Term Definition

Blastocyte Embryo when it has become a hollow ball of cells

Outline spermatogenesis in humans

- Mitosis in the germinal epithelium
- Spermatogonia produced
- Mitosis to allow many cells to be produced
- Cell growth
- Enlarged cells are primary spermatocytes
- Primary spermatocytes go through meiosis I
- To form secondary spermatocytes
- Secondary spermatocytes go through meiosis II to form spermatids
- Spermatids differentiate and reduce their cytoplasm
- Spermatids associated with sertoli cell for nutrients and growth
- Sperm detach from sertoli cell and enter lumen of the seminiferous tubule
- Testosterone stimulates sperm production

Draw a labelled diagram

Haploid Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Centrioles (2 present)
Cortical granules
Plasma membrane
Polar cell (Outside)
Zona pellucida
Corona radiata
Size shown as 0.1mm

Outline oogenesis within the human ovary

- Oogenesis is process by which female gametes are produced
- Begins during fetal development
- Large number of cells formed by mitosis
- Become oocytes
- Begin first meiotic division but stop in Prophase I
- Until puberty
- Some follicles develop each month in response to FSH
- Primary oocyte completes first meiotic division
- Forms two cels of different sizes of cytoplasm
- creating a polar body
- Polar body eventually degenerates
- Secondary oocyte proceeds to meiosis II
- Stops at prophase II
- Meiosis II completed if cell is fertilised
- Ovum and second polar body formed
Compare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis
Similarity:
- Both produce haploid cells
- Both have mitosis at start
- Both have cell growth before meiosis
- Both involved differentiation

Differences:
Comparison Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

What is produced where Sperm produced in testes Ovum produced in ovaries

When the process is initiated During puberty During development of fetus

If there are breaks in meiosis No breaks Breaks occur in prophase I/II and
metaphase II

If cytokinesis during meiosis is Equal division of cytoplasm Cytoplasm split unequally

equal

Number of gametes per meiosis Four sperm One cell

Number of gametes produced Millions at a time One per month

timing of release Continuously by ejaculation At ovulation/middle of menstrual

cycle

If gametogenesis ever stops Goes on Stops at menopause

Describe the process of fertilisation in humans

- Sperm approaches ovum in oviduct
- Sperm breaks through follicle cell
- Triggers acrosome reaction
- Hydrolytic enzymes of acrosome released
- Digestion of Zona pellucida
- Plasma membranes of sperm and egg fuse
- Sperm nucleus enters egg
- Cortical reaction
- Hardening of glycoproteins in zone pellucid
- Preventing other sperm from entering

Outline the role of HCG in early pregnancy

- Maintains the corpus luteum
- Stimulates secretion of oestrogen/progesterone
- Maintains pregnancy/uterine lining/progesterone levels

Outline the way in which a pregnancy can be detected at an early stage

- Embryo produces HCG
- Test strip dipped into urine
- HCG is present in the urine if the women is pregnant
- Antibodies bind to pregnant
- A colour change if the women is pregnant
Explain the structure and role of the placenta
- Disc shaped structure
- Embedded in uterus wall
- Connected to fetus by umbilical cord
- Contains fetal and maternal structures
- Placental villi provide large surface area for exchange of materials
- Blood of fetus and mother flow close to each other, but no mixing
- Materials exchanged between mother and fetal blood
- Oxygen/nutrients/antibodies/other substances diffuse to fetus
- CO2 and wastes diffuse to mother
- Caffeine/alcohol/drugs/viruses from mother may damage fetal development
- Takes over role of corpus luteum to produce hormones
- Produces hormones/estrogen/progesterone/HCG

Explain how the structure and functions of the placenta maintain

pregnancy
- Transport facilitated by proximity of mother and emery blood vessel
- Chorionic villi increases surface area for exchange
- Oxygen and food reach embryo
- CO2 and waste matter carried from embryo to mother
- Immune system of mother protects embryo
- Barrier function as blood do not mix
- Endocrine function as it secretes hormones
- HCG prevents degeneration of corpus lute
- Production of oestrogen maintains endometrium
- Oestrogen increases mammary gland growth
- Progesterone maintains endometrium
- Progesterone prevents uterine contrations

State the role of amniotic sac and the amniotic fluid

- Support the fetus in amniotic sac
- Protect the fetus against infection
- Allows the fetus to move

Outline the hormonal control of the process of birth

- Level of progesterone decreases just before birth
- Removing inhibition of oxytocin secretion
- Oxytocin produced by pituitary gland
- Oxytocin causes contractions of uterus
- Uterine contractions causes impulses to be sent leading to more oxytocin secretion
- Positive feedback

Outline the relationship of gestation period between animals

- Larger animals tend to have longer gestation periods
- More developed infants will require a longer gestation period