free from loose areas/materials. Appropriate access/egress shall be made to machine/crane cabs. Soles of
boots should be free from muck or be scraped prior to climbing access ladders.
Avoid standing on pipeline or pipe being moved as its surface may be slippery and the pipe may shift unexpectedly. Use appropriate
ladders/man basket to access/egress pipeline as necessary. Personnel not to be positioned inside trench when there are activities at the
surface of the trench. Fall arrest equipment to be used when deemed necessary by risk assessment and only to be used by trained,
competent personnel.
compressors etc.: all must be considered for any potential defects such as oil leaks, damaged cables, defects should be reported. All machines and lifting equipment shall be inspected by a third party at appropriate intervals and have the right
missing guards and contact with moving parts; be appropriate for the job/task and be used correctly. certification in place and available. Only certified lifting tackle to be used and to be inspected daily by operators, and periodically by third-party
inspectors. Appropriate preventive maintenance programme to be in place and records kept. Spill kits to be available on site in case of
spillage, including any required additional PPE and RPE e.g. impervious gloves and suits etc. to prevent contact with chemicals. Only trained
and competent personnel to operate any equipment whether machines, cranes, grinders etc. Only approved parts to be used when replacing
items and to be fitted by trained, competent personnel.
personal exposure refilling or leaks, contact with any degreasers or cleaners used during the operations. prevent contact with chemicals. Refuelling to be done via diesel bowser or approved fuel containers. Only trained, competent personnel to
Exposure to dust when infilling the trench. dispense/refuel machines and equipment. Appropriate waste receptacles to be available for contaminated PPE or rags. Chemicals to be used
Increased levels of carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere is common in the with drip tray/spill mat in case of spillage. If very dry and excessive dust on roads, dust suppression to be in place e.g. water bowser. RPE to
arctic tundra, during the summer months, when permafrost melts – the levels would be used if necessary. Atmospheric testing to be completed periodically to test CO2 levels – appropriate RPE to be put in place as deemed
not be expected to be a hazard to personnel. necessary.
available in the event of an emergency situation. Have trained first aiders and/or medics with appropriate equipment available. Check local
facilities (hospitals) for quickest/safest route and be aware of time it takes to reach there. Appropriate mode of transport for IP to nearest
medical facility to be available and procedure in place at all times. ERP drills to be regularly tested and documented identifying shortfalls –
procedures to be updated to reflect findings. Appropriate personnel to be trained in ERP functions and training to be kept up-to-date.
95
7. Crossings
7.1 Trenchless Crossings
7.1.1 Cross Country Obstacles

In previous chapters open trench construction methods have been explained. Going forward for cross
country pipeline construction these methods are actually the most efficient and fastest pipeline
construction methods. But in most projects it will not be possible to trench the whole way. Hence, it is
highly likely that the pipeline will come across either surface or sub-surface obstacles along the route
that will require specialized construction techniques. Some types of possible obstacles range from:
• Rivers or coast line

• Traffic infrastructure (roads, railways)
• Logistic infrastructure (e.g. canals, other pipelines, electricity)
• Buildings
• Nature protection areas
• Pipeline security (climate - freezing/thawing ground, damages - other infrastructure,
impacts)
• Topography (inclination, mountain)
• Alignment design, depths
Each of these obstacles will have their own construction constraints including minimizing environmental
impact, pollution prevention, and minimizing disruption. Discussed below are some of the alternative
pipeline construction methods available to enable the pipeline to cross obstacles on the route in a safe
and environmentally acceptable manner.
7.1.2 Underground Construction Methods

Many of the existing construction methods have come from the tunnelling industry or were developed
initially for cable installation , but many of these methods are not always suitable for laying underground
pipelines especially when most of the upcoming projects have pipeline diameters of 42”or bigger. To give
a full overview the following chart lists the whole range of underground construction methods from small
to big diameters and for short or long under-ground crossings.
1
7.1.2.1 Overview of existing technologies
Most of the common technologies were developed for laying small diameter infrastructure over
short distances. For this reason the following chapters will focus on the yellow marked methods
which are suitable for most of the underground construction parts of pipeline construction
projects.
Additionally not all of these technologies are suitable for all underground conditions. At the
beginning of each underground project all project conditions have to be analyzed to find the
safest and most cost-efficient method. The following chapter presents the most important
decision criteria to decide which method is the best to keep the project in time and cost
frames.
2
Additional issues to be considered include:
Comment
• Minimizing disruption The disruption on the environment should be
reduced to a minimum. Disruption could be
sound, dirt, ground and air pollution etc.
• Crossing type and size Crossing of artificial infrastructure (streets, rails
etc.) or natural obstructions (rivers, special
topography etc.) require different regulations and
considerations.
• Both surface and sub-surface Various questions, including: Is there enough
surveys area to prepare construction-side?Is the
topography sufficient to prepare the pipeline??
• Pipeline design Has the pipe been adequately designed for the
construction conditions, or has it to be modified
regarding the chosen method? (e.g. is the pipe
wall thickness sufficient to perform a pipe jack
operation?)
7.1.2.2 Decision Criteria
Geology
Analyzing the soil investigation report provided by the client is always the very first step into an
underground construction project.
Note, however, that prior to developing the requirements of the soil investigation, the pipe
alignment must be developed taking into account the requirements of pipe stress, scour,
cavitation and obstacles, to ensure the full extent of the trenchless crossing is adequately
covered by the survey.
Soil properties have an impact on
Comment
• Cutting tools Soft and hard rock cutting tools are customized
to soil conditions and provide low wear and long
operating time.
• Material conveyance Depending on the soil condition different
conveying methods are available and have to be
optimized for each project.
• Installed power Different soil conditions require different
technology capacities. Hard rock requires higher
excavation energy than soft soil.
• Drilling fluid The drilling fluid properties are defined for the
existing soil conditions. The drilling fluid has to
stabilize the reamed and drilled hole and to
reduce the forces during pull/push in of the
pipeline.
3
• Drilling diameter The required drilling diameter varies, depending

on the soil condition and the underground
construction method to be chosen. Also the
arch effect to make a hole stable is different in
different soils.
• Drilling length A indirect impact leads into different drilling
lengths, because different underground
construction methods have different start
situations at the launch side which leads to
longer or shorter crossings.
• Soil stabilization Stable (standing) or not stable (non-standing)
soil conditions have to be supported differently.
Support by drilling fluids is limited to hole
diameter, cover, drilling length etc.
• Pipe wall thickness Pipelines are designed additionally to the impact
during construction period also to ground and
ground water pressures during the operating
period.
• Pipe coating / field joint coating Factory and field coatings should protect the
pipeline during operating period against
corrosion. But during construction period the
coating has to resist different impacts like
friction, point loads etc.
To give a safe recommendation as a basis for technology decisions as many as possible of the
following sub-surface data should be available. Rock and soft soil samples for laboratory
testing should be taken in general from the depth of the planned pipeline but not directly in bore
line to avoid vertical transfer of drilling fluid during construction. “The site investigation boreholes
should be carried out at a maximum spacing of 50 m […] In special cases, the intervals shall be
reduced. The boreholes shall be carried out at least:
• Down to 2 m below the pipe invert in ground water free soils

• Down to 3 m below the pipe invert in ground water bearing soils
• Down to the planned bottom edge of the sheeting in the area of the starting,
intermediate and target pits
and should be continued down to the stable subsoil in the case of insufficiently stable subsoil.
All holes that may be caused by this investigation shall be securely filled.” (source: Standard
DWA-A125E, Dec 2008).
For Rock Conditions
Criteria
• Rock type, mineral content Comment:
Examples: Sediment (e.g. sandstone), igneous
(e.g. granite) or metamorphic rock (e.g. gneiss);
impact on drillability
Impact on:
Bore diameter, drilling length, cutting tools, wear,
machine design
4
• UCS, uniaxial compressive strength Comment:

The higher the compressive strength, the more
difficult it is to destroy the rock; low values:
below 15 MPa; high values: above 50 MPa
Impact on:
machine typee
• Tensile strength or gap tensile Comment:

strength
Typical range of tensile strength is from 5 to 30
MPa. High tensile strength means more energy
for chipping and higher wear.
Impact on:
machine design
• CAI, Cerchar Abrasivity Index Comment:

Range of CAI-index from 0 (not abrasive) to 6
(extremely abrasive). Granite has 5 for example
and is extremely abrasive and creates high wear
on cutting tools, pumps and lines.
Impact on:
Wear, drilling length
• RQD rock quality designation or Comment:

joint spacing, orientation of joints RQD value (0-100%) indicates the quality of a
rock-mass: 0-25% indicates very poor rock, 90-
100% indicates excellent rock. The joint spacing
and the orientation of the joints indicates the
stability of an open borehole and defines for
example the kind of support which affects the
machine design
Impact on:
Cutting Tools, machine design
• Degree of alteration/weathering Comment:

Gives idea of the drillability and stability, the
fresher the rock, the more difficult to bore but
the more stable the borehole is.
Impact on:
Cutting tools, machine design
• Abrasive mineral content Comment:

Used when no CAI is possible. The higher the
percentage of abrasive minerals (e.g. quartz),
the higher the wear of cutting tools.
Impact on:
5
• Water permeability / k-value Comment:

Indicates groundwater inflow towards the
working face of the machine and with possibly
the necessity for watertight machines. The water
permeability indicates also the loss of drilling
fluids into the rock formation.
Impact on:
Machine design
For Soft or Mixed Soil Conditions
Criteria
• Particle size distribution curves Comment:
(PSD) Gives overall impression on the characteristics of
a soil. Defines the amount of coarse (e.g. gravel)
and fine (e.g. silt) material in a soil.
Impact on:
Cutting tools, machine design, separation
equipment
• SPT values Comment:

(Standard Penetration Test) Indicates the compactness or consistency of a
soil. The higher the SPT-N value, the higher the
compactness of the soil (e.g. values 0 to 4
indicate very loose soil; values above 50 indicate
very dense soil)
Impact on:
Cutting tools, soil conditioning,
• Obstacles Comment:
Depending on the diameter of the borehole,
sometimes stones, boulders, blocks or timber
are referred to as obstacles. If known special
equipment can help to clear obstacles.
Impact on:
Cutting tools, special equipment
• Water permeability / k-value Comment:

Indicates groundwater inflow towards the
working face of the machine and with possibly
the necessity of water tight machines. The water
permeability indicates also the loss of drilling
fluids into the soil formation.
Impact on:
Machine design
• Compactness Comment:
Very dense soil indicates different cutting
conditions than loose soil
Impact on:
Cutting Tools
6
• Atterberg limits, mole firmness Comment:

Need to be tested on samples in the laboratory.
They tell about the behaviour (plasticity) of a fine-
grained soil in different stages of water-
saturation. Also clogging risk can be predicted
with the Atterberg limits.
Impact on:
Machine design, conveyance system, soil
conditioning
• Cohesion Comment:
Is important for the frictional forces within a soil –
only fine grained soil (clay or silt) exhibits
cohesion
Impact on:
Cutting tools, machine design
• Shear strength, angle of friction Comment:

Structural analysis, machine selection, thrust
bearing. Mostly used for calculations for
structural analysis
• Bulk density Comment:

Structural analysis, machine selection,
buoyancy; Important to define shield loads and
the tendency to move vertical in very soft soils.
• Abrasive mineral content Comment:

The higher the percentage of abrasive minerals
(e.g. quartz), the higher the wear of cutting tools
Impact on:
Especially for horizontal directional drilling (HDD) projects but also for microtunnelling projects
the soil conditions and ground water have a deep impact on the bentonite lubrication or drilling
fluid in general. Therefore the following additional data are needed:
Criteria Measurement unit:

• pH of the ground water [-]
• Ca-hardness of the ground water [mmol/l]
• Other contaminants (chlorine, iron… ) [mg/l]
• Swelling clays volume increase [%], swelling pressure [psi]
• Saltwater salinity [mg/l] or electric conductivity [μS/cm]
Note
Even the best jobs will have widely spaced boreholes which can mask potential ground
variability. The key step is understanding the geology and its variability, and there should be an
interpretation of the boreholes and the geology in terms of ground conditions and variability.
Some of the tests and test results are not always available in testing labs. Therefore cores
should be kept available for other potential tests.
7
Alignment design
In underground pipeline construction the product pipeline has to be pushed or pulled along the
designed alignment and has to follow all curves or gradients. Especially in urban areas
alternative route selection to avoid extreme pipeline configurations is limited by local or
environmental conditions and the designed curves or gradients may influence the pipe design
itself (e.g. steel quality, wall thickness, stress limits) and the possible construction methods.
Construction time and costs

To have a fair and safe decision about the most time and cost-effective underground
construction method all construction steps from beginning (jobsite installation) till removal of all
equipment from jobsite have to be included. Also space requirements for pipe storage or pipe
string, start/target pits, foundations etc. will have deep impact on the overall construction costs.
For schedule estimation not only the drilling performance but also the number of construction
steps are important.
To have a most cost-effective underground construction product especially close to other

infrastructure a combined crossing could have advantages. When building a river crossing
casing tunnel for a later pressure pipeline installation other infrastructure lines (e.g. gas, water,
electricity) could be included. Using such combined crossings the need for additional crossing
projects could be reduced and the additional space in such a tunnel could have a commercial
benefit (sold or rented)
7.1.3 Main Technologies
In section 7.1.2.1 there is a limited overview table on existing underground technologies. Each
technology has its eligibility for special project conditions. Three main groups of underground
technologies will be focused on, facing the main future pipeline construction challenges, especially
regarding capacity, diameter and numbers or lengths of crossings.
7.1.3.1 Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD)
Procedure
In the first phase of a horizontal directional drilling (HDD) project a drill bit is pushed through the
ground on a designed alignment from an entry point close to the drill rig to an exit point on the
other side of the obstacle to be crossed. Established surveying and steering techniques are
used and proven drill tools are available for a wide range of soil and rock conditions.
Fig 1 – Pilot drilling
8
The pilot drilling is then enlarged by one or more reaming passes until it has reached the
desired diameter. For this purpose, suitable tools like barrel reamers, fly cutters or hole openers
are used. During the process, drill pipes are continuously added behind the reamer to ensure
that there is an entire drill string from the entry to the exit point at all times
Fig 2 – Reaming
In the final step of the operation the product pipe is pulled into the reamed borehole starting at
the exit point on the other side of the obstacle. The drill string in the borehole is connected to
the pipe by a special pull head with a swivel. As soon as the drill rig has pulled the whole
pipeline into the ground and the pull head arrives at the entry point, the pipeline has reached its
final and safe position deep in the ground
Fig 3 – Pullback
The critical point during the HDD process is the time from finishing the pilot drilling to pulling
back the product pipeline into the borehole. During that time when the borehole diameter has
to be enlarged from pilot drilling cutting bit diameter (up to approx. 8”) to the diameter where
the product pipeline can be pulled in. This final diameter should be the product pipeline
diameter plus one third of its diameter, so that the pipeline can be pulled in with minimal friction
resistance. During this time the borehole has to be stabilized by special drilling fluids like
bentonite plus special additives customized to the soil conditions. Non-cohesive ground (e.g.
gravel) below ground water are quite problematic to stabilize using such drilling fluids and
need to be analyzed intensively to determine if it is feasible to proceed. As a result the HDD
method is a well-proven method in suitable soil conditions but should not be recommended in
heterogeneous (soil/rock/soil) geologies. Also appropriate topography on pipe side and rig side
is important to achieve bore geometry (curves) suitable for the pipe material flexibility.
Major advantages of horizontal directional drilling are:

• Direct installation of product pipelines; no casing pipe/tunnel required
• Cost effective
• Fast pipeline installation
• Long distance crossings achievable
• Small ratio of borehole diameter/pipeline diameter
9
7.1.3.2 Microtunnelling
In the microtunnelling (pipe jacking) process a casing tunnel (usually made of concrete pipes)
with the heading machine at its tip is driven by hydraulic cylinders from a launch shaft towards
the target shaft.
The distance to the target shaft can be as much as 1000 meters or more, depending on the
nominal diameters of the pipes, the geological conditions, the pipe materials and the number of
intermediate jacking stations. The thrust cylinders are retracted after they have reached their
final position. The next tunnelling pipe is let down into the launch shaft, installed and then
pushed forward. This process is repeated until the target shaft has been reached. The
tunnelling machine is then recovered from the target shaft and prepared for the next operation.
When the tunnelling machine has been recovered the casing tunnel has been finished. In a next
step the product pipeline could be inserted (by floating or using rollers installed inside the
tunnel) into the casing tunnel. The space between product pipeline and casing tunnel will
usually be filled with grout to provide pipe and corrosion protection. Additionally to the pipeline
other infrastructure could be installed inside the tunnel to minimize the costs and schedules and
or an optimal use of the crossing structure.
As an alternative to microtunnelling and pipe jacking the casing tunnel could also be
constructed using tunnel segments which are combined to form full tunnel rings. This common
known tunnelling method allows smaller curve radii and longer drives especially if the casing
tunnel diameter is bigger than approx. 2500mm (90”). Tunnelling machine technology is
comparable in both tunnelling methods.
Fig 4 – Microtunnelling
Trenchless tunnelling has many advantages for the environment, traffic flow and those living in
the affected area, because no major earth shifting is necessary at the tunnelling site and only a
few shafts are required. Above ground everything carries on as before.
Major advantages of microtunnelling are:

• Roads do not need to be dug up or cordoned off and there are no traffic jams
• Earth moving or construction site traffic (trucks) are kept to a minimum
• Groundwater lowering is required only at certain spots resulting in minimum
environmental impact
10
• Minimum inconvenience to inhabitants from dirt and noise

• No danger to historic buildings
• Sewers and buildings not subject to subsidence.
Facing the upcoming major offshore pipeline projects which have to be brought ashore in the
most ecologically friendly manner, the microtunnelling technology opens an additional
construction option often used for sea outfalls. To protect the coastline areas the construction
starts from a launch shaft back from the shore line. Underground and under the seabed the
tunnel or pipeline leads to an exit point where the machine will be recovered by divers and the
pipeline will be connected to the offshore pipeline part laying on the seabed.
Fig 5 – Microtunnelling technology in a coastline context
7.1.3.3 Combined Technologies
In the past, numerous methods and devices have been developed for the trenchless laying of
pipelines in the ground to enable sensitive areas on the surface to be crossed. Geological
considerations and time and cost budgets are the crucial factors determining the choice of the
most suitable laying technique. Underground pipeline laying poses many problems - for
example, how to work in a space-restricted area or circumvent possible obstacles both rapidly
and cost-effectively. Combination methods, like the direct pipe method, combine the
advantages of the established microtunnelling and horizontal directional drilling (HDD) pipe
laying methods, thereby opening up potential new applications. One single, continuous working
operation is sufficient for the trenchless laying of a pre-fabricated pipeline and the simultaneous
creation of the necessary borehole.
Fig 6 – A combined technology approach
11
As with pipe jacking, earth excavation is by means of a microtunnelling machine. The machine
is navigable and uses a slurry circuit to transport the excavated material to the surface. Modern
and proven controlled pipe jacking techniques ensure accurate measurement of the current
position along the intended route. The force required to feed the pipeline forward is provided by
a new type of feed device known as the pipe thruster. The thrust necessary for the boring
process is transferred along the pipeline to the cutter head.
Advantages of combined technologies:

• Combining advantages of conventional construction methods
• Saving construction costs and time
• Pushes the boundaries of HDD
• Feasible in a wide range of geologies
7.1.4 Technology Decision Chart
The following decision chart was developed to get a first intention of feasible technologies to handle
upcoming projects as well as a first ranking of possible options. The criteria are mainly qualitative and
individual manufacturer solutions have to be developed for each project.
12
Combined Methods
Comparision Criteria HDD Microtunnelling
e.g. Direct Pipe
Simple geology
Easy Easy Easy
Clay, Silt, Sand
Non-standing geology
Difficult Easy Medium
Gravel, Bolders, Rock < 300mm
Hard geology
Medium Easy Medium
Rock 50-100 MPa
Very hard geology
Difficult Medium Difficult
Rock > 100-200 MPa
Heterogeneous geology (soil to
Difficult Medium Medium
hard/very hard rock or vice versa)
Soil and reamed hole is only Drill hole is permanently Drill hole is permanently
stabilised by bentonite supported by jacking pipes and supported by jacking pipes and
suspension. Different geologies annulus is filled with bentonite. annulus is filled with bentonite.
and crack spacing where No drill hole collapse possible. No drill hole collapse possible.
Comment bentonite could flow in increase Microtunnelling technology Microtunnelling technology is
the risk of collapse. is very flexible regarding different very flexible regarding different
geologies. geologies. Annulus is much
smaller than using HDD.
Recommended minimum cover
Cover has to be calculated Cover has to be calculated Cover has to be calculated
(under surface obstructions -
based on the comments below based on the comments below based on the comments below
road, rail - or rivers)
Cover has to be high to prevent Cover >2,5 times outer machine Cover >2,5 times outer machine
collapse and avoid bentonite diameter. Drill hole permanently diameter. Drill hole permanently
spilling on surface soil above, supported. Cover only for supported. Cover only for
because the reamed hole is only preventing setting or lifting on preventing setting or lifting on
stabilised by bentonite surface. To prevent ground surface. To prevent ground
(pressure). Depends also on settlement or cavitation. If under settlement or cavitation. Annulus
Comment
pipeline allowable curvature and a river must be below scour higher than microtunnelling
soil strength. Must also prevent level. because the pipeline is smoothly
ground settlement or cavitation, flowing in the surrounding
and allow alignment through bentonite. If under a river must
suitable soils. If under a river be below scour level.
must be below scour level.
Direct application of product
pipes (steel pipes with protective Easy Very difficult Easy
coating)
After pilot boring and reaming Jacking of product stell pipelines Product pipeline will directly
installed into the drilled hole.
Comment product pipeline will be pulled is very difficult and costly
direct into reamed hole. Ensure (welding, coating the field joints).
correct coating selection. Mostly casing required.
Welding and quality control
Difficult
(prior to installation of product Yes Yes
(or only in temporary tunnels)
pipes)
Pipeline will be prepared outside Pipeline has to be welded and Pipeline will be prepared outside
Comment of hole and is ready to handle coated in sections in the tunnel on pipe side on surface and is
and control. or shaft. ready to handle and control.
Quality requirements of flushing
Very high Low Medium
medium (Slurry Water / Bentonite)
Reamed hole is only stabilised Drill hole is supported by jacking No lubrication between
by bentonite. Bentonite has to pipes. Bentonite is only for tunnelling machine and start
be very precisely modified to soil reducing friction forces. shaft possible, so bentonite has
Comment
conditions to prevent hole two functions: lubrication and
collapse. annulus suport. But drill hole is
also supported by pipeline.
Required volume of flushing
High Low Low
medium
Complete reamed hole has to Only small annulus is filled with Only small annulus is filled with
Comment be filled with bentonite. bentonite. bentonite.
13
Combined Methods
Comparision Criteria HDD Microtunnelling
e.g. Direct Pipe
Required drill hole size Medium Large Small
Drill hole has to be just 10 cm

Drill hole (reamed hole) has to be Drilled hole has to be made for
bigger that product pipeline to fill
Comment 1,3 times of product pipeline, to the casing tunnel where the later
with bentonite and reduce
get a smooth pull in. product pipeline will be inserted.
friction.
In-situ access to the cutting tools Possible
Possible
(for replacement in case of Not possible (>OD 1500mm, reinforced
(>OD 1400mm, steel pipes)
wearing out) concrete pipes)
No access to cutting tools in Microtunnelling machines are Microtunnelling machines are
case of high wear. Complete drill accessible from spec. Diameter accessible from spec. Diameter
string has to be pulled and regarding to local regulations regarding to local regulations
Comment change tools outside. and change tools inside the and change tools inside the
machine. machine. In case of smaller
diameters pipeline has to be
retracted.
Excavation of "obstructions"
Not possible Possible Possible
(for example via cone crusher)
No obstructions can be Obstructions can be removed Obstructions can be removed
Comment removed out the hole. through tunnelling machine or through tunnelling machine or
will be cracked by cutting tools. will be cracked by cutting tools.
Retractability of the pipeline / rods
(for replacement in case of Possible Very difficult, but possible Possible
wearing out)
Pipeline can be pulled back by Tunnelling machine has to be Pipeline and tunnelling machine
the HDD rig. designed retractable and can be can be pulled back by the pipe
Comment
pulled through the tunnel. Very thruster.
costly.
Long to very long Medium to long
Achieveable maximum drive Very long
(by using segmental lining (currently up to max. 1500m,
lengths (up to 2500m)
>2500m) ) depending on geology)
Drive length of HDD depends on Economic design of jacking No intermediate jacking stations
pipeline / reamed hole diameter. pipes to handle the increasing and lubrication only from
It is necessary to stabilise the jacking forces is the criteria. machine and shaft is possible.
Comment
reamed hole with bentonite.The
bigger the hole diameter the
more likely collapse becomes.
Project access possibility Very difficult Easy Easy
Very big job side required on rig Very small job sides / shafts on Very small job sides / shafts on
Comment side and pipe side. both crossing sides. both crossing sides and very
flexible.
Difficult
Construction of shaft / trench Easy Easy - medium
(due to depths)
Very simple launch and To come down to tunnel level Easy launch pit and reception
Comment reception pits possible. Only requires expensive dry shaft side, only anchoring of pushing
anchoring of HDD is required. construction. unit /pipe thruster.
Tunnel / Pipeline alignment
Medium Very good Very good
accuracy
Navigation of pilot boring by Navigation by laser, gyro, water Navigation by laser, gyro, water
Comment gyro or from surface. Acceptable levelling. Extreme precisely. levelling. Extreme precisely.
accuracy.
Execution time Medium quick Long Quick
Depending on final reamed hole Several working steps: Shaft Very quick because no reaming
diameter several reaming construction, jacking of casing procedures and no casing
Comment
processes are neccessary. tunnel, pulling or pushing in of required.
product pipeline
14
Note:
Not considered in this chart are crossing lengths. In general the HDD method will have advantages in
small crossing projects and allows reduced costs and time frames. For large diameters and long
crossings alternatives to HDD should reduce the risks of reaming processes and heterogeneous
geologies and lead to trustable costs.
General Note:
Further, more detailed information and decision criteria for this chapter are available in numerous and
international guidelines and standards like ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) manuals, PRCI
(Pipeline Research Council International) reports, DWA (Deutsche Vereinigung für Wasserwirtschaft,
Abwasser und Abfall e. V.) working sheets and many others.
15
16
Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Glossary
Glossary
The following definitions and abbreviations apply in the context of this Appendix unless otherwise
mentioned:
AGI Above ground installations
AUT Automatic ultrasonic testing
CAD Computer-aided design
CANBUS Controller–area network bus standard
CANDATA CANBUS data
CCS Camp control system
CMod EDMS contacts module
CP Cathodic protection
CPM Critical path method
CSE Confined space entry
DES Discrete event simulation
ECI Eddy current inspection
EDI Electronic data interface/interchange
EDMS Electronic document management system
ERP Emergency response plans
ERW Electric resistance weld
ExTr Expediting and shipment tracking system
FBE Fusion bonded epoxy
FLUW Facing, lining up and welding (IPLOCA working group)
FMS Fleet management system
FOC Fiber-optic cables
GIS Geographic information system
GPRS General packet radio service
GPS Global positioning system
GSM Global system for mobile
HAZID Hazard identification
HAZOP Hazard and operability study
HFW High frequency induction weld
HLA High level architecture
HSE Health, safety and environment
HSEIA/HSEIS Health, safety and environment impact assessment/study
HSES Health, safety, environment and socioeconomic
IP Injured person
IPLOCA International Pipe Line and Offshore Contractors Association
JMS Journey management system
KP Kilometer point
LLI Long lead items
LNG Liquified natural gas
MAOP Maximum allowable operating pressure
MFL Magnetic flux leakage
MMS Material management system
MPI Magnetic particle inspection
MTO Made to order
MUT Manual ultrasonic testing
NC/NCI IPLOCA Novel Construction Initiative
NDT Non-destructive testing
NRT Near-real-time tool
OD Outside diameter
OEM Original equipment manufacturer
PDA Personal digital assistant
PDC Planning, design and control (IPLOCA workgroup)
PFD Probability to fail on demand
PK Point kilometre (see KP)
PMV Plant machinery and vehicles
POD Probability of detection
Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Glossary
PPE Personal protective equipment

PTO Power take-off
QA/QC Quality assurance/control
QRA Quantitative risk assessment
R&D Research and development
RFID Radio-frequency identification
RFQ Request for quotation
ROW Right of way
RPE Respiratory protective equipment
RSS Really simple syndication (web feed format for publishing frequently updated works)
RT Radiographic testing
SAWH Submerged arc-welded pipe, helical seams
SAWL Submerged arc-welded pipe, longitudinal seams
SCADA Supervisory control and data acquisition
SIL Safety integrity level
SIMOPS Simultaneous operations
SIS Safety instrumented system
SMS Short message service (texts)
SMYS Specified minimum yield strength
UPI Unique purchase items
UT Ultrasonic testing
VOC Volatile organic compound
VPN Virtual private network
WBS Work breakdown structure
WiFi Wireless networking technology
WiMax Worldwide interoperability for microwave access (protocol)
WPS Welding procedure specifications
WT Wall thickness
XML Extensible markup language
Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Bibliography
Bibliography
Section 3.4 Conditions of Contract
1. ICE: The ICE Form of Contract - 7th Edition 1999. The Form creates a "Measure for Value"
or "Re-Measurement" contract by which the Employer undertakes to pay for the actual
quantities of work executed.
2. ICE: The Engineering and Construction Contract (Third Edition 2005) known as "NEC
3". "NEC 3" is a Suite of Contract Forms ranging from EPC Contract, with Main Options
A-F Clauses, through Term Service Contract, Professional Services Contract,
Subcontract and Short Subcontract, Short Contract, Framework Contract Service and
Adjudication Agreements, published in twenty-nine books including tailored guidance
notes, flow-charts and contract strategies.
Typically a NEC 3 Option "A" - Priced Contract with Activity Schedule, is a bound document
composed of :
• Schedule of Options;
• Core Clauses;
• Option A Clauses;
• Dispute Resolution Options W1 and W2;
• Secondary Options X1-7, X12-18, X20, Y(UK)2, Y(UK)3 and Z Clauses;
• Schedule of Cost Components;
• Shorter Schedule of Cost Components;
• Contract Data part one and part two proforma.
3. FIDIC: The FIDIC Suite of Contracts 1999 and the Gold Book 2008
The Four Principal Contract 1999 Forms are:
The Short Form of Contract 1st Ed (1999 Green Book);

The Conditions of Contract for Construction (The 1999 Red Book) ***;
The Conditions of Contract for Plant and Design-Build (The 1999 Yellow Book);
The Conditions of Contract for EPC Turnkey Projects (The 1999 Silver Book).
Section 6 Earthworks
“Performance management for site restoration in rugged terrain”, by M Sweeney, A Gasca, RPC Morgan
and J Clarke, in Int. Conf. on “Terrain and geohazard challenges facing onshore oil and gas pipelines”,
London June 2004, pub Thomas Telford Ltd, p 687-700.
Geotechnical Aspects of Pipeline Design and Construction in Soft Very Sensitive Clay, J. Sarrailh and
L.S. Brzezinski, June 1983.
First Edition Acknowledgements
More than 100 persons and 45 companies participated in the preparation of this publication.
Each person’s name is mentioned in the main area of her/his participation as follows:
• as a member of one, or more than one, of the six Working Groups

or
• in the coordination and support functions
or
• as having given editorial support to members of the Working Groups
or
• as having attended one or more Plenary Sessions of the Novel Construction Initiative
• This work is the outcome of six Working Groups:
1. Planning, Design & Control (PDC)

Co-Chairmen: Mike King *(BP) & Zuhair Haddad (CCC)
Participants: Yasser Hijazi* (CCC), John Truhe (Chevron), Paul Andrews* (Fluor),
Cris Shipman (GIE), Paulo Montes (Petrobras), Tales Matos (Petrobras)
2. Contract Negotiating & Risk Sharing (CRS)

Co-Chairmen: Barry Kaiser* (Chevron) & Bruno de La Roussière* (Entrepose)
Participants: Sarah Boyle (Heerema), Barbara de Roo (Heerema), Paul Andrews* (Fluor),
Frank Todd (Land & Marine), Jean Claude Van de Wiele (Spiecapag), Daniel Picard (Total)
Consultant to IPLOCA and principal writer: Daniel Gasquet*
3. Pipeline Earthworks (EW)

Co-Chairmen: Paul Andrews* (Fluor) & Bruno Pomaré (Spiecapag)
Participants: Mike Sweeney (BP), Ray Wood (Fugro), Helen Dornan* (Serimax), Sue Sljivic*
(RSK Group plc), Flavio Villa (Tesmec), Francesco Mastroianni (Tesmec),
4. Facing, Lining-Up & Welding (FLUW)

Co-Chairmen: Frederic Burgy (Serimax) and Bernard Quereillahc* (Volvo)
Participants: Zahi Ghantous (CCC), Jim Jackson (CRC-Evans), Marco Laurini (Laurini),
Claudio Bresci (Petrobras), Derek Storey (Rosen)
5. External Corrosion Protection System (ECPS)

Chairman: Sean Haberer* (Bredero Shaw)
Participants: Dieter Schemberger (Akzo Nobel), Vlad Popovici* (Bredero Shaw),
Nigel Goward (Canusa-CPS), Michael Schad (Denso), Graham Duncan (Fluor),
Damian Daykin (PIH)
6. Lowering & Laying (L&L)

Chairman: Marco Jannuzzi* (Caterpillar)
Participants: Zahi Ghantous (CCC), Kees Van Zandwijk (Heerema), Peter Salome (Heerema),
Marco Laurini (Laurini), Claudio Bresci (Petrobras), Marcus Ruehlmann (Vietz), Lars-Inge
Larsson (Volvo)
• Overall Coordination and Support to the six Working Groups
Coordination was carried out by Luc Henriod* (IPLOCA), Ian Neilson (BP) and François Pesme (BP),
supported by the IPLOCA staff in Geneva who organised the plenary sessions, conference calls etc:
Juan Arzuaga*, Caroline Green, Alain Hersent (IPLOCA Consultant), Sarah Junod and Liz Spalding.
Roberto Castelli (Bonatti) was in charge of coordinating with the Board of Directors of IPLOCA.
*Names of the writing and editing team of the final document are designated in this
Acknowledgement by an asterisk (*).
The following persons have given editorial support to members of the Working Groups or have
showed their interest and support by attending some of the Plenary Sessions of our IPLOCA Novel
Construction Initiative (in alphabetical order by company):
Antonio Galetti (Bonatti), Andrea Piovesan (Bonatti), Barry Turner (Borealis), Bill Blosser (BP),
Patrick Calvert (BP), Shaimaa Fawzy (BP) , Roger Howard (BP), Hikmet Islamov (BP),
John McAlexander (BP), Colin Murdoch (BP), Geoff Vine (BP), Jean-Luc Bouliez (BS Coatings),
Ray Paterson (BrederoShaw), Adrian Van Dalen (BS Coatings), Cortez Perotte (Caterpillar),
Kurt Wrage (Caterpillar), Issam El-Absi (CCC), Joseph Farah (CCC), Hisham Kawash (CCC),
Ramzi Labban (CCC), Fernando Granda (Chevron), Keith Griffiths (Chevron), Karlton Purdie
(Chevron), Brad Stump (Chevron), C.S. Sood (CIT), Bo Wasilewski (Conoco-Phillips),
Martin Kepplinger (deceased) - (CRC-Evans), Brian Laing (CRC-Evans), Gus Meijer (CRC-Evans),
Bernhard Russheim (CRC-Evans), Oliver Zipffel (Denso), Peter Schwengler (E.ON Ruhrgas),
Claudia Mense (Elmed), Carlo Spinelli (ENI), Paul Leyland (Entrepose), Jean-Pierre Jansen
(Europipe), Daniel Delhaye (Fluor), Sub Parkash (Fluor), Conrado Serodio (GDK), Karl Trauner
(HABAU), Marc Peters (Herrenknecht), Frank Muffels (Industrie Polieco MPB), Lorne Duncan
(Integrated Project Services), Ed Merrow (IPA Global), Hudson Bell (ITI Energy), Nigel Wright
(ITI Energy), Adam Wynne Hughes (Land and Marine), Tom Lassu (Ledcor), Boris Boehm (Maats),
Jorge Baltazar (Petrobras), Sergio Borges (Petrobras), Paulo Correia (Petrobras),
Ney Passos (Petrobras), Jimmie Powers (PRCI), Max Toch (PRCI), Jie-Wei Chen (Rosen),
Mike Mason (RSK Group plc), David Williams (Serimax), Massimiliano Boscolo (Socotherm),
Danillo Burin (Socotherm), Lotfi Housni (Somico), Remy Seuillot (Spiecapag), Luis Chad
(Tenaris-Confab), Livia Giongo (Tesi), M. Lazzati (Tesmec) Francesco Mastroianni (Tesmec),
John Welch (Tesmec), Andrea Zamboni (Tesmec), Paul Wiet (Total), Bart Decroos (Volvo),
Jack Spurlock (Volvo).
Onshore Pipelines - THE ROAD TO SUCCESS Vol. 1 Acknowledgements
Second Edition Acknowledgements
More than 100 persons and 46 companies participated in the preparation of this Second Edition.
• The work was divided among six working groups:

Co-Chairmen: Criss Shipman (GIE) & Mike King (BP)
Participants: Mustafa Abusalah, Firas Hijazi, Ramzi Labban (CCC);
Sub Parkash (Fluor)
2. Monitoring & Control

Co-Chairmen: Zuhair Haddad (CCC) and Mike Gloven (Petro IT Americas)
Participants: Jan Van der Ent (Applus RTD); Aref Boualwan, Firas Hijazi, Antoine Jurdak,
Hazem Rady, Khaled Al-Shami (CCC); Abhay Chand (Petro IT); Paul Wiet (Total)
3. Pipeline Earthworks
Co-Chairmen: Paul Andrews (Fluor) & Bruno Pomaré (Spiecapag)
Participants: Ray Wood (Fugro); Marc Peters (Herrenknecht); Marco Laurini (Laurini);
Flavio Villa (Tesmec); Lars-Inge Larsson (Volvo)
4. External Corrosion Protection System (ECPS)

Co-Chairmen: Sean Haberer (ShawCor), Vlad Popovici (Bredero Shaw FJS)
Participants: Volker Boerschel, Dieter Schemberger (Akzo Nobel); Norbert Jansen, Barry
Turner (Borealis); Raphael Moscarello (Bredero Shaw); Adrian Van Dalen (BS Coatings); Paul
Boczkowski (Canusa-CPS); Cindy Verhoeven (Dhatec); Bill Partington (Ledcor); Fred Williams
(Shell); Dan King, Steve Shock, Dave Taylor (TransCanada); Axel Kueter (Tuboscope)
5. Facing, Lining-Up & Welding (FLUW)

Co-Chairmen: Frédéric Lepla (Serimax) and Bernard Quereillahc (Volvo CE)
Participants: Subhi Khoury, Ramzi Labban (CCC); Matthew Holt (CRC-Evans);
Christian Hädrich (Max Streicher); Mladen Kokot (Nacap)
6. Lowering & Laying

Chairman: Marco Jannuzzi (Caterpillar) & Bernard Quereillahc (Volvo CE)
Participants: Andreas Clauss, Scott J. Hagemann, Cortez Perotte (Caterpillar); Jim Jackson
(CRC-Evans); Marco Laurini (Laurini); Hannes Lichtmannegger,
Johannes Mayr (Liebherr); Scott Haylock, Lars-Inge Larsson (Volvo CE)
• Overall Coordination and Support to the Working Groups
Coordination was carried out by Juan Arzuaga (IPLOCA) and Daniel Gasquet (IPLOCA Consultant),
supported by the IPLOCA staff in Geneva: Caroline Green, Guy Henley, Sarah Junod and Elizabeth
Spalding. Osman Birgili (Tekfen) was in charge of coordinating with the Board of Directors of
IPLOCA.
Additionally, we thank the following companies and individuals for their valued participation in the
Second Edition of the Road to Success (in alphabetical order by company):
Paul Harbers, Dirk Huizinga, Niels Portzgen, Casper Wassink (Applus RTD); Maurizio Truscello
(Bonatti S.p.A.); SC Sood (CIT); Rita Salloum Abi Aad (CCC); Russell Dearden (Corus);
Ryan Fokens, Dennis Haspineall (CRC-Evans); Ivan Gallio, Nicola Novembre, Luca Prandi,
Carlo Spinelli (ENI); Andreas Meissner (EPRG); Shiva Vencat (Euro Airship); Graham Duncan,
Jason Fincham, Sub Parkash (Fluor); Henk De Haan (Gasunie); John Balch (GIE); Claudio Dolza
(Goriziane); Gerhard Wohlmuth (HABAU); Geert Dieperink, Gerben Wansink (Maats); Mark Roerink
(Nacap); Greg Rollheiser (PipeLine Machinery); Reiner Lohmann, Ralf Prior (PPS Pipeline Systems
GmbH); Peter Döhmer (Techint); Hasan Gürtay, Dinc Senlier, Alpaslan Sumer (Tekfen).

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Onshore Pipelines

THE ROAD TO SUCCESS

An IPLOCA document – 2nd edition September 2011

© Copyright IPLOCA 2011

Section 2 Development Phases of a Pipeline Project

Section 3 The Baseline of a Construction Contract

Section 4 Dealing with Risks in Pipeline Projects *

Section 5 Best Practices in Planning and Design *

Section 9 Welding (section to be developed)

Section 10 Non Destructive Testing **

• The role of NDT in the FEL/FEED stages.

Section 11 Pipeline Protection Systems *

Section 12 Pipelines and the Environment (section to be developed)

Section 13 Future Trends and Innovation *

Innovative construction techniques (the “skidless methodology”) and developments in

Table of Contents (Volume One)

This document relates to onshore pipeline projects only.

Joint Development of “THE ROAD TO SUCCESS”

To whom this document is addressed

Collaboration with Research Entities

The Second Edition is also available on DVD.

© September 2011 – International Pipeline and Offshore Contractors Association [IPLOCA] –

Pipelines and IPLOCA

Pipeline Issues and Challenges

THE ROAD TO SUCCESS

2. Development Phases of a Pipeline Project

• Three front-end loading (FEL) stages for business planning,

• Project execution stage

• Start-up and operations stage.

Staged-Gated Project System

FEL 1: FEL 2: FEL 3: Project Start-up

2.1 Front-End Loading (FEL) Phases

2.1.1 Business Planning FEL 1

2.1.2 Facility Planning FEL 2

FEL 2 facility planning includes the review of:

• Environmental and social issues

2.1.3 Project Planning FEL 3

2.2 Key points to address during FEL

• Hire fully-qualified multi-skilled engineering resources with relevant experience

• Ensure adequate data is available for engineering (design conditions data,

• Provision of pipeline technical designs to ensure clear and concise installation

Fig. 1 – Influence and expenditure profiles over time

Contingency Progression Per Project Phase

3. The Baseline of a Construction Contract

The recommendations below can be classified in four categories:

• Establishment of a detailed project execution plan, including a fully resourced

• Changes to the project or to the environment of the project

• The conditions of contract

3.1 Defining the Scope of Works

3.1.1 Scope and Physical Conditions

• Definition of the pipeline route/right of way… (see also section 5.1.1)

Typically the route alignment steps are:

• Description of the geological assumptions together with an allowance for variations to

3.1.2 Health and Safety, Environment, Socioeconomic and Local

• Health provisions including working in contaminated land, dust inhalation, extremes of

• Detailed environmental requirements (limitations on emissions, surface discharge,

3.2 Programming the work

A typical sample is presented overleaf:

Extract from the March chart on the previous page:

In order to arrive at an acceptable construction programme, the following should be established in

3.3 Contract Price Information to Facilitate Evaluation of Changes

Changes to the baseline/disruptions/stoppages have in general two consequences for a project:

• The duration of certain activities will be extended