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OIL AND GAS SEEPS IN DEEP MARINE SEA

FLOOR CORES AS INDICATORS OF ACTIVE
PETROLEUM SYSTEMS IN INDONESIA

Conference Paper · May 2009

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PROCEEDINGS, INDONESIA PETROLEUM ASSOCIATION

Thirty-Third IPA Annual Convention & Exhibition, 2009

OIL AND GAS SEEPS IN DEEP MARINE SEA FLOOR CORES AS INDICATORS OF ACTIVE
PETROLEUM SYSTEMS IN INDONESIA

R. Noble*
D. Orange*
J. Decker*
P. Teas*
P. Baillie**

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION

Sea-floor sediments collected during an extensive
geophysical and coring project in several deep-
water basins of Indonesia have been analyzed in
detail using a range of geochemical techniques. The
results show clear evidence of oil and thermogenic
gas seepage, including basins or sub-basins that are
largely unexplored. Biogenic gas was also
commonly detected, although its presence was
readily distinguished from thermogenic gas
components. In many cases, oil was found in
sufficient quantity to yield a full suite of biological
markers. The biomarkers in turn were used to derive
information about the parent source rock and to
correlate the seep with known subsurface
accumulations of oil.
The ten areas of Indonesia examined in this study
are: SW Sunda, North Makassar, Bone Bay,
Banggai Sula, Gorontalo, Cendrawasih, Misool,
Seram, Kumawa-Keras and Jamdena (Figure 1).
The probable types of source rock for oil seeps in
these areas have been determined using biomarker
and isotopic compositions. Characteristics for both
Mesozoic and Tertiary source rocks, including
carbonate and clastic lithofacies, were observed. In
some instances, the seeps tied directly to crude oils
that are being produced in the basin. In other cases,
the seeps showed sufficient difference to known
subsurface accumulations to indicate a source rock
of a different type or age was active. The sea-floor
seeps have provided an extraordinary opportunity to
gain insights into areas of active hydrocarbon
migration in undrilled or under-explored basins. In
some areas, this represents the first evidence for the
existence of an underlying petroleum system, which
in the future, may provide targets for wildcat
exploration drilling.
* Black Gold Energy LLC
** TGS-NOPEC Geophysical Company
Oftentimes the single most important question to be
addressed in the exploration of frontier or under-
explored basins is whether or not an active
petroleum system exists. Petroleum companies are
generally reluctant to invest significant amounts of
funds on exploration drilling unless an effective
source rock or working petroleum system can be
demonstrated. This creates a dilemma amongst
exploration teams, since in order to provide the
necessary evidence, well data and subsurface
samples are usually required.
Oil seeps in the proximity of geologically defined
targets have historically provided sufficient
incentive for exploration drilling. Crude oil at the
surface is generally indicative of a working
petroleum system at depth. A large number of
successful discoveries have been made in the
vicinity of oil seeps, particularly during the early
years of oil exploration. As a result, the search for
onshore seeps has become an integral part of the
prospecting method, and it is safe to say that most
of the world’s onshore macro-seeps have been
observed and evaluated for their exploration
significance (for Indonesian perspective, see
Macgregor, 1995).
In the present study, we extend the application of
macro-seep detection to ten offshore areas
(Figure 1). Recent technological advances have
allowed the sea-floor to be precisely sampled in
locations of probable hydrocarbon seepage (Orange
et al., 2008). Modern geochemical analyses of sea-
floor cores provide evidence for thermogenic
hydrocarbon seepage, and information on the type
and origin of the hydrocarbons. We have examined
several frontier offshore areas of Indonesia in this
manner, in an effort to identify active petroleum
systems and thereby reduce the risk for future
exploration.
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SEA FLOOR SEEP ANALYSIS
Piston Coring Program
A complete description of the “Sea Seep” piston
coring program has been presented by Orange et al.
(2008, 2009 this volume). A large volume of new
data was collected as the basis for the present study,
including the acquisition of over 400,000 km2 of
high resolution multibeam bathymetric data, and
1182 navigated piston cores, precisely located to
test the seafloor for geochemical anomalies. The
data were acquired by TGS-NOPEC, with the co-
operation of Migas, as part of the Indodeep multi-
client project. The survey included 100,000 km of
gravity and magnetics and 37,000 km of 2D
seismic. The program was partly underwritten by
Black Gold Energy LLC and its affiliated
companies.
Geochemical Screening and Seep Identification
The geochemical program to initially identify oil
and gas seepage in the piston cores was conducted
by TDI-Brooks International, Inc. The analytical
procedure included the following laboratory
methods: (1) head-space gas analysis of the
interstitial light hydrocarbon gas (C1-C5) from
separately canned sediment sections using wet-
sediment gas partitioning and gas chromatography,
(2) stable carbon isotope ratio (del13C/12C) of each
C1-C5 component and carbon dioxide, (3) total
scanning fluorescence (TSF) from bagged sediment
sections using dry sediment solvent extraction, (4)
gas chromatography for the whole C15+ solvent
extract. From these analyses, screening criteria were
applied to identify migrated liquid petroleum and
gaseous hydrocarbons and distinguish them from
background readings (Bernard et al., 2008). C1-C5
gas composition and carbon isotopic ratios were
used to distinguish biogenic from thermogenic
hydrocarbons. The presence of crude oil was
detected based on signatures from TSF and C15+
whole extract gas chromatography. A total of 1182
piston core samples from across Indonesia were
analyzed in this manner.
Biomarker and Isotopic Analysis of Piston Core
Extracts
Solvent extracts for selected piston core samples
were analyized by GeoMark Research, Inc. and
Baseline Resolution, Inc. for liquid chromatography
to isolate the saturate and aromatic hydrocarbon
fractions. The C15+ saturates and aromatics were
analyzed for biomarkers using gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry (GCMS). Details of the
instrumentation and analytical procedures for
GCMS are available from the laboratories that
conducted the work.
The primary focus of the biomarker study was to
examine the terpane (m/z 191) and sterane (m/z
217) distributions in order to identify the presence
of crude oil in the piston core extracts.
A total of fifty five cores were analyzed for
biomarkers. Several samples had multiple analyses
completed on various sections of the core. Thirty
five cores showed strong evidence for migrated
crude oil. The remaining samples were dominated
by biomarkers originating from recent organic
matter, although in many instances it was still
possible to recognize oil-derived components. In
samples where the crude oil biomarker
concentrations were sufficiently high, identification
of source type, age and thermal maturity was
possible.
Figure 2 shows examples of terpane distributions
(m/z 191) in four core extracts. The samples show
classic suites of pentacyclic hopanes,
tricyclic/tetracyclic terpanes, and in some instances,
higher-plant derived compounds such as oleananes,
lupanes and bicadinanes. Figure 3 shows a cross-
plot of two diagnostic biomarker ratios that are
useful for constraining the source type and age of
crude oils. Reference material for the significance
of these biomarker parameters is summarized by
Peters et al. (2005). It is quite remarkable that the
piston cores yielded such “clean” biomarker
profiles, which is testimony to the amount of oil
seepage found at various locations. In many
samples, the piston core biomarkers could be
correlated directly with subsurface oil
accumulations, facilitating identification of the
underlying petroleum system. A full discussion of
this relationship is presented in a following section
of this paper.
Stable carbon isotope data (del13C/12C) were
obtained for samples which yielded sufficient
quantities of saturate and aromatic hydrocarbons
fractions. This amounted to thirty eight samples in
total. Figure 4 shows a cross-plot of saturate and
aromatic carbon isotope for the piston core extracts.
Similar to the biomarkers, carbon isotope data were
used to group oils into families, and to derive
information about their parent source rocks.
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REVIEW OF INDONESIAN CRUDE OIL
FAMILIES
In order to provide a framework for interpretation of
piston core results, it was necessary to recognize the
major families of crude oils that occur in Indonesia.
A search of IPA publications from 1975 to 2008
yielded over 30 articles that discuss biomarker and
carbon isotope data for subsurface crude oils. Most
of these articles provide information that is specific
to PSC blocks or sub-basins. There are also a few
articles which provide a regional overview, with
geochemical data for crude oils across several
basins (e.g., Robinson, 1987; ten Haven and
Schiefelbein, 1995).
Our objective was to use a simple classification
scheme that encompassed the major types of
Indonesian source rocks, their geological ages and a
broad description of their depositional environment.
For this purpose, the overview by Robinson (1987)
provided a solid foundation. It was supplemented
with additional geochemical information and
interpretations by ten Haven and Schiefelbein
(1995), Schiefelbein et al. (1997), and Peters et al.
(1999). We focused on crude oils from the main
producing areas of Indonesia that were
volumetrically significant. We did not create
additional categories for one-off oils or sub-groups
that are known to exist. We recognize that the sub-
grouping of oils is important when working at the
exploration play or prospect scale, as it can provide
valuable information on specific kitchens and
migration pathways (Noble et al., 1997). However,
for the purpose of the current study, we have
maintained a higher level classification scheme.
An Indonesian basin map (Figure 5) illustrates the
major oil producing regions of Indonesia, color
coded by basin resource volumes (after Doust and
Noble, 2008). Crude oils from producing basins
have been classified on the basis of source rock
depositional environment (lacustrine, deltaic, and
marine) and geologic age (Late Miocene-Pliocene,
Early-Mid Miocene, Eocene-Oligocene, and
Mesozoic).
For example, the major producing area of Central
Sumatra has oils that are derived from lacustrine
source rocks of Eocene-Oligocene age (Pematang
Brown Shale). Oils from the South Sumatra basin
are principally derived from an Eocene-Oligocene
deltaic source (Talang Akar), plus oils from the
Eocene-Oligocene lacustrine source (Sundaland rift
facies, locally referred to as Lahat). Crude oils from
similar types of Eocene-Oligocene source rocks are
seen in NW Java, East Java ,West Natuna and
Barito basins (see Howes and Trisnawijaya, 1995
for additional details).
Mahakam Delta, Makassar Strait and Tarakan
provinces are dominated by Early-Mid Miocene
deltaic sourced oils. These oils are often enriched in
biomarkers derived from higher plants. Most of the
produced oils originate from fluvial to lower delta
plain coaly sediments (Paterson et al., 1997).
Transport of the same type of organic matter by
turbidity currents has given rise to oils of similar
composition in deepwater settings (Lin et al., 2005).
Oils from marine source rocks are not common in
Western Indonesia, with minor exceptions in the
North Sumatra and East Natuna basins (Subroto et
al., 1992; ten Haven and Schiefelbein, 1995).
However, in eastern Indonesia, it is a completely
different case, with the majority of crude oils
showing a strong marine affinity. Oils from the
Salawati basin are derived from a marine source
rock of Late Miocene-E. Pliocene age (Klasafet
Fm.). A similar age and type of source rock is seen
in the Tomori region of East-Central Sulawesi
(Hasanusi et al., 2004). Oils from the Timor Sea
(North Bonaparte basin) are derived from marine
Mesozoic shaley source rocks of the Frigate and
Echuca Shoals Formations (Preston and Edwards,
2000). Produced oils from Seram are also sourced
by Mesozoic marine sediments, although in this
case, they appear to be dominately derived from
carbonate/marly lithofacies (Price et al., 1987).
From a commercial perspective, the lacustrine and
deltaic oils of western Indonesia far outweigh the
importance of marine systems in eastern Indonesia.
However, as many of the western Indonesian oil
provinces are in decline, we keenly anticipate the
emergence of new basins in eastern Indonesia
where marine petroleum systems will play a much
more important role.
SOURCE TYPE OF SEA FLOOR SEEPS IN
FRONTIER BASINS
Geochemical data collected for piston cores were
used to interpret the source type of oil seeps.
Screening information from TSF and GC positively
identified cores with anomalously high levels of
migrated petroleum. Biomarker and isotope data
then provided insights into the type of source rock
that gave rise to the oil seep. The seep information
was integrated with seismic interpretation of basin
structure, stratigraphy, and potential migration
conduits, resulting in an assessment of the most
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probable underlying petroleum system. It should be
pointed out that in cases where the data were
uncertain, and the interpretation was equivocal, our
best judgment was used to relate a given source
rock type to a seep.
Results for each of the ten study areas are presented
in Figure 5, and summarized as follows:
1. SW Sunda
Biomarker profiles show clear evidence for the
occurrence of 18a(H)-oleanane (angiosperm
marker) within an overall non-marine profile. The
probable oil source is Eocene-Oligocene fluvio-
deltaic coals / shales (Talang Akar type).
2. North Makassar
An oil seep from the North Makassar area is quite
different from the typical non-marine oils of the
Mahakam Delta. The N. Makassar seep clearly
exhibits marine carbonate/marly source
characteristics, with no strong evidence of Tertiary
plant biomarkers. There is presently insufficient
seismic/geologic information to clearly define the
source rock age, and the biomarker data were not
sufficiently diagnostic to distinguish between a
Tertiary and Mesozoic source. Nevertheless, the oil
seep appears to represent a new petroleum system in
this region.
3. Bone Bay
The terpane biomarker distribution shows a
relatively simple pattern, with no evidence of higher
plant markers. There is affinity to a marine shaley
source rock, possibly of Mesozoic age. However,
there is presently insufficient seismic/geologic
information to clearly define the source system, so
its age remains uncertain.
4. Banggai Sula
Oil seeps from certain parts of this region show
definite marine characteristics, with simple
biomarker patterns and no higher plant terpanes. A
Mesozoic marine shale source system seems
probable (Australian NW Shelf type).
5. Gorontalo
A Gorontalo Bay oil seep exhibits one of the most
pronounced anoxic marine marly source signatures
encountered to date in Indonesia. There is a high
relative abundance of C29 hopane, plus elevated
C35 hopanes relative to lower carbon number
homologues. There is no evidence of Tertiary plant
biomarkers. The seep is interesting as no wells have
been drilled to date in the basin. Since there is no
well control, it is not possible to infer an age of the
potential source system. However, the seep
geochemistry suggests a Mesozoic marine
carbonate/marly source. The seep results provide
encouragement that a previously unknown
petroleum system exists in this basin.
6. Cendrawasih
Oil seep occurrences in Cendrawasih Bay are
partially obscured by recent organic matter in the
piston core extracts. Nevertheless, the biomarker
characteristics indicate a marine shale source of
Tertiary age. The offshore deepwater basin is
undrilled at the present time, and hence there is no
subsurface control to validate the age of the inferred
petroleum system.
7. Misool
Oil seepage in the Misool area has occurred on an
episodic basis. The GC patterns indicate a mixture
of biodegraded oil residue together with fresh
undegraded oil. This GC signature is manifested as
a regular suite of n-alkanes (C15-C35 range)
superimposed on a large unresolved complex
mixture. The biomarkers contain significant
amounts of oleananes, lupanes and bicadinanes,
representing contributions of detrital higher plant
matter in the source system. It is important to note
that very high abundances of 18-a(H) oleanane
relative to C30 hopane often indicate a marine
source environment that may be quite distal to the
paleoshoreline (Murray et al., 1997). Although this
may seem counter-intuitive, Murray et al. (1997)
point out that diagenetic conditions in non-marine
and proximal settings tend not to favor the
preservation of the oleanane biomarker skeleton as
much as when plant matter is transported into
marine environments. Hence, high relative
abundances of oleanane are often found in marine
source rocks.
The Misool oil seeps appear to have been sourced
by Late Tertiary (Pliocene) marine shales
containing abundant detrital plant matter (Klasafet
type).
8. Seram
Oil seeps in the offshore Seram area appear to be of
two types. The most pronounced type has strong
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characteristics of a marine carbonate/marly source
of Mesozoic age. A good correlation exists between
these oil seeps and produced oils from onshore
Seram (Price et al., 1987). A second type of seep
shows greater affinity to a Mesozoic marine shaley
source (NW Shelf type). The correlation here is less
certain, as many of the samples contain immature
biomarker signatures, possibly due to mixing with
low maturity sediments ejected by mud volcanoes
onto the seafloor.
9. Kumawa / Keras
There are at least two families of oils represented in
the Kumawa/Keras region, offshore West Papua.
All the oil seeps appear to be from a marine source.
The most abundant type of oil, which may contain
two sub-groups, is sourced from Tertiary sediments.
Based on geological considerations, the source
rocks are likely to be of Pliocene age (Klasafet
type). The second oil type, which was more difficult
to characterize, is likely to be derived from a
Mesozoic marine shale (NW Shelf type).
10. Jamdena
Oil seeps from this region do not display any
Tertiary biomarker characteristics. The seeps are
very clearly derived from a marine shaley source
rock of Mesozoic age. There is a good correlation
with produced oils from the Timor Sea – North
Bonaparte basin (NW Shelf type).
CONCLUSIONS
Oil and gas seeps located in frontier offshore
settings have been accurately sampled and analyzed
for their geochemical properties. Screening criteria
were applied to 1182 piston cores in order to
identify the areas of highest seepage. We focused
on oil seeps in order to obtain information about the
type of source and its relationship to produced oils
from the basin. Biomarkers, carbon isotopes and
geological considerations were used to classify the
oil seeps according to 1) source environment:
lacustrine, deltaic, marine; and 2) geologic age of
source rock: Late Miocene- Pliocene, Early-Mid
Miocene, Eocene-Oligocene, Mesozoic. In some
instances, the seeps tied directly to crude oils that
are being produced in the basin. In other cases, the
seeps showed sufficient difference to indicate a
source rock of a different type or age was active.
The sea floor seeps provide unprecedented insight
into areas of active hydrocarbon migration in
undrilled or under-explored basins. In some areas,
the seeps provide first evidence for the existence of
an underlying petroleum system, which in the future
may provide the necessary incentive to undertake a
detailed exploration and drilling program.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Migas for permission to publish this
paper. TDI-Brooks International Inc. provided
piston core acquisition and geochemical analyses.
Biomarker analyses were conducted by Geomark
Research, Inc., and Baseline Resolution, Inc.
(Weatherford). The IndoDeep project data are
published with the permission of TGS-NOPEC
Geophysical Company. Special thanks to our
colleagues at Black Gold Energy, for supporting our
efforts and making our office a great place to work.
REFERENCES CITED
Bernard, B.B., Brooks, J.M., Baillie, P., Decker, J.,
Teas, P.A., and Orange, D.L., 2008, Surface
Geochemical Exploration and Heat Flow Surveys in
Fifteen (15) Frontier Indonesia Basins: Proceedings,
Indonesian Petroleum Association, v. 32, 14 pp.
Doust, H., and Noble, R. A., 2008, Petroleum
Systems of Indonesia: Marine and Petroleum
Geology, v. 25, p. 103-129.
Hasanusi, D., Abimanyu, R., Artono, E., Baasir, A.,
2004, Prominent Senoro gas field discovery in
Central Sulawesi, In: R.A. Noble et al., eds.,
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ten Haven, H.L. and Schiefelbein, C.F., 1995, The
Petroleum Systems of Indonesia: Proceedings
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Howes, J. V. C., and Trisnawijaya, S., 1995,
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Lin, R., Saller A., Dunham J., Teas, P., Kacewicz,
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Macgregor, D. S., 1995, The Exploration
Significance of Surface Oil Seepage: an Indonesian
Perspective: Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum
Association, v. 24 , p. 97-109.
Murray, A.P., Sosrowidjojo, I.B., Alexander, R.,
and Summons, R.E., 1997, Locating Effective
Source Rocks in Deltaic Petroleum Systems:
Making Better Use of Land Plant Biomarkers. In:
J.V.C. Howes and R.A. Noble, eds., International
Conference on Petroleum Systems of Southeast
Asia and Australia Proceedings, Jakarta, Indonesia,
p. 939-945
Noble, R.A., Pratomo, K.H., Nugrahanto, K.,
Ibrahim, A.M.T., Prasetya, I., Mujahadin, N., Wu,
C.H., and Howes, J.V.C., 1997, Petroleum Systems
of Northwest Java. In: J.V.C. Howes and R.A.
Noble, eds., International Conference on Petroleum
Systems of Southeast Asia and Australia
Proceedings, Jakarta, Indonesia, 585-600.
Orange, D.L., Teas, P.A., Decker, J., Baillie, P.,
Gilleran, P., and Levey, M.D., 2008, The Utilisation
of SeaSeep Surveys (a Defense / Hydrography
Spin-Off) to Identify and Sample Hydrocarbon
Seeps in Offshore Frontier Basins: International
Petroleum Technology Conference, IPTC-12839, 17
pp.
Orange, D., Decker, J., Teas, P.A., Baillie, P., and
Johnstone, T., 2009, Using SeaSeep Surveys to
Identify and Sample Natural Hydrocarbon Seeps in
Offshore Frontier Basins, Proceedings, Indonesia
Petroleum Association, v. 33, (this volume).
Paterson, D.W., Bachtiar, A., Bates, J.A., Moon,
J.A., and Surdam, R.C., 1997, Petroleum system of
the Kutei basin, Kalimantan, Indonesia. In J.V.C.
Howes and R.A. Noble, eds., Petroleum Systems of
SE Asia and Australasia: Indonesian Petroleum
Association, p. 709-726.
Peters, K.E., Fraser, T.H., Amris, W., Rustanto, B.,
and Hermanto, E., 1999, Geochemistry of Crude
Oils from Eastern Indonesia: American Association
of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 83, p. 1927-
1942.
Peters, K. E, Walters C. C., and Moldowan, J. M.,
2005, The Biomarker Guide, Volume 2, Biomarkers
and Isotopes in Petroleum Exploration and Earth
History: Cambridge University Press, 1155 pp.
Preston J. C., and Edwards, D. S., 2000, The
Petroleum Geochemistry of Oils and Source Rocks
from the N. Bonaparte Basin, Offshore Northern
Australia: APPEA Journal, p. 257-282.
Price. P. L., O’Sullivan, T., Alexander, R., 187, The
Nature and Occurrence of Oil in Seram Indonesia:
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16 , P. 141-173.
Robinson, K.M., 1987, An Overview of Source
Rocks and Oils in Indonesia: Proceedings
Indonesian Petroleum Association, v.16, p. 97-122.
Schiefelbein, C.F., Zumberge, J. E., Brown, S. W.,
1997, Petroleum Systems of the Far East. In: J.V.C.
Howes and R.A. Noble, eds., International
Conference on Petroleum Systems of Southeast
Asia and Australia Proceedings, Jakarta, Indonesia,
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Subroto E.A., Alexander R., Pranyoto U. and Kagi
R.I., 1992, The Use of 30-Norhopanes series, a
Novel Carbonate Biomarker. In Source Rock To
Crude Oil Correlation in The North Sumatra Basin,
Indonesia: Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum
Association, v. 21, p. 145 -163.
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Figure 1 - Map of ten study areas. Red dots superimposed on multibeam bathymetry image correspond to
piston core sample points.
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C30

m/z = 191
Kumawa Seafloor Seep
pentacyclic terpanes
Source: Marine Shale, Tertiary
C29

tricyclic terpanes C31

Tm
C23 Ts OL C32
C21 C24
tet C33
C20 C22 C25 C26 C34
C19 C35
30 40 50 60 70 80

OL C30

Misool Seafloor Seep

Source: Marine Shale, Tertiary
Higher Land Plant Detritus
C29

ROM = *

Ts
Tm *
C32
C23 tet * C34
30 40 50 60 70 80

Jamdena Seafloor Seep C30

Source: Marine Shale, Mesozoic

C29

Tm

C32
Ts
C23 tet

C29
C29
Seram Seafloor Seep
Source: Marine Carbonate, Mesozoic
C30

Tm
tet * C32
C23 Ts
* C34

30 40 50 60 70 80

File: INTG1678S.D\DATA.MS

Figure 2 - Biomarker examples (m/z 191) of sea-floor oil seeps

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Figure 3 - Biomarker plot for interpretation of oil seep families

Figure 4 - Saturate vs. aromatic carbon isotope plot for piston core extracts
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Source Type for Indonesian Oils

Source Age Dep. Environment
L. Mio-Plio
Lacustrine
E-M. Miocene
Deltaic
Eoc-Oligocene

Marine
Mesozoic

Sea Floor Seeps

Figure 5 - Map of Indonesian crude oil families and sea-floor seeps

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