Question 1 The lower yield point for a certain plain carbon steel bar is found to be 135 MPa, while a second bar of the same composition yields at 260 MPa. Metallographic analysis shows that the average grain diameter is 50 ym in the first bar and 8 pm in the second bar. a) Predict the grain diameter needed to cause a lower yield point of 205 MPa. b) If the steel could be fabricated to form a stable grain structure of 500 nm grains, what strength would be predicted? Solution: We know that, the Hall-Petch relation is; Oys = 0; + Kya? Therefore, for the two bars; Oysx = 9+ Kydy Gys2 = + Kydy 2 Now, to find K, , solving the above equations to get, 260 Mp. 135 Mpa ym"? — S0um™2 = 595 Mpa em? a) Now, If oys3 = 205 Mpa , 3 (260 Mpa -205Mpa = |eum-3 — (SO Mpa = aes 595 Mpa jem? = d,= 145 um Thus, required grain diameter is 14.5 ym. Y 1 Reference: Mechanical Metallurgy, G.E. Dieter, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, 1987,b) Now, if grain diameter, d, = 0.5 um ; Gye ~ Oya = Ky (ds? = = Oya = tysa + Ky (de => oyey = 260 Mpa + 595 Mpa um (os -82) > G54 = 891 Mpa Thus, the predicted strength would be 891 Mpa. Question 2 Some alloys use a combination of strain hardening and precipitation hardening to achieve particularly high strength levels. The usual order of strengthening is solution treatment, quenching, cold working, and finally precipitation heat treatment. Why not reverse the order of the cold working and precipitation heat treatment steps? Solution: The cold working becomes more difficult as the alloy becomes harder after precipitation hardening. Also, the metal may crack during cold working as the material has low ductility due to high hardness. So, it is better to start the strengthening process with solution treatment, quenching, cold working, and finally precipitation heat treatment and not reverse the order. e Question 3 A thin-walled pressure vessel 1.25-cm thick originally contained a small semi-circular flaw (radius 0.25-cm) located at the inner surface and oriented normal to the hoop stress direction. Repeated pressure cycling enabled the crack to grow larger. If the fracture toughness of the material is 88MPavm, the yield strength equal to 825 MPa, and the hoop stress equal to 275 MPa, would the vessel leak before it ruptured? Solution: We know that the relation between fracture toughness, stress and crack length is given by, k=11(2)ovra k =a=t = (oes 2 Reference: Mechanical Metallurgy, G.E. Dieter, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hil, 1987,2 2( 8 MPavm ) re ews erorerom ay x \ia@7sMPay® a= 0.066m = 6.6cm Since, the crack length is 6.6 cm > 1.25 cm the ee, f pressure vessel. Therefore it leaks before it is ruptured. L Question 4 Discuss the strengthening techniques that may be used to enhance the fatigue resistance. Solution: The fatigue resistance can be improved by avoiding the local concentrations of plastic deformation by homogenising slip deformation. This can be done by reducing the stacking fault energy, as high stacking-fault energy permit dislocations to cross slip easily around obstacles, this promotes slip-band formation and large plastic zones at the tips of cracks. Both of these phenomena promote the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks. So, low stacking fault energy will prevent cross slip and dislocations are constrained. Another approach is to increase fatigue strength by controlling microstructure through thermomechanical processing. This involves having homogenous slip and also creating many smaller areas of plastic deformation. Various techi ues that may be used in this regard are; Peening treatment: Shot peening imparts compressive residual stresses on the surface, this reduces the effective residual stress acting on the surface, and hence increases the fatigue resistance. Shot pening consists in projecting fine steel or cast- iron shot against the surface at high velocity. It is particularly used to mass produce parts of small sizes. Surface rolling: It is another method that Is particularly adapted to large parts. It is frequently used in critical regions such as the fillets of crankshafts and the bearing surface of railroad axles. In this method favourable compressive stresses are introduced on the surface of the part. Other methods: These involve introducing surface compressive residual stresses by means of thermal stresses produced by quenching steel from the tempering temperature and from stresses arising from the volume changes accompanying the metallurgical changes resulting from carburizing, nitriding, and induction hardening. Nitriding is particularly effective in combating corrosion fatigue. oe Reference: Mechanical Metallurgy, G.E. Dieter, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, 1987A mild steel plate is subjected to constant uniaxial fatigue loads to produce stresses varying from am: = 160 MPa and omn= -20 MPa. The static properties of the steel are oo = 500 MPa, Su= 600 MPa, E= 207 GPa and Ke= 100 MPa mi/2. If the plate contains an initial through thickness edge crack of 0.5 mm, how many fatigue cycles will be required to break the plate? Assume the relationship between crack growth and fracture toughness to be: da -1(AK)? Lap Fay (m/eyele) = 69 x 10" (AK)? (MPa m!?) Solution: Assuming an infinite wide plate with « =1.12. From the above equation, let A= 6.9 x 10-12 MPavm, m=3.0 and o-= 160-0 (since compressive stresses are ignored and we shall neglect the small influence of mean stress on the crack growth. Given, ai = 0.0005 m, Now, 1e_ke case) a 100 © W\L6OX LL ay = 0.0991 m % Integrating the following equation, a (tmjcycte) = 69 x 10-"(AK)* (MPa)? And rearranging we get, agin DAA_gr(m/2ye 7 a 5 (Clm/2)41)A.0™. 07", 0.0991" @/2)*4_9,900579/2)*! (-(8/2)41)3.45X10~6.1.123.1608 9/2 N= 0377X 10° Therefore, to break the plate 377000 fatigue cycles will be required. v 4 Reference: Mechanical Metallurgy, G.£. Dieter, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, 1987,