Development of A Flat-Plate Solar Collector Design Program

DEVELOPMENT OF A FLAT-PLATE SOLAR
COLLECTOR DESIGN PROGRAM
by
JAE-MO KOO
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
(Mechanical Engineering)
at the
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
1999
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to dedicate this thesis to my wife, Soo Jeong Lee. Without you, I would
have never accommodated myself into new environment and finished my graduate
course in Madison. I love you. This is for you. Mom and Dad, you always have taken
care of me even though I have been far away from you. You made me who I am. I
always thank you and respect your thought and life.
I would like to thank my advisors, William A. Beckman and John W. Mitchell, for all of
your concern and advice. It was an honor to work under the direction of you. I would
also like to thank to Professor Sanford A. Klein. I have been impressed at your ability to
look at a problem form an entirely different perspective. I wanted to learn your ability
but I am not sure whether I did or not. All of you have always encouraged me to do my
work with confidence.
Thanks to Solar Energy Laboratory. We had a seminar every week that gave me chances
to meet various areas. Actually I could not understand every word due to my poor
English. But it was really great to have a chance to present my work and listen to others.
Thanks to Joon Sik Park, my senior from Hong-Ik University. You gave me a lot of
advice for my study and life in Madison. I really would like to have a chance to work
with you in near future.
And finally, thanks to my brother and sister for your concern and encouragement.
ii
ABSTRACT
Flat-plate solar collectors have potential applications in HVAC system,
industrial thermal process, and solar engineering. Flat-plate collectors are the most
economical and popular in solar domestic heating water system since they are
permanently fixed in positions, have simple construction, and require little maintenance.
The design of a solar energy system is generally concerned with obtaining maximum
efficiency at minimum cost. The aim of this thesis is to develop a design tool for
predicting the performance of a flat-plate solar collector.
A very detailed thermal analysis of a flat-plate solar collector was carried out to
predict the thermal performance. The analysis is based on the established theory about
flat-plate solar collector: the radiation absorption, heat loss from the collector, and
temperature distribution on the plate. The calculation of useful energy and top heat loss
from the collector is based on the aperture area to make a more accurate prediction of
collector performance. The net-radiation method was employed to obtain the radiation
component of top heat loss from the general collector cover system. The correlation for
natural convection heat transfer between the covers and between the plate and cover
was selected with the consideration of the low conductivity of plastics. The semi-gray
radiation model was adopted to determine the optical properties of the collector cover
and absorber plate.
Results comparing the design tool calculations with experiments showed good
agreement. The collector tests were performed by Florida Solar Energy Center. The
iii
calculations based on the information from test reports yielded an accurate prediction of
the thermal performance of flat-plate solar collectors.
Based on the analysis, a flat-plate solar collector design program (CoDePro) has
been developed. The program is arranged so that detailed information about the
collector can be specified with an easy-to-use graphic interface. Compiled versions of
CoDePro have been distributed to solar engineers from its development level, and it has
been modified according to their suggestions. CoDePro has an ability to evaluate the
collector performance with high accuracy and can be used as a design tool for flat-plate
solar collectors.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.......................................................................................... i
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... ii
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. vii
LIST OF TABLE ....................................................................................................... ix
NOMENCLATURE.................................................................................................... x
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................... 1
1.1 FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS ....................................................................... 2
1.2 ENGINEERING EQUATION SOLVER ....................................................................... 4
1.3 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 2 FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS ............................................ 6
2.1 PHYSICAL MODEL FOR FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS .................................... 6
2.2 ENERGY BALANCE EQUATION .......................................................................... 10
2.3 SOLAR RADIATION ABSORPTION ....................................................................... 12
2.3.1 Reflection of Radiaiton............................................................................ 13
2.3.2 Absorption by Glazing ............................................................................ 14
2.3.3 Optical Properties of Cover Systems........................................................ 15
2.3.4 Equivalent Angles of Incidence for Diffuse Radiation.............................. 18
2.3.5 Transmittance-Absorptance Product (τα)................................................. 19
2.3.6 Angular Dependence of (τα) ................................................................... 20
2.4 HEAT LOSS FROM THE COLLECTOR ................................................................... 21
2.4.1 Collector Overall Heat Loss .................................................................... 21
2.4.2 Top Heat Loss through the Cover System ................................................ 22
2.4.2.1 Cover-Plate System with No Covers..................................................... 23
2.4.2.2 Cover-Plate System with One Cover .................................................... 24
2.4.2.3 Cover-Plate System with Two Covers................................................... 27
v
2.4.2.4 Sky Temperature .................................................................................. 29

2.4.2.5 Wind Convection Coefficient ............................................................... 30
2.4.2.6 Natural Convection between Parallel Plates.......................................... 31
2.4.3 Back and Edge Heat Loss ........................................................................ 32
2.4.4 Overall Heat Loss Coefficient.................................................................. 33
2.5 THE MEAN ABSORBER PLATE TEMPERATURE .................................................... 34
2.5.1 Collector Efficiency Factor...................................................................... 34
2.5.2 Temperature Distribution in Flow Direction ............................................ 39
2.5.3 Collector Heat Removal Factor................................................................ 40
2.5.4 Mean Fluid and Plate Temperatures......................................................... 42
2.5.5 Forced Convection inside of Tubes .......................................................... 43
2.6 THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF THE COLLECTORS ................................................ 46
2.6.1 Instantaneous Efficiency.......................................................................... 46
2.6.2 Incidence Angle Modifier ........................................................................ 48
2.6.3 Stagnation Temperatures.......................................................................... 48
2.7 COLLECTOR TEST AND THERMAL PERFORMANCE MODELS ................................ 49
2.7.1 Instantaneous Efficiency.......................................................................... 50
2.7.2 Incidence Angle Modifier ........................................................................ 51
CHAPTER 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION......................................................... 53
3.1 NATURAL CONVECTION BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES ........................................ 53
3.2 COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENTS .................................................................... 56
3.2.1 MSC-32 (American Energy Technologies, Inc.)....................................... 56
3.2.2 SX-600 (Solmax Inc.).............................................................................. 60
3.2.3 STG-24 (Sun Trapper Solar Systems, Inc.) .............................................. 63
3.3 EFFECTS OF DESIGN PARAMETERS .................................................................... 67
3.3.1 Number of Covers ................................................................................... 67
3.3.2 Number of Tubes..................................................................................... 68
3.3.3 Infrared Properties of the Cover............................................................... 68
CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................... 72
vi
APPENDIX A FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR DESIGN PROGRAM

(CODEPRO) ............................................................................................................ 74
APPENDIX B HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PROGRAM FOR SDHW
SYSTEM ................................................................................................................. 109
B.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 109
B.2 SHELL-AND-TUBE TYPE H EAT EXCHANGER .....................................................110
B.3 IMMERSED INTERNAL HEAT EXCHANGER .........................................................114
B.3.1 Fin Efficiency.........................................................................................116
B.4 HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PROGRAM .............................................................118
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 138
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Schematic of a typical solar domestic hot water system........................... 2

Figure 2.1.1 MSC-32 Flat-plate solar collector, American Energy Technologies Inc.... 7
Figure 2.1.2 Physical flat-palte collector model .......................................................... 8
Figure 2.3.1 Incident and refraction angle and absorption in media. .......................... 13
Figure 2.3.2 Ray-tracing techniques for transmittance and reflectance of a cover...... 16
Figure 2.3.3 Absorbed solar radiation at the absorber plate ....................................... 19
Figure 2.4.1 Heat transfer mechanisms through a cover system with two covers ....... 23
Figure 2.4.2 Top heat loss from the flat-plate solar collector with no covers.............. 24
Figure 2.4.3 Net-radiation method applied to one cover-plate ................................... 25
Figure 2.4.4 Net-radiation method for two cover-plate.............................................. 27
Figure 2.5.1 Geometric configuration of the absorber plate-tube ............................... 35
Figure 2.5.2 Fin configuration and energy balance .................................................... 36
Figure 2.5.3 Energy balance of a control volume of the tube ..................................... 39
Figure 3.1.1 Nusselt numbers for natural convection heat transfer between parallel
plates at various angles ......................................................................... 55
Figure 3.1.2 Comparison of Instantaneous efficiencies of the collector with different
natural convection relations .................................................................. 55
Figure 3.2.1 Comparison of calculated efficiency with experiment for MSC-32 flat-
plate solar collector .............................................................................. 59
Figure 3.2.2 Comparison of calculated incidence angle modifier with experiment for
MSC-32 flat-plate solar collector.......................................................... 59
Figure 3.2.3 Comparison of calculated efficiency with experiment for SX-600 flat-
SX-600 flat-plate solar collector ........................................................... 62
Figure 3.2.5 Comparison of calculated efficiency with experiment for STG-24 flat-
viii
STG-24 flat-plate solar collector........................................................... 66
Figure 3.3.1 Effect of the number of covers on the collector efficiency ..................... 70
Figure 3.3.2 Effect of the number of tubes on the collector efficiency ....................... 70
Figure 3.3.3 Effect of the infrared properties of cover on the collector efficiency ...... 71
Figure A.1 Main diagram window .......................................................................... 81
Figure A.2 Child window 1 – Test Conditions......................................................... 81
Figure A.3 Child window 2 – Collector dimensions................................................ 82
Figure A.4 Child window 3 – Cover and plate ........................................................ 82
Figure A.5 Child window 4 – Edge and back insulation .......................................... 83
Figure A.6 Child window 5 – Tube and fluid ......................................................... 83
Figure A.7 Child window 6 – Equations from test................................................... 84
Figure A.8 Child window 7 – Results ..................................................................... 84
Figure A.9 Plot window – Instantaneous efficiency ................................................ 85
Figure A.10 Plot window – Incidence angle modifier ............................................... 85
Figure A.11 Child window 8 – Stagnation temperatures ........................................... 86
Figure B.2.1 Shell-and-tube type heat exchanger ......................................................111
Figure B.3.1 Immersed internal heat exchanger inside of tank ..................................114
Figure B.3.2 Circular fin for immersed tubes............................................................117
Figure B.4.1 Main diagram window of shell-and-tube heat exchanger design program ..
............................................................................................................119
Figure B.4.2 Geometric configuration window for shell-and-tube heat exchanger ....119
Figure B.4.3 Operating condition window for shell-and-tube heat exchanger........... 120
Figure B.4.4 Main diagram window of immersed internal heat exchanger design
program.............................................................................................. 120
Figure B.4.5 Geometric configuration window for immersed heat exchanger .......... 121
Figure B.4.6 Operating condition window for immersed heat exchanger ................. 121
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.2.1 Test conditions and specification of MSC-32 flat-plate solar collector... 58
Table 3.2.2 Test conditions and specification of SX-600 flat-plate solar collector .... 61
Table 3.2.3 Test conditions and specification of STG-24 flat-plate solar collector.... 65
x
NOMENCLATURE
Ac Gross collector area

Ae Edge area of collector
Ap Aperture area
b0 Incidence angle modifier coefficienct
Cb Tube-plate bond conductance
Cp Specific heat of working fluid
D Outer diameter of tube
Di Inner diameter of tube
F Fin efficiency of straight insulated-fins with rectangular cross section
f Darcy friction factor
FR Collector heat removal factor
F′ Collector efficiency factor
′
F′ Collector flow factor
GT Total intensity of incident solar radiation on tilted collector surface.
hfi Forced convection heat transfer coefficient inside of tubes
hw Wind convection coefficient
I Intensity of incident radiation
K Minor loss coefficient
Kτα Incidence angle modifier
k Thermal conductivity
kb Thermal conductivity of back insulation
ke Thermal conductivity of edge insulation
L Characteristic length
Lb Thickness of back insulation
Le Thickness of edge insulation
Leq Equivalent length
xi
m Parameter of the fin-air arrangement

m& Total collector mass flow rate
n Number of tubes
n1 Refractive index of medium 1
n2 Refractive index of medium 2
Nu Nusselt number
P Pressure
Pr Prandtl number
Q Heat transfer rate
q radiation flux
Qc Heat transfer rate due to convection
Qr Heat transfer rate due to radiation
Qb Back heat loss from collector
Qe Edge heat loss from collector
Qu Useful gain from collector
Qloss Overall heat loss from collector
Qt Top heat loss from collector
r Reflection of radiation
Rb Geometric factor
Ra Rayleigh number
Re Reynolds number
S Absorbed radiation per unit area of absorber plate
Sc Absorbed radiation per unit area based on the gross collector area
T Temperature
t hour from midnight
Ta Ambient temperature
Tb Fin base temperature
Tf Local fluid temperature
Tfm Mean fluid temperature
xii
Tdp Dew point temperature

Ti Fluid temperature at collector inlet
To Fluid temperature at collector exit
Tpm Mean plate temperature
Ts Sky temperature
U Mean fluid velocity inside of tubes
UL Overall loss coefficient of the collector based on the gross collector area
U′
L Overall loss coefficient of the collector based on the aperture area
V Wind speed
W Distance between the centers of adjacent tubes
GREEK
α Absorptance
β Collector slope
βv Volumetric coefficient of expansion of air
∆ Difference
δ Thickness of absorber plate
ε Emittance
η Instantaneous efficiency of solar collector
ν Kinematic viscosity
θ Angle of incidence of solar radiation
θ1 Angle of incidence
θ2 Angle of refraction
θd,e equivalent angle of incidence for diffuse radiation
θg,e equivalent angle of incidence for ground-reflected radiation
ρ Reflectance
xiii
ρf Density of working fluid

σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant
τ Transmittance
τa Transmittance of material due to absorption of radiation
(τα) Transmittance-absorptance product
Subscript
b Beam radiation
c Cover
c1 Cover 1 (inner cover)
c2 Cover 2 (outer cover)
d Diffuse radiation
g Ground-reflected radiation
i Incidence radiation
n Normal incidence
p Absorber plate
r Reflected radiation
⊥ Perpendicular component of radiation
|| Parallel component of radiation
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
A solar domestic hot water (SDHW) system consists of solar collectors, heat
exchangers, storage tanks, auxiliary heaters, pipes, pumps, valves, and controllers. It
absorbs solar radiation in collectors, delivers the collected energy to the thermal storage
tank with or without heat exchangers, and then provides hot water for domestic usage.
Excess thermal energy is stored in one or two thermal storage tanks. When the solar
energy is insufficient to meet the heating load, an auxiliary heater will provide the
thermal energy. Figure 1.1 shows a schematic diagram of a typical one-tank forced-
circulation SDHW system.
To evaluate the performance of solar heating systems, experimental or numerical
testing methods can be used. While experiments yield valuable information, numerical
modeling allows differentiating between designs at reasonable costs. A simulation
program like TRNSYS [7] needs performance equations or data for each component to
perform system simulation. The main objective of this study is to develop a design
2
program that can reproduce the performance of the flat-plate solar collectors. At the
development level the design program can replace physical experimental tests with
numerical tests. In addition, it can be used as the design tool for a company specializing
in SDHW systems. In this thesis a design program is developed so that very detailed
Heat
Exchanger
Load
Solar Collector
Auxiliary Heater
Storage
Controller Tank
Collector Pump Cold water supply
Figure 1.1 Schematic of a typical solar domestic hot water system
information can be specified to allow solar engineers to investigate the impact of
design changes on the collector performance.

3
1.1 Flat-Plate Solar Collectors
Flat-plate solar collectors have potential applications in many space-heating
situations, air conditioning, industrial process heat, and also for heating domestic water
[3]. These collectors use both beam and diffuse radiation. A well-designed collector can
produce hot water at temperature up to the boiling point of water [3]. They are usually
fixed in position permanently, have fairly simple construction, and require little
maintenance. To keep costs at a level low enough to make solar heating more attractive
than other sources of heat, the materials, dimensions, and method of fabrication must be
chosen with care.
A flat-plate solar collector consists of a radiation-absorbing flat plate beneath
one or more transparent covers, tubes attached to the plate to transport the circulating
fluid and back and edge insulation to reduce heat loss. Water or an anti-freeze fluid
circulates through the collector by a pump or by natural convection to remove the
absorbed heat.
4
Even though the theory of flat-plate solar collectors is well established, accurate
design programs, which have an easy-to-use graphic interface and include all the design
factors, are not available. In this thesis a detailed model is developed that includes all of
the design features of the collector such as: plate material and thickness, tube diameters
and spacing, number of covers and cover material, back and edge insulation dimensions,
etc. The program is useful for collector design and for detailed understanding of how
collectors function. For system simulation programs such as TRNSYS [7], simple
models such as instantaneous efficiency and incident angle modifier are usually
adequate. The detailed model developed in this study can provide these simple
parameters.
1.2 Engineering Equation Solver
Engineering Equation Solver (EES) is a program developed by Professor
Sanford A. Klein of the Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin – Madison

5
[6]. It can solve a system of algebraic, differential, and complex equations. It can also
perform optimization, provide linear and nonlinear regression, and generate publication-
quality plots. Since it automatically identifies and groups equations to be solved
simultaneously, the solver always operates at optimum efficiency. Many mathematical
functions, thermophysical properties, and transport properties are also provided by
built-in functions that are helpful in solving engineering problems in thermodynamics,
fluid mechanics, and heat transfer. With these features, the user is able to concentrate
more on his/her own problem. EES is particularly useful for design problems in which
the impacts of one or more parameters need to be investigated.
The professional version of EES provides multiple diagram windows and
additional features by which a programmer can develop graphic user interface. One
valuable feature of the professional version is “make distributable.” Once a program is
developed, a compiled version can be created. This compiled version can be freely
distributed among students and the solar engineers. The design programs of this study
will be developed with EES.

6
1.3 Objectives
The objective of this thesis is to develop a new analytical and modeling tool to
evaluate the performance of components in order to reduce the cost of solar domestic
hot water (SDHW) systems. The new design tool will allow engineers to make design
changes and determine their effects on the thermal performance at a reasonable cost.
The program will be arranged so that very detailed information can be specified. It will
allow a company specializing in SDHW systems to investigate the impact of design
changes in their equipment on the thermal performance. For the task to be useful to the
SDHW industry, the design program will have to provide performance equations and
data that can be used a system simulation program like TRNSYS [7]. The program
should also provide comparisons of the analytical results from EES with experiments
following SRCC [17] practice that are normally performed on solar collector.
Throughout the project, it is necessary to ensure that EES is capable of modeling and
analyzing innovative designs.

7
CHAPTER TWO
FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS
A solar collector is a very special kind of heat exchanger that uses solar radiation
to heat the working fluid. While conventional heat exchangers accomplish a fluid-to-
fluid heat exchange with radiation as a negligible factor, the solar collector transfers the
energy from an incoming solar radiation to a fluid. The wavelength range of importance
for flat-plate solar collectors is from the visible to the infrared [3]. The radiation heat
transfer should be considered thoroughly in the calculation of absorbed solar radiation
and heat loss. While the equations for collector performance are reduced to relatively
simple forms in many practical cases of design calculations, they are developed in detail
in this thesis to obtain a thorough understanding of the performance of flat-plate solar
collectors.
8
2.1 Physical Model For Flat-Plate Solar Collectors
A flat-plate solar collector is illustrated in detail in Figure 2.1.1. It is the MSC-
32 flat-plate solar collector manufactured by American Energy Technologies, Inc. [13].
Figure 2.1.2 shows a schematic diagram of a typical liquid heating flat-plate solar
MSC-32 Flat-plate solar collector, American Energy Technologies Inc.(from FRSC test report [13])
9
Frontal Transparent Area
(a) Frontal view (b) Side view

10
Figure 2.1.2 Physical flat-plate collector model
collector. Important parts are the cover system with one or more glass or plastic covers,
a plate for absorbing incident solar energy, parallel tubes attached to the plates, and
11
edge and back insulation. The detailed configuration may be different from one
collector to the other. However, the basic geometry is similar for almost flat-plate solar
collectors. The analysis of the flat-plate solar collector in this chapter is performed
based on the configuration shown in Figure 2.1.2.
Some assumptions made to model the flat-plate solar collectors are as follows:
1. The collector operates in steady state.
2. Temperature gradient through the covers is negligible.
3. There is one-dimensional heat flow through the back and side insulation and
through the cover system.
4. The temperature gradient around and through tubes is negligible.
5. The temperature gradient through the absorber plate is negligible.
6. The collector may have zero to two covers.
7. The semi-gray radiation model is employed to calculate radiation heat transfer in the
solar and infrared spectrum.
8. In calculating instantaneous efficiency, the radiation is incident on the solar
collector with fixed incident angle.

12
9. The collector is free-standing.
10. The area of absorber is assumed to be the same as the frontal transparent area.
13
2.2 Energy Balance Equation
In steady state, the performance of a flat-plate solar collector can be described
by the useful gain from the collector, Qu, which is defined as the difference between the
absorbed solar radiation and the thermal loss or the useful energy output of a collector:
[ ]+
Qu = Ap S − AcU L (T pm − Ta ) (2.2.1)
where Ac and Ap are the gross and aperture area of the collector, respectively. The first
term is the absorbed solar energy and the second term represents the heat loss from the
collector. The solar radiation absorbed by a collector per unit area of absorber S can be
calculated using the optical properties of covers and a plate. The thermal energy loss
from the collector to the surroundings can be represented as the product of a heat
transfer coefficient UL times the difference between the mean absorber plate
temperature Tpm and the ambient temperature Ta. The + superscript indicates that only
positive values of the terms in the square brackets are to be used. Thus, to produce
useful gain greater than zero the absorbed radiation must be greater than the thermal
14
losses. Two collector areas appear in Equation 2.2.1; gross collector area Ac is defined
as the total area occupied by a collector and the aperture collector area Ap is the
transparent frontal area.
ASHRAE Standard [1] employs the gross area as a reference collector area in
the definition of thermal efficiency of the collector. The useful gain from the collector
based on the gross collector area becomes
[ ]+
Qu = Ac S c − U L (T pm − Ta ) (2.2.2)
where Sc is the absorbed solar radiation per unit area based on the gross collector area,
defined as
Ap
Sc = S . (2.2.3)
Ac
Since the radiation absorption and heat loss at the absorber plate is considered
based on the aperture area in this study, it is convenient to make the aperture collector
area the reference collector area of the useful gain. Then Equation 2.2.1 becomes
15
[ ]+
Qu = A p S − U L′(T pm − Ta ) (2.2.4)
where U′L is the overall heat loss coefficient based on the aperture area given by
Ac
U L′ = U L . (2.2.5)
Ap
2.3 Solar Radiation Absorption
The prediction of collector performance requires knowledge of the absorbed
solar energy by the collector absorber plate. The solar energy incident on a tilted
collector consists of three different distributions: beam radiation, diffuse radiation, and
ground-reflected radiation. The details of the calculation depend on which diffuse-sky
model is used. In this study the absorbed radiation on the absorber plate is calculated by
isotropic sky model [8]:

16
S = I b Rb (τ α )b + I d (τ α )d  1 + cos β 
 + ( I b + I d )(τ α ) g ρ g  1 + cos β 
 (2.3.1)
 2   2 
where the subscripts b, d, and g represent beam, diffuse, and ground-reflected radiation,
respectively. I is intensity of radiation on a horizontal surface, (τ α ) the transmittance-
absorptance product that represents the effective absorptance of the cover-plate system,
and β the collector slope. ρ g is the diffuse reflectance of ground and the geometric
factor Rb is the ratio of beam radiation on the tilted surface to that on a horizontal
surface. This section treats the way to calculate the transmittance-absorptance product
of beam, diffuse, ground-reflected radiation for a given collector configuration and
specified test conditions.
Ii Ir
θ1 θ1
Medium 1 (n1)
It1
Medium 2 (n2)
τa θ2 L
It2
17
Figure 2.3.1 Incident and refraction angle and absorption in media
2.3.1 Reflection of Radiation
For a smooth interface the Fresnel equations evaluate the reflection of
unpolarized radiation on passing from medium 1 with a refractive index n1 to medium 2
with refractive index n2 (Figure 2.3.1). The reflection of unpolarized radiation r is given
by
= ( r⊥ + r|| )
Ir 1
r= (2.3.2)
Ii 2
where the perpendicular and parallel components are given by

18
sin 2 (θ 2 − θ 1 )
r⊥ = (2.3.3)
sin 2 (θ 2 + θ 1 )
tan 2 (θ 2 − θ 1 )
r|| = (2.3.4)
tan 2 (θ 2 + θ 1 )
where θ 1 and θ 2 are the incident and refraction angles, respectively, that are related to
the refraction indices by Snell’s law:
n1 sin θ 2
= . (2.3.5)
n2 sin θ 1
If the angle of incidence and refractive indices of media are known, the reflectance of a
surface can be calculated by using Equations 2.3.2-2.3.5.
2.3.2 Absorption by Glazing
Bouguer’s law [3] describes the absorption of radiation in a partially transparent
medium. With the assumption that the absorbed radiation is proportional to the local
intensity in the medium and the distance x the radiation has traveled in the medium, the
19
transmittance of the medium can be represented as (Figure 2.3.1)
It2  KL 
τa = = exp −  (2.3.6)
I t1  cos θ 2 
where K is the extinction coefficient and L the thickness of the medium (Figure 2.3.1).
The subscript a is a reminder that only absorption has been considered.
2.3.3 Optical Properties of Cover Systems
In the case of collector covers and windows, the solar radiation travels through a
slab of materials. A cover or a window has two interfaces per cover causing reflection
losses. At an off-normal incident angle, reflection is different for each component of
polarization so that the transmitted and reflected radiation will be polarized. Ray tracing
techniques [12] for each component of polarization yields the transmittance of initially
unpolarized radiation.
20
The transmittance τ , reflectance ρ , and the absorptance α of a single cover for
incident unpolarized radiation can be found by the average of the perpendicular and
parallel components of polarization:
τ =
1
(τ ⊥ + τ || ) , ρ =
1
( ρ ⊥ + ρ || ) , α =
1
(α ⊥ + α || ) (2.3.7)
2 2 2
1 r r(1-r)2τ a2 r3(1-r)2τ a4
air
1-r r(1-r)τ a2 r2(1-r)τ a2
(1-r)(1-τ a) (1-r)(1-τ a)r2τ a2

cover
(1-r)(1-τ a)rτ a (1-r)(1-τ a)r3τ a3
(1-r)τ a r2(1-r)τ a3 r3(1-r)τ a3
air
(1-r)2τ a r2(1-r)2τ a3 r4(1-r)2τ a5
Figure 2.3.2 Ray-tracing techniques for transmittance and reflectance of a cover

21
where the perpendicular and parallel components of polarization can be determined by
ray-tracing (Figure 2.3.2) as:
τ ⊥ = τ a (1 − r )
∞
τ a (1 − r⊥ )2 1 − r⊥ 1 − r⊥( 2
)
2
∑ ( rτ a ) 2 n
n= 0
=
1− ( r⊥ τ a )2
=τa
1 + r⊥ 1 − ( r⊥ τ a )2
 ∞
  (1 − r⊥ )2 τ a 2 
ρ⊥ = r⊥ 1 + (1 − r⊥ ) τ a ∑ ( r⊥ τ a )  = r⊥ 1 +
2 2 2n
2 
(2.3.8)
 n= 0   1 − ( r⊥ τ a ) 
)∑ ( r⊥ τ a )n = (1 − τ a )(1 − r⊥ )
∞
α ⊥ = (1 − τ a )(1 − r⊥
n= 0 1 − r⊥ τ a
τ || =
τ a (1 − r|| )
2
= τ ||
1 − r|| (1 − r )
||
2
1 − ( r||τ a ) 1 + r|| 1 − ( r||τ a )2

2
 ∞
2n 
 (1 − r|| )2 τ a 2 
ρ || = r|| 1 + (1 − r|| ) τ a ∑ ( r||τ a )  = r|| 1 + 
2 2
1 − ( r||τ a ) 
(2.3.9)
 
2
n= 0 
∞ (1 − τ a )(1 − r|| )
α = (1 − τ a )(1 − r|| )∑ ( r||τ a ) =
n
⊥ .
n= 0 1 − r||τ a
For a two-cover system ray-tracing yields the following equations for transmittance
and reflectance [3]:

22
 
τ =
1
(τ ⊥ + τ || ) = 1  τ 2τ 1  +  τ 2τ 1   (2.3.10)
2 2   1 − ρ 2 ρ 1  ⊥  1 − ρ 2 ρ 1  || 
 
1  τ ρ 1τ 2   τ ρ 1τ 2  
ρ =  ρ 2 +  +  ρ 2 +   (2.3.11)
2  τ 1 ⊥  τ 1  || 
 
where subscript 1 and 2 refer to inner and outer cover, respectively. It should be noted
that the reflectance of the cover system depends upon which cover first intercepts the
solar radiation.
2.3.4 Equivalent Angles of Incidence for Diffuse Radiation
In the present sky radiation model, the radiation incident on a collector consists
of beam radiation from the sun, diffuse solar radiation that is scattered from the sky, and
ground-reflected radiation that is diffusely reflected from the ground. While the
preceding analysis can be applied directly to beam contribution, the transmittance of

23
cover systems for diffuse and ground-reflected radiation must be calculated by
integrating the transmittance over the appropriate incidence angles with an assumed sky
model. The calculation can be simplified by defining equivalent angles that give the
same transmittance as for diffuse and ground-reflected radiation [3].
Brandemuehl and Beckman [2] have performed the integration of the
transmittance over the appropriate incident angle with an isotropic sky model and
suggested the equivalent angle of incidence for diffuse radiation:
θ d ,e = 59.7 − 0.1388β + 0.001497 β 2

(2.3.12)
where β is the tilted angle of solar collector. For ground-reflected radiation, the
equivalent angle of incidence is given by
θ g ,e = 90 − 0.5788β + 0.002693β 2 . (2.3.13)
Cover System
τ (1-α ) τ (1-α )2ρ d τ (1-α ) 3ρ d2

24
Figure 2.3.3 Absorbed solar radiation at the absorber plate
2.3.5 Transmittance-Absorptance Product (τ α )
Some of the radiation passing through the cover system is reflected back to the
cover system while the remainder is absorbed at the plate. In turn, the reflected radiation
from the plate will be partially reflected at the cover system and back to the plate as
illustrated in Figure 2.3.3. In this figure, τ is the transmittance of the cover system at the
desired angle, α is the angular absorptance of the absorber plate, and ρ d refers to the
25
reflectance of the cover system for diffuse radiation incident from the bottom side. It is
assumed that the reflection from the absorber plate is diffuse and unpolarized. The
multiple reflection of diffuse radiation continues so that the fraction of the incident
energy ultimately absorbed becomes
∞
τα
(τ α ) = τα ∑ [(1 − α )ρ d ]n = (2.3.14)
n= 0 1 − (1 − α ) ρ d
where ρ d can be estimated from Equation 2.3.7 or Equation 2.3.11 at an angle of 60o [3].
2.3.6 Angular Dependence of (τ α )
The angular dependence of transmittance-absorptance product can be found
using Equation 2.3.1 - 2.3.11 for optical properties of covers and angular dependence
relation for the absorptance of absorber plate. While the angular dependence of solar
absorptance of most absorber surfaces is not available, Pettit and Sowell [11] have
suggested that selective surfaces may exhibit similar behavior. In this study, a
representative example of angular dependence relation from Duffie and Beckman [3] is
26
employed for angles of incidence between zero and 80o:
α
= 1 − 1.5879 × 10 − 3θ + 2.7314 × 10 − 4 θ 2
− 2.3026 × 10 − 5 θ 3
αn (2.3.15)
+ 9.0244 × 10 − 7 θ 4
− 1.8 × 10 − 8 θ 5 + 1.7734 × 10 − 10 θ 6 − 6.9937 × 10 − 13 θ 7
where the subscript n refers to the normal incidence and θ is in degrees.

27
2.4 Heat Loss From The Collector
In solar collectors, the solar energy absorbed by the absorber plate is distributed
to useful gain and to thermal losses through the top, bottom, and edges [3]. In this
section the equations for each loss coefficient are derived for a general configuration of
the collector. The semi-gray model is employed for radiation heat transfer. All the
optical properties in this section are for infrared radiation while Section 2.3 deals with
the visible radiation.
2.4.1 Collector Overall Heat Loss
Heat loss from a solar collector consists of top heat loss through cover systems
and back and edge heat loss through back and edge insulation of the collector. With the
assumption that all the losses are based on a common mean plate temperature Tpm, the
overall heat loss from the collector can be represented as

28
Qloss = U L Ac (T pm − Ta ) (2.4.1)
where UL is the collector overall loss coefficient. The overall heat loss is the sum of the
top, back, and edge losses:
Qloss = Qt + Qb + Qe . (2.4.2)
where the subscripts t, b, and e represent for the top, back, and edge contribution,
respectively.
2.4.2 Top Heat Loss through the Cover System
To evaluate the heat loss through the cover systems, all of the convection and
radiation heat transfer mechanisms between parallel plates and between the plate and
the sky must be considered as shown in Figure 2.4.1. The collector model may have up
to two covers and the cover system have 9 different combinations of covers: no covers,
29
one plastic cover, one glass cover, one glass (inner) and one plastic (outer) cover, one
plastic (inner) and one glass (outer) cover, two glass cover, and two plastic cover. In
case of plastic covers that are partially transparent to infrared radiation the direct
radiation exchange between the plate and sky through the cover system must be
considered while it is neglected for the glass covers since glass is opaque to infrared
radiation. Whillier [19] has developed equations for top loss coefficients for the
collector cover system using radiation heat transfer coefficients. In this study the net
radiation method [12] is applied to obtain the expression for the heat loss for the general
cover system of flat-plate solar collectors.
Sky (Ts)
Surroundings
(Ta) Radiation
Convection
Cover 2 (Tc2)
Convection Radiation
Radiation
Cover 1 (Tc1)
Convection Radiation
Plate (Tp)
30
Figure 2.4.1 Heat transfer mechanisms through a cover system with two covers.
2.4.2.1 Cover-Plate System with No Covers
Figure 2.4.2 illustrates the top loss heat transfer mechanisms for the flat-plate collector
with no covers. Heat is transferred by wind convection from the plate to ambient and by
radiation to the sky
(
Qt = Qc + Qr = hw A p (T pm − Ta ) + ε pσ A p T pm
4
− Ts4 ) (2.4.3)
Sky (Ts)
Surroundings
(Ta)
Radiation Convection
Plate (Tp)
31
Figure 2.4.2 Top heat loss from the flat-plate solar collector with no covers
where subscripts c and r represent convection and radiation contribution, respectively.
hw is wind convection coefficient and Ts the sky temperature that will be discussed later.
ε p is emittance of the absorber plate for infrared radiation and σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant. Since the top heat loss occurs only at the absorber plate, the aperture area Ap is
used with the assumption that the frontal transparent area is equal to the absorber area.
2.4.2.2 Cover-Plate System with One Cover

32
For a flat-plate solar collector with one cover, the top heat loss from the collector plate
to the ambient can be obtained by applying the net-radiation method [12]. In Figure
Sky (Ts)
Surroundings (Ta)
q2,i q2,o Convection
2
Cover (Tc) 1
τ c, ρ c, ε c
Natural
Plate (Tp)
ρ p, ε p
Figure 2.4.3 Net-radiation method applied to one cover-plate
Figure 2.4.3, the outgoing radiation flux from the cover can be written in terms of
incoming fluxes as
33
q1,o = τ c q 2,i + ρ c q1,i + ε cσ Tc4 (2.4.4)
q 2,o = τ c q1,i + ρ c q 2,i + ε cσ Tc4 (2.4.5)
where Tc is temperature of the cover. τ c, ρ c, and ε c are transmittance, reflectance, and
emittance of the cover for infrared radiation, respectively. The incoming fluxes are
related to outgoing fluxes by
q1,i = ρ p q1,o + ε pσ T pm
4
(2.4.6)
q 2,i = σ Ts4 (2.4.7)
where ρ p and ε p are infrared reflectance and emittance of the plate, respectively.
Applying energy conservation to the control volume around the cover and considering
natural convection heat transfer between the cover and plate and wind convection heat
transfer between the cover and surroundings yield
q1,i − q1,o + hc , pc (T pm − Tc ) = q 2,o − q 2,i + hw ( Tc − Ta ) (2.4.8)

34
where hc,pc is natural convection heat transfer coefficient between the absorber plate and
cover that will be discussed later. By solving Equations 2.4.4-2.4.8 simultaneously, heat
fluxes and cover temperature can be obtained for the given temperatures of plate and
sky and optical properties of cover-plate system. Top heat loss is the heat flux at the
control surface times absorber area given by
[ ]
Qt = Ap q1,i − q1,o + hc , pc (T pm − Tc ) . (2.4.9)
35
Sky (Ts)
Surroundings (Ta)
4
Cover 1 (Tc2) 3
τ c2, ρ c2, ε c2
q3,i q3,o
Natural
2
Cover 1 (Tc2) 1
τ c1, ρ c1, ε c1
q1,i q1,o
Natural
Convection
Plate (Tp)
ρ p, ε p
Figure 2.4.4 Net-radiation method for two cover-plate
2.4.2.3 Cover-Plate System with Two Covers

36
Figure 2.4.4 illustrates the net radiation method [12] for a flat-plate solar
collector with two covers used to derive the expression for the top heat loss from the
collector plate to ambient. The outgoing radiation flux from the covers can be written in
terms of incoming fluxes as
q1,o = τ c1 q 2,i + ρ c1 q1,i + ε c1σ Tc41 (2.4.10)
q 2,o = τ c1 q1,i + ρ c1q 2,i + ε c1σ Tc41 (2.4.11)
q3,o = τ c 2 q 4,i + ρ c 2 q3,i + ε c 2σ Tc42 (2.4.12)
q 4,o = τ c 2 q3,i + ρ c 2 q 4,i + ε c 2σ Tc42 (2.4.13)
where subscripts c1 and c2 represent cover 1 (inner cover) and cover 2 (outer cover).
The incoming fluxes are related to outgoing fluxes by
q1,i = ρ p q1,o + ε pσ T pm
4
(2.4.14)
q 2,i = q3,o (2.4.15)
q3,i = q 2,o (2.4.16)
q 4,i = σ Ts4 (2.4.17)

37
Applying the energy balance to two covers yields
q1,i − q1,o + hc , pc1 (T pm − Tc1 ) = q 2,o − q 2,i + hc,c1c 2 ( Tc1 − Tc 2 ) (2.4.18)
q3,i − q3,o + hc ,c1c 2 ( Tc1 − Tc 2 ) = q 4,o − q 4,i + hw ( Tc 2 − Ta ) (2.4.19)
where hc,pc1 and hc,c1c2 are natural convection heat transfer coefficients between the plate
and cover 1 and between cover 1 and cover 2, respectively. By solving Equations
2.4.10-2.4.19 simultaneously, all the radiation fluxes and cover temperatures can be
obtained for the given values of plate and sky temperatures. The top loss from the plate
to the ambient can be calculated from
[
Qt = Ap qc1,1,i − qc1,1,o + hc , pc1 (T pm − Tc1 ) ] (2.4.20)
2.4.2.4 Sky Temperature

38
The radiation heat transfer from the plate to sky accounts for radiation exchange
with the sky at sky temperature Ts rather than the ambient temperature Ta. The sky can
be considered as a blackbody at some equivalent sky temperature Ts to account for the
facts that the atmosphere is not a uniform temperature and that the atmosphere radiates
only in certain wavelength band [3]. It can be calculated using the equation as follows
[3]:
[ ]
Ts = Ta 0.711 + 0.0056Tdp + 0.000073Tdp2 + 0.013 cos(15t )
14
. (2.4.21)
where t is hour from midnight. Ts and Ta are in degrees Kelvin and Tdp is the dew point
temperature in degrees Celsius.
2.4.2.5 Wind Convection Coefficient
Wind convection coefficient hw represents the convection heat loss from a flat
plate exposed to outside winds. It is related to three dimensionless parameters, the
Nusselt number Nu, the Reynolds number Re, and the Prandtl number Pr, that are given
39
by [3]
hw Le VLe ν
Nu = , Re = , Pr = (2.4.22)
k ν α
where the characteristic length Le is four times the plate area divided by the plate
perimeter, V wind speed. k, ν , and α are the thermal conductivity, kinematic viscosity,
thermal diffusivity of air.
For free standing collectors, Duffie and Beckman [3] suggests that the wind
convection coefficient be calculated using the correlation of Sparrow over the Reynolds
number range of 2× 104 to 9× 104:
Nu = 0.86 Re 1 2 Pr 1 3 (2× 104<Re<106). (2.4.23)
For laminar flow, the correlation of Pohlhausen is used:
Nu = 0.86 Re 1 2 Pr 1 3 (Re<2× 104). (2.4.24)

40
2.4.2.6 Natural Convection between Parallel Plates
For the prediction of the top loss coefficient, the evaluation of natural
convection heat transfer between two parallel plates tilted at some angle to the horizon
is of obvious importance. The natural convection heat transfer coefficient hc is related to
three dimensionless parameters, the Nusselt number Nu, the Rayleigh number Ra, and
the Prandtl number Pr, that are given by
hL gβ v ∆ TL3 ν
Nu = c , Ra = , Pr = (2.4.25)
k να α
where L is the plate spacing, g the gravitational constant, ∆ T the temperature difference
between plates, and β v is the volumetric coefficient of expansion of air.
Hollands et al. [4] suggested the relationship between the Nusselt number and
Rayleigh number for tilt angle β from 0 to 75o as
+
 1708[sin (1.8 β )]1.6  1 −
+
1708    Ra cos β  1 3 
Nu = 1 + 1.44 1 −  +   − 1
Ra cos β 
(2.4.26)
 Ra cos β    5830  
41
While Equation 2.4.26 is for the isothermal plates, plastic covers are thin and have low
values of conductivity. Thus, the convection cells cause small temperature gradients
along the covers. Yiqin et al. [21] suggested the following relationship for the natural
convection for a two-cover system with the inner cover made from plastic:
+
 1296[sin (1.8β )]1.6  1 −
+
1296   Ra cos β  1 3 
Nu = 1 + 1.44 1 −  +   − 1 .
Ra cos β 
(2.4.27)
 Ra cos β    5830  
2.4.3 Back and Edge Heat Loss
The energy loss through the back of the collector is the result of the conduction
through the back insulation and the convection and radiation heat transfer from back of
the collector to surroundings. Since the magnitudes of the thermal resistance of
convection and radiation heat transfer are much smaller than that of conduction, it can
be assumed that all the thermal resistance from the back is due to the insulation [3]. The
back heat loss, Qb, can be obtained from

42
Ac (T pm − Ta )
kb
Qb = (2.4.28)
Lb
where kb and Lb are the back insulation thermal conductivity and thickness, respectively.
While the evaluation of edge losses is complicated for most collectors, the edge
loss in a well-constructed system is intended to be so small that it is not necessary to
predict it with great accuracy [3]. With the assumption of one-dimensional sideways
heat flow around the perimeter of the collector, the edge losses can be estimated by
Ae (T pm − Ta )
ke
Qe = (2.4.29)
Le
where ke and Le are the edge insulation thermal conductivity and thickness and Ae is
edge area of the collector.
2.4.4 Overall Heat Loss Coefficient

43
The overall loss coefficient UL based on the gross collector area can be
calculated from Equation 2.4.1 with the known values of the overall heat loss Qloss and
the plate temperature Tpm. To derive an expression for the mean temperature of the
absorber plate, it is necessary to know the overall heat loss coefficient based on the
absorber area. Since of heat transfer coefficient-area product is constant, it can be
calculated from
U L′Ap = U L Ac . (2.4.30)
where U′L is the modified overall heat loss coefficient whose base area is the aperture
area of the collector.
2.5 The Mean Absorber Plate Temperature*
To calculate the collector useful gain using Equation 2.2.1, it is necessary to
know the mean temperature of absorber plate that is a complicated function of the
temperature distribution on the absorber plate, bond conductivity, heat transfer inside of
44
tubes and geometric configuration. To consider these factors along with the energy
collected at the absorber plate and heat loss, the collector efficiency factor and the
collector heat removal factor are introduced.
2.5.1 Collector Efficiency Factor
The collector efficiency factor, F′, represents the temperature distribution along
the absorber plate between tubes. Figure 2.5.1 illustrates the absorber plate-tube
configuration of the present collector model. With the assumption of negligible
temperature gradient in the fin in the flow direction, the collector efficiency factor can
be obtained by solving the classical fin problem [3]. Figure 2.5.2(a) shows the fin with
insulated tip that is to be analyzed. The plate just above the tube is assumed to be at
some local base temperature Tb. The fin is (W-D)/2 long and has unit depth in the flow
direction. By applying energy balance on the element shown in Figure 2.5.2(b), the
*
The analysis follows the book, Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, Duffie and Beckman, 1991 [3].
45
W Tb
Absorber Plate
δ
Tube Plate-tube bond
Tf Di
W− D
D
2
Figure 2.5.1 Geometric configuration of the absorber plate-tube
governing equation for the fin can be obtained as [3]:
d 2T U L′ S 
=  T − Ta −  . (2.5.1)
dx 2
kδ  U′
L 
46
where U′L is the overall loss coefficient based on the aperture area. The two boundary
conditions are the insulated tip condition and the known base temperature Tb:
dT
= 0, T x=
W− D = Tb . (2.5.2)
dx x= 0 2
x ∆x Tb
δ
Insulated tip
W− D
2
(a) fin with insulated tip
U′L∆ x(Tx-Ta) S∆ x
dT dT
− kδ − kδ
dx x dx x+ ∆ x
∆x
x
(b) energy balance on finite element

47
Figure 2.5.2 Fin configuration and energy balance
The energy transferred from the fin per unit of length in the flow direction can
be found by applying Fourier’s law to the fin base by considering the energy collected
on the both sides of a tube:
fin = ( W − D )F [S − U L ( Tb − Ta )]
q′ ′ (2.5.3)
where F is the fin efficiency for straight fins with rectangular cross section and defined
48
as
tanh[m(W − D ) 2]
F= (2.5.4)
m(W − D ) 2
and m is a parameter of the fin-air arrangement defined as
U L′
m= (2.5.5)
kδ
The solar energy absorbed just above the tube per unit of length in the flow
direction can be calculated by
′ = D[S − U L′( Tb − Ta )].

qtube (2.5.6)
Then the useful gain q′u per unit of depth in the flow direction is the sum of q′fin and
q′tube :
qu′ = [(W − D )F + D ][S − U L′( Tb − Ta )] (2.5.7)

49
The thermal resistance to heat flow from the plate to the fluid results from the
plate-tube bond conductance and the tube-to-fluid convection heat transfer inside of
tubes. The useful gain per unit of length in the flow direction can be expressed as
Tb − T f
qu′ = (2.5.8)
1 1
+
h fiπ Di C b
where Di is the inner diameter of a tube, hfi the forced-convection heat transfer
coefficient inside of tubes, Tf the local fluid temperature and Cb the bond conductance.
By eliminating Tb from Equations 2.5.7 and 2.5.8 and by introducing the collector
efficiency factor F′yields an expression for the useful gain as
[
qu′ = WF ′S − U L′(T f − Ta ) ] (2.5.9)
where the collector efficiency factor F′is defined as
q’u∆ Y
( m&n )C pT f y ( m&n )C pT f
Fluid y+ ∆ y
Flow
50
Figure 2.5.3 Energy balance of a control volume of the tube
1 U′
F ′= L
. (2.5.10)
 1 1 1 
W + + 
 U L′[D + (W − D )]F C b π Di h fi 
2.5.2 Temperature Distribution in Flow Direction
The fluid temperature of fluid varies along the tube with a certain temperature
profile. Equation 2.5.9 expresses the useful gain per unit length in the flow direction as
51
a function of local fluid temperature that is a function of a position y along the flow
direction. Applying the energy conservation to the control volume shown in Figure 2.5.3
and substituting Equation 2.5.9 for q′u yield energy balance equation:
m&
C p dT f
nWF ′ dy
[
− S − U′ ]
L (T f − Ta ) = 0 (2.5.11)
where m&is the total collector flow rate, n the number of tubes, and Tf the temperature
of fluid at any location y. With the assumption that F′ and UL are independent of
position the fluid temperature at any position y can be calculated from
T f − Ta − S U L′  U ′nWF ′y 
= exp − L . (2.5.12)
Ti − Ta − S U L′  m&
C 
 p 
where Ti is fluid inlet temperature.

52
2.5.3 Collector Heat Removal Factor
The collector heat removal factor, FR, is the ratio of the actual useful energy gain
of a collector to the maximum possible useful gain if the whole collector surface were at
the fluid inlet temperature. It is defined as
C p ( To − Ti )
m&
FR = (2.5.13)
Ap [S − U L′( Ti − Ta )]
where the aperture area Ap is used as a reference area for the useful gain from the
collector. The exit temperature To can be calculated using Equation 2.5.12 by
substituting tube length L for y. Then Equation 2.5.13 can be expressed as [3]
m&Cp   A pU L′F ′ 
FR = 1 − exp 

(2.5.14)
ApU L′   m &C p 
Physically the collector heat removal factor is equivalent to the effectiveness of
a conventional heat exchanger. By introducing the collector heat removal factor and the
53
modified overall heat transfer coefficient into Equation 2.2.4, the actual useful energy
gain Qu can be represented as
+
Qu = Ap FR [S − U L′( Ti − Ta )] . (2.5.15)
Introducing Equation 2.2.3 and 2.2.5 into Equation 2.5.15 yields
+
Qu = Ac FR [S c − U L ( Ti − Ta )] (2.5.16)
Using Equations 2.5.15 and 2.5.16, the useful energy gain can be calculated as a
function of the inlet fluid temperature not the mean plate temperature.
2.5.4 Mean Fluid and Plate Temperatures
For accurate the prediction of collector performance, it is necessary to evaluate
properties of the working fluid to calculate the forced convection heat transfer
coefficients inside of tubes and the overall loss coefficient. The mean fluid temperature
Tfm at which the fluid properties are evaluated can be obtained by [3]:
54
Qu Ap
T fm = Ti + (1 − F ′′) . (2.5.17)
FRU L′
where the collector flow factor F′′, defined as the ratio of FR to F′, are given by
FR m&Cp   A pU L′F ′ 
F′
′= = 1 − exp 

(2.5.18)
F ′ ApU L′F ′  m &C p 
The collector flow factor is a function of the dimensionless collector capacitance rate
m&Cp/ApULF′.
The mean plate temperature, Tpm, is always greater than the mean fluid
temperature due to the heat transfer resistance between the absorbing surface and the
fluid. Equating Equations 2.2.4 and 2.5.15 and solving for the mean plate temperature
Tpm yields
Qu A p
T pm = Ti + (1 − FR ) (2.5.19)
FRU L′
55
2.5.5 Forced Convection inside of Tubes
For fully developed turbulent flow inside of tubes (Re>2300), the Nusselt
number can be obtained from Gnielinsky correlation [5]:
( f 8)( Retube − 1000 )Pr

Nu long =
( )
(2.5.20)
1 + 12.7 f 8 Pr 2 3 − 1
where Darcy friction factor f for smooth surface is calculated from Petukhov relation [5]
given by
f = ( 0.0790 ln Re tube − 1.64) .

−2
(2.5.21)
For short tubes with a sharp-edged entry, the developing thermal and hydrodynamic
boundary layers will result in a significant increase in the heat transfer coefficient near
entrance. To consider this phenomena Duffie and Beckman [3] suggests that the
56
McAdams relation be used:
  D  0.7 
Nu = Nu long 1 +    (2.5.22)
  L  
where D and L is inner diameter and length of a tube.
For laminar flow inside of tubes the local Nusselt number for the case of short
tubes and constant heat flux is given by [3]
a ( RePrD / L )
m
Nu = Nu long + . (2.5.23)
1 + b( RePrD / L )
n
With the assumption that the flow inside of tubes is fully developed, the values of Nulong,
a, b, m, and n are 4.4, 0.00172, 0.00281, 1.66, and 1.29, respectively, for the constant
heat flux boundary condition.
The friction factor f for fully developed laminar flow inside of a circular tube
can be calculated from

57
64
f = . (2.5.24)
Re D
Generally the straight tubes are connected headers on both ends that provide
pipe entrance and exit with sharp edges. The friction coefficients for those minor losses
are approximated by
f min or Leq = KD (2.5.25)
where Leq is equivalent length and K loss coefficient. The value of loss coefficient is 0.5
for entrance with sharp edge and 1.0 for pipe exit [20]. Then the pressure drop through a
pipe and header can be calculated by
 ρ fU 2   ρ fU 2 
∆ P = f pipe 
 2D 
L + ∑ K
 2 
 (2.5.26)
   
where U represents the mean fluid velocity inside of the tube and ρ f is fluid density.
58
59
2.6 Thermal Performance Of The Collectors
Based on the analysis in the previous sections, the thermal performance of the
flat-plate collector can be calculated. The thermal performance of the collector can be
represented by the instantaneous efficiency and the incidence angle modifier. The
stagnation temperature is also needed to ensure that the collector materials do not
exceed their thermal limit.
2.6.1 Instantaneous Efficiency
The instantaneous collector efficiency, η i, is a measure of collector performance
that is defined as the ratio of the useful gain over some specified time period to the
incident solar energy over the same time period:
ηi =
∫Q dt .
u
(2.6.1)
A ∫G dt
c T
60
where GT is the intensity of incident solar radiation. According to ASHRAE Standard
93-86 [1], the gross area Ac is used as a reference collector area in the definition of
instantaneous efficiency. By introducing the Equation 2.5.16, the instantaneous
efficiency becomes
+
ηi =
Qu 
= FR (τ α ) − FRU L
( Ti − Ta ) 
Ac GT  GT 
. (2.6.2)
where the absorbed energy Sc based on the gross collector area has been replaced by
S c = GT (τ α ) . (2.6.3)
(τ α ) is the effective transmittance-absorptance product based on the collector gross area
defined as
SA p Ap
(τ α ) = = (τ α )avg (2.6.4)
GT Ac Ac
61
where (τ α )avg is the transmittance-absorptance product averaged for beam, diffuse, and
ground-reflected irradiation. SAp is the solar energy absorbed at absorber surface and
GTAc is the total solar energy incident on the gross area of the collector. In Equation
2.6.2, two important parameters, FR(τ α ) and FRUL, describe how the collector works.
FR(τ α ) indicates how energy is absorbed by the collector while FRUL is an indication of
how energy is lost from the collector.
2.6.2 Incidence Angle Modifier
To express the effects of the angle of incidence of the radiation on thermal
performance of the flat-plate solar collector, an incidence angle modifier Kτ α is
employed [1]. It describes the dependence of (τ α ) on the angle of incidence of radiation
on the collector and is a function of the optical characteristics of covers and the
absorber plate. It is defined as

62
Kτ α =
(τ α ) (2.6.5)
(τ α )n
where subscript n indicates that the transmittance-absorptance product is for the normal
incidence of solar radiation.
2.6.3 Stagnation Temperatures
A plastic cover will melt when the temperature of the cover exceeds its melting
point. To ensure the thermal tolerance of the collector, the highest temperature in the
collector should be less than the melting point of the plastic covers. Stagnation
temperatures are the highest temperatures of the covers and absorber plate that can be
obtained from the collector. They occur when the collector is not working, that is, when
the working fluid does not circulate. In this case, the useful gain from the collector is
zero in Equation 2.2.1 and then the energy balance equation becomes
A p S = AcU L (T pm − Ta ) (2.6.6)
63
By solving this equation with the constitutive equations provided in this chapter, the
stagnation temperatures can be obtained.
2.7 Collector Test And Thermal Performance Models
In this study the thermal performance test of flat-plate collector consists of three
parts. The first is to determine instantaneous efficiency with beam radiation nearly
normal to the absorber surface. The second is determination of incident angle modifier.
The last is determination of the stagnation temperature. This section briefly reviews the
standard test procedure and introduces the thermal performance models for the
instantaneous efficiency and incidence angle modifier.

64
2.7.1 Instantaneous Efficiency
The ASHRAE Standard 93-86 [1] and SRCC document RM-1 [17] provide the
standard test methods for flat-plate solar collectors. The general test procedure is to
operate the collector in a test facility under nearly steady conditions and measure the
data that are needed for analysis. Although details differ, the essential features of all of
the procedures can be summarized as below [3]:
1. Solar radiation is measured by a pyranometer in the plane of the collector.
2. Flow rate of working fluid, inlet and outlet fluid temperatures, ambient temperature,
and wind speed) are measured.
3. Tests are made over a range of inlet temperatures.
4. The inlet pressure and pressure drop in the collector are measured.
Information available from the test is data on the thermal input, data on the thermal
output, and data on the ambient conditions. These data characterize a collector by
parameters, FR(τ α ), and FRUL, that indicate absorption of solar energy and energy loss
65
from the collector.
Instantaneous efficiencies can be determined from
Qu C p ( To − Ti )
m&
ηi = = (2.7.1)
Ac GT Ac GT
where To is the exit temperature of the working fluid. The instantaneous efficiency can
be presented in three ways; one linear model and two second-order models:
η i = a1 − a 2
( Ti − Ta )
(2.7.2)
GT
( Ti − Ta )  ( T − Ta ) 
2
η i = a3 + a 4 + a5  i  (2.7.3)
GT  GT 
( Ti − Ta ) ( Ti − Ta )
2
η i = a6 + a7 + a8 (2.7.4)
GT GT
With the test data over a range of inlet temperatures, the instantaneous efficiency can be
plotted as a function of (Ti-Ta)/GT. The coefficients of Equations 2.7.2 – 2.7.4 can be
found by linear regression.
European practice employs (Tf,av-Ti)/GT as a base of collector test results where

66
Tf,av is the arithmetic average of the fluid inlet and outlet temperature
2.7.2 Incidence Angle Modifier
The second important aspect of collector testing is the determination of effects
of incident angle of the solar radiation. The standard test methods [1,17] include
experimental estimation of this effect and require a clear test day so that the
experimental value of (τ α ) is essentially the same as (τ α )b. ASHRAE Standard 93-86
[1] recommends that experimental determination of Kτ α be done with the incidence
angles of beam radiation of 0, 30, 45, 60o.
For flat-plate solar collector Souka and Safwat [16] have suggested an
expression for angular dependence of Kτ α as
 1 
K τ α = 1 + b0  − 1 (2.7.5)
 cosθ 
where θ is angle of incidence of beam radiation and b0 is the incidence angle modifier
67
coefficient. The incidence angle modifier coefficient can be determined using linear
regression with the test data of Kτ α over several values of incident angles.
68
CHAPTER THREE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Provided that the calculation predicts the experimental results accurately, the
design program for flat-plate solar collectors might substitute for the experimental test
at the development level and enable the solar industries to make well-designed
economical solar collectors. In this chapter the comparisons with the experimental test
are performed and the effects of parameters are investigated.
3.1 Natural Convection Between Parallel Plates
The natural convection between the cover and plate and between covers plays an
important role in top heat loss through a cover system. As explained in Section 2.4.2.6,
the natural convection coefficients between two parallel plates can be calculated using
two equations: Equation 2.4.26 for glass cover system and Equation 2.4.27 for the cover
system with plastic as the inner cover.

69
Figure 3.1.1 shows Nusselt numbers as a function of Rayleigh number for
natural convection heat transfer between parallel plates at various slopes. Solid curves
are the calculation result from the equation of Hollands et al. [4] (Equation 2.4.26) and
dotted curves are from Yiqin et al. [21] (Equation 2.4.27). Curves without symbols are
for horizontal plates, Curves with hollow circles, hollow squares, solid circles are for
the parallel plates tilted at 45o, 60o, and 75o with respect to horizon, respectively. As
shown in this figure the Nusselt number from Equation 2.4.13 is always larger than that
from Equation 2.4.12. These results show that the small temperature gradient along the
plastic cover caused by the convection cells enhances the natural convection heat
transfer.
Figure 3.1.2 shows a comparison of collector efficiencies calculated with the
two relations for natural convection heat transfer between the cover and plate and
between covers. The collector configuration and test conditions are based on the FSEC
solar collector test report for MSC-32 flat plate solar collector [13]. To investigate the
effect of natural convection correlation, a polyvinylfluoride (tedlar) cover is used for the
inner cover of the collector and the cover-to-cover air spacing is set to 0.5 cm. The
optical properties of the plastic covers are given by

70
Solar Spectrum : Refractive Index =1.45
Transmittance = 0.9
Infrared Spectrum : transmittance = 0.3
Absorptance = 0.63
The equation of Yiqin et al. always yields a higher Nusselt number and thus its
heat transfer coefficient exceeds that from Hollands et al. It causes the higher top loss
coefficient and lower collector efficiency. Even though the difference in the two Nusselt
71
Figure 3.1.1 Nusselt numbers for natural convection heat transfer between parallel
plates at various angles

72
Figure 3.1.2 Comparison of Instantaneous efficiencies of the collector with different
natural convection relations
numbers decreases with an increase of Rayleigh number (Figure 3.1.1), the difference in
instantaneous efficiencies increases as the temperature difference increases (Figure
3.1.2). This indicates that the proportion of the total heat loss that is natural convection
becomes larger as the absorber plate temperature increases. The Hollands et al. equation
overpredicts the instantaneous efficiency of the collector.
3.2 Comparison With Experiments
The calculation results were compared with the experimental results from three
flat-plate solar collectors. The experimental tests were performed by the Testing and
Laboratories Division, Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC) according to the SRCC
testing method [17]. The calculations were performed with the test conditions and
collector configuration provided by the test reports [13-15].

73
3.2.1 MSC-32 (American Energy Technologies, Inc.)
Figure 2.1.1 shows the detailed geometric configuration of the MSC-32 flat-
plate solar collector [13]. Even though the detailed plate-tube configuration is different
from that of Figure 2.2.2, the overall geometric configuration is similar to the general
model. Test conditions and collector configurations provided by the FSEC test report
are summarized at Table 3.2.1 [13]. The test conditions are averaged values of the
experimental measurement.
A plot of the instantaneous efficiency of the MSC-32 collector as a function of
(Ti-Ta)/GT is shown in Figure 3.2.1. The predicted instantaneous efficiency is compared
to the experimental results from the test report. As shown in this figure, the calculation
can predict the experimental results very well. The linear and 2nd-order polynomial
efficiency equations with the calculated coefficients are

74
(T − Ta ) (T − Ta )  ( T − Ta ) 
2
η i = 0.746 − 4.33 i , η i = 0.743 − 3.98 i − 4.99 i 

GT GT  GT 
while those from experimental test [13] are given by
(T − Ta ) (T − Ta )  ( T − Ta ) 
2
η i = 0.751 − 4.45 i , η i = 0.736 − 2.96 i − 20.65 i  .

GT GT  GT 
Figure 3.2.2 compares the predicted incident angle modifier with the
experiments. The calculated value of incidence angle modifier is -0.13 while the
experiment yields -0.15. The calculated value of the incidence angle modifier
coefficient has about a 13% error compared to the experimental result. For the
calculation of angular dependence of the transmittance-absorptance product on incident
Table 3.2.1 Test conditions and specification of MSC-32 Flat plate solar collector
Incident solar radiation 1000 [W/m2]

Diffuse radiation proportion 0 [%]
Test Incident angle 0 [deg]
Conditions Collector slope 45 [deg]
Ambient temperature 20 [C]
Wind speed 2 [m/s]
Collector Overall Length 2.491 [m]
Dimension dimension Width 1.221 [m]
75
Thickness 0.079 [m]

Absorber Length 2.4 [m]
dimension Width 1.137 [m]
Number of Covers 1
Material Glass
Solar Refractive Index 1.526
Cover
Spectrum Transmittance 0.891
Infrared Absorptance 0.88
Spectrum Transmittance 0
Cover-Plate air spacing 1.8 [cm]
Material Copper
Conductivity 380 [W/mK]
Plate Thickness 0.02 [cm]
Absorptance 0.95
Emittance 0.1
Back Thickness 3.17 [cm]
Back & Edge Insulation Conductivity 0.03 [W/mK]
Insulation Edge Thickness 3.17 [cm]
Insulation Conductivity 0.03 [W/mK]
Number of tubes 10
Inner diameter 1.6 [cm]
Tubes Plate-tube bond conductivity 400 [W/mK]
&
Fluid Working fluid Water
Volumetric flow rate 4.75 [L/min]
Inlet pressure 200 [kPa]
76
Figure 3.2.1 Comparison of calculated efficiency with experiment for MSC-32 flat-
plate solar collector
77
MSC-32 flat-plate solar collector
angle, Equation 2.3.15 is employed as a model for the angular dependence of the
absorptance of the absorber plate. Even though almost all selective surfaces may exhibit
similar behavior, there might be difference between this generalized equation and the
actual plates. This difference may cause the error in the predicted value of incidence
angle modifier coefficient.
3.2.2 SX-600 (Solmax Inc.)
Table 3.2.2 shows test conditions and collector configurations for the Solmax
SX-600 flat-plate solar collector based on the FSEC solar collector test report [15].
Figure 3.2.3 illustrates comparison of the predicted and experimental instantaneous
efficiencies. As shown in the figure, the calculation can predict the experimental results
very accurately. The calculated efficiency equations are

78
(T − Ta ) (T − Ta )  ( T − Ta ) 
2
η i = 0.741 − 6.87 i , η i = 0.733 − 5.95 i − 12.83 i  .

GT GT  GT 
Experimental efficiency equations [15] are given by
Table 3.2.2 Test conditions and specification of SX-600 Flat plate solar collector

Wind speed 2.5 [m/s]
Length 2.494 [m]
Overall
Width 1.232 [m]
Collector dimension
Thickness 0.095 [m]
Dimension
Number of Covers 1
Material Glass
Cover
Plate Material Copper
Thickness 0.051 [cm]
Absorptance 0.95
79
Emittance 0.95
Number of tubes 11
Outer diameter 1.3 [cm]
&
Figure 3.2.3 Comparison of calculated efficiency with experiment for SX-600 flat-plate
solar collector
80
SX-600 flat-plate solar collector
(T − Ta ) (T − Ta )  ( T − Ta ) 
2
η i = 0.737 − 6.77 i , η i = 0.733 − 6.28 i − 6.82 i  .

GT GT  GT 
Figure 3.2.4 shows the comparison of incidence angle modifier. The calculated value of
incidence angle modifier is -0.13 while the experimental test yields -0.14, in good
agreement with the experiment. However, the calculated value of incidence angle
modifier is almost the same as the value of MSC-32. This similar values result from the
fact that the fact that the calculations for both collectors employ the same model for the
angular dependence of the optical property of the plate.
3.2.3 STG-24 (Sun Trapper Solar Systems, Inc.)
Table 3.2.3 summarizes test conditions and collector configurations of STG-24

81
flat-plate solar collector that is produced by Sun Trapper Solar Systems, Inc [14]. Figure
3.2.5 shows the calculated and experimental instantaneous efficiencies of the collector
as a function of (Ti-Ta)/GT. The curve with the conductivity of the back and edge
insulation labeled k = 0.02 W/mK is the result of calculation with the values of Table
3.2.3. In this case, the instantaneous efficiency is overpredicted compared to the
experimental results. However, as the value of the insulation conductivity increases, the
predicted curve approaches the experimental result. The calculation yields the accurate
experimental collector performance when k = 0.055 W/mK. There are two possibilities
that cause this result. The first is that the value of back and edge insulation conductivity
provided by manufacturer may be different from the actual value. The other possibility
is that there might be a thermal leakage in this collector. The increase in back and edge
thermal conductivity causes an increase in the heat loss from the collector and is
equivalent to the increase of thermal leakage from the collector. This indicates that this
flat-plate collector may not be a well-constructed collector. Figure 3.2.6 shows the
incidence angle modifier as a function of (1/cosθ -1). It also shows a good agreement of
the calculation with the experiment.

82
From the comparison of the calculation results with the experimental results, it
can be concluded that the flat-plate solar collector design program can accurately
predict the thermal performance of flat-plate collectors with one glass cover. Since the
test reports of the collector with two covers or plastic covers are not available, a direct
comparison was not made. Since the analytical base of the solar collector design
program developed in Chapter 2 has been verified by substantial experimental evidence
[3], it can be concluded that the flat-plate solar collector design program developed in
this study has an ability to predict the accurate performance of the collector.
83
Table 3.2.3 Test conditions and specification of STG-24 Flat plate solar collector

Wind speed 2 [m/s]
Length 1.841 [m]
Overall
Width 1.257 [m]
Collector dimension
Thickness 0.078 [m]
Dimension
Number of Covers 1
Material Glass
Cover
Material Aluminum
Plate Thickness 0.193 [cm]
Absorptance 0.96
Emittance 0.4
Number of tubes 8
Outer diameter 1.3 [cm]
&
84
Figure 3.2.5 Comparison of calculated efficiency with experiment for STG-24 flat-
plate solar collector

85
STG-24 flat-plate solar collector
3.3 Effects Of Design Parameters
The design program was successfully verified in the last section. As a result it is
possible to investigate the effect of design parameters by numerical simulation. In this
section the effects of three design parameters on the collector efficiency are investigated.
The test conditions and the collector configuration are based on those of MSC-32 test
report (Table 3.2.1) [13].
3.3.1 Number of Covers

86
Figure 3.3.1 shows the effect of the number of covers on the collector
instantaneous efficiency. In the case of two covers, they are assumed to be optically
identical and the cover-to-cover air spacing is set to be 0.5 cm. In this figure, the value
of intercept FR(τ α ) decreases with the increase of the number of covers since the value
of transmittance of the cover system decreases. The slope of curves, FRUL, decreases as
the number of covers increases since the overall heat loss coefficient is a function of the
mean plate temperature and ambient conditions and its dependence on the plate
temperature decreases with the increasing number of covers.
3.3.2 Number of Tubes
The effect of the number of tubes on the instantaneous efficiency of the collector
is illustrated in Figure 3.3.2. As the number of tubes increases, the tube-to-tube spacing
W decreases and the collector heat removal factor FR increases according to Equations
2.5.10 and 2.5.14 while the value of (τ α ) remains constant. Thus, the instantaneous
efficiency improves with the increase of the number of tubes. The degree of
improvement decreases and there exists the optimum number of tubes for the collector
87
considering the manufacturing cost. As shown in this figure the instantaneous efficiency
for 11 tubes is almost identical to that for 10 tubes. Thus the optimum number of tubes
is less than10 for MSC-32 collector.
3.3.3 Infrared Properties of the Cover
While the glass cover is opaque to infrared radiation the plastic cover is partially
transparent. Figure 3.3.3 indicates the effect of infrared properties of the cover materials
on the instantaneous efficiency of the collector. To investigate the effect of infrared
properties of the cover, the optical properties in solar spectrum is assumed to be the
same as those of glasses. The reflectance of the cover is set to 0.05. With the various
values of transmittance and fixed value of reflectance, the absorptance of the cover is
determined by Kirchhoff’s law. With black paint absorber surface the efficiency
decreases as the transmittance of the cover increases (Figure 3.3.3(a)) since top loss due
to the direct radiation exchange between the plate and the sky increases. In the case of
selective absorber plate, however, efficiency improves with the increase of
transmittance of the cover as shown in Figure 3.3.3(b). In this case the natural
88
convection between the cover and the plate plays a more important role in top heat loss
than radiation exchanger between them. As the infrared transmittance of the cover
increases, the radiation heat transfer increases and the natural convection decreases.
Since the degree of increase in radiation heat transfer between the cover and the plate is
small compared to that of the natural convection heat transfer, the top loss from the
plate decreases and the instantaneous efficiency improves. The infrared properties has
an impact on the values of intercept, FR(τ α ), since FR is a function of loss coefficient by
Equation 2.5.14. The infrared radiation properties of the cover do not have much effect
on efficiency when the infrared transmittance of the cover is less than 0.7 with selective
absorber plate. More study is required to understand the exact physical mechanism
related to the effect of infrared properties of the cover on the collector performance.
89
Figure 3.3.1 Effect of the number of covers on the collector efficiency

90
Figure 3.3.2 Effect of the number of tubes on the collector efficiency
(a) Black absorber plate (ε p = 0.95)

91
(b) Selective absorber plate (ε p = 0.1)
Figure 3.3.3 Effect of the infrared properties of cover on the collector efficiency
CHAPTER FOUR
CONCLUSIONS
An analytical and numerical study has been conducted to develop a design
program for flat-plate solar collectors (CoDePro). The program is based on established
theory about the radiation absorption, heat loss, and temperature distribution along the
plate. Radiation absorption is calculated by using the transmittance-absorptance product

92
of the cover and plate system. In the evaluation of heat loss from the collector, the net
radiation method was employed to calculate top loss for a general cover system. The
correlation of Yiqin et al. [21] was employed for natural convection heat transfer for the
cover system with plastic as the inner cover. For other cover configurations the
correlation of Hollands et al. [4] was used. The temperature distribution along the plate
was represented by the collector heat removal factor. In the analysis the aperture area of
the collector is used to consider the effect of the edge of collector frontal surface.
In this study, the semi-gray radiation model was employed for the optical
properties of the collector covers. The optical properties of the cover system for infrared
radiation were assumed to be diffuse radiation properties that can be obtained by using
ray-tracing techniques.
Comparisons of the calculated results with the experiments indicate that the
design program developed in this study has an ability to predict the thermal
performance of the collector. The predicted instantaneous efficiency of the collector is
almost the same as the experimental results while there is a little discrepancy between
the calculated and experimental values of incidence angle modifier coefficient. The
error in incidence angle modifier may come from the lack of information about the
93
optical properties of the absorber plate.
Through this study a design program for flat-plate solar collector has been
developed so that very detailed information can be specified to allow solar engineers to
investigate the impact of various design changes on collector performance. The program
has been distributed to solar engineers and modified according to their suggestions. It
has an easy-to-use graphical interface and provides an accurate prediction of the thermal
performance of the collector. Thus, it can be concluded that the program can be used as
a design tool for a company specializing in solar systems to investigate the impact of
design parameters. It can also be used as a tool for identifying design problems.
74
APPENDIX A
FLAT-PLATE COLLECTOR DESIGN PROGRAM

(CODEPRO)
The flat-plate collector design program (CoDePro) is a program that can help
solar engineers design flat-plate solar collectors. It has been developed so that most
details of the collector configuration can be specified. The program has been developed
with the professional version of EES and beta-tested from its development level by
solar engineers.
CoDePro calculates the instantaneous efficiency, incident angle modifier
coefficient, and stagnation temperatures. These calculations are related flat-plate solar
collector tests. The test methodology is based on the standard test methods provided by
ASHRAE Standard 93-86 [1] and SRCC Document RM-1 [17] that are described in the
Chapter 2. This program can be used to investigate the thermal effect of the choices of
geometric parameters and materials.
The employed models for the collector instantaneous efficiency are linear and
2nd-order polynomial equations (Equation 2.7.2 to 2.7.4). Once the program calculates
the collector efficiency for different values of (Ti-Ta)/GT, the coefficients of these
equations are determined by linear regression. As specified in ASHRAE Standard 93-86
[1] CoDePro calculate the incident angle modifier, Kτα, at various angles between 0 to
60o and then determines the incidence angle modifier coefficient b0 of Equation 2.7.5 by
75
using linear regression.
Features
Some major features of the program are as follows:
1. Users can select the working fluid of the collector among water, ethylene
glycol/water solution, and propylene glycol/water solution.
2. To get various values of (Ti-Ta)/GT the inlet temperature is varied from the ambient
temperature to the circlating fluid saturation temperature.
3. To compare various collector configurations up to 5 sets of configuration and results
data can be stored.
4. The ranges of design variables are confined to reasonable values
5. The value of ground reflectance is fixed at 0.4 to include the effect of ground-
reflected radiation.
It should be noted that many functions used in the program have been developed
by Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison. It takes up to 10
seconds to evaluate the solar collector performance in Pentium II 350 MHz personal
computers.
76
Main Window
Figure A.1 shows the main window of CoDePro. It has several child windows
and drop-down menus for choosing the unit system, setting the test conditions,
specifying the collector configuration, and displaying the results. The unit system can
be selected from drop-down menu at the upper-right corner of the window. Up to 5 sets
of configuration and calculation data can be saved by using the drop down menu named
‘Save Calculation as’. Using this feature of the program the effect of parameters can be
investigated very simply. Clicking the Calculate button will start calculation with the
given test conditions and collector configurations. ‘Save User Input Data’ and ‘Load
saved data’ buttons make it possible to save and load configuration and test data. The
test results section in the middle of main window shows the Collector Efficiency
Equations and Incident Angle Modifier Equation.
Child Window 1 – Test Conditions
In this window, shown in Figure A.2, the test conditions to calculate collector
thermal performance are set. Input variables for test conditions are
- Intensity of incident solar radiation
- Diffuse radiation proportion
- Incident angle of beam radiation
- Collector slope
- Wind speed
77
- Relative humidity (for sky temperature calculation)
The European practice employs the temperature difference Tf,av-Ta as a base of
collector efficiency while the Unite States uses Ti-Ta. Users can change the reference
temperature difference in this window according to their standard.
Child window 2 – Collector Dimensions
Figure A.3 shows the window for collector dimensions where the overall and
aperture collector dimensions are entered. It is assumed that the area of absorber is the
same as the aperture area, i.e., the frontal transparent area. Input variables are
- Overall Dimensions: Length, width, and thickness
- Absorber Dimensions: Length and width
Child Window 3 – Cover and Plate
The cover and plate window shown in Figure A.4 needs the values of the optical
and thermal properties of the covers and the absorber plate. The collector can have up to
two covers. If it has only one cover, its properties are entered in Cover 1 section. It
should be noted that the calculation results of CoDePro for two different plastic covers
have not been verified against collector tests. Users can select the material or enter the
properties of his/her own material by selecting ‘user defined’from the drop down menu.
Input variables in this window are

78
- Cover
- Number of Covers: 0,1,2
- Cover material
- Refractive Index & transmittance (Solar spectrum)
- Absorptance & Transmittance (long-wave spectrum)
- Cover-Plate Air Spacing
- Cover1-Cover2 Air Spacing
- Plate
- Material (Conductivity)
- Thickness
- Absorptance for solar spectrum
- Emittance for long-wave radiation
Child window 4 – Back and Edge Insulation
To calculate the heat loss coefficient, it is necessary for the program to be
provided with information about the edge and back insulation. This information is
provided through a window shown in Figure A.5.
- Thickness and conductivity of back Insulation
- Thickness and conductivity of edge Insulation

79
Child Window 5 – Tube and Fluid
Through the window, shown in Figure A.6, information about tubes and the
working fluid is entered. The working fluid is selected among water, ethylene
glycol/water and propylene glycol/water. The bond conductivity represents the contact
resistance between the tube and absorber plate. If the thermal conductance between
them is high, its value should be larger than 400 W/mK. Input variables in this window
are
- Tube
- Number of Tubes
- Inner & outer diameter
- Fluid
- Material
- Percent Composition (for ethylene glycol/water and propylene glycol/water)
- Volumetric flow rate
- Inlet Pressure
- Plate-Tube Bond Conductivity
Child Window 6 – Equations from Test
Figure A.7 shows the window where the results of the experimental test (if
available) are entered. To compare the experimental results with the calculated results,
the coefficients of the equations should be filled out and ‘Yes’ should be chosen from
80
the drop down menu at the lower-right corner.
Child Window 7 - Results
The test result window is shown in Figure A.8. This window summarizes the
results calculated by CoDePro with the given test conditions and collector
configuration. It shows the efficiency equations with calculated coefficients and the
incident angle modifier equation with calculated incident angle modifier coefficient.
There are buttons for plot windows and stagnation temperatures. Plot windows display
collector performance and incident angle modifier as shown in Figure A.9 and A.10.
The graph for each data set is distinguished by color. The stagnation temperature
window (Figure A. 11) shows the conditions that affect the stagnation temperatures and
stagnation temperatures of the cover and the plate.

81
Figure A.1 Main Diagram Window
Figure A.2 Child window 1 - Test conditions

82
Figure A.3 Child window 2 - Collector dimensions
Figure A.4 Child window 3 - Cover and Plate

83
Figure A.5 Child window 4 – Edge and back insulation
Figure A.6 Child window 5 – Tube and fluid

84
Figure A.7 Child window 6 – Equations from test
Figure A.8 Child window 7 –Results

85
Figure A.9 Plot window – Instantaneous Efficiency
Figure A.10 Plot window - Incidence angle modifier

86
Figure A.11 Child window 8 - Stagnation temperatures

87
CODEPRO EES CODE

"CoDePro : Flat-Plate Solar Collector Design Program"
"Jae-Mo Koo, Research Assistant (koo@sel.me.wisc.edu)

William A. Beckman, Professor (beckman@me.engr.wisc.edu)
Solar Energy Laboratory
University of Wisconsin - Madison
CoDePro Ver. 0725, 12/16/1999
"
"! Unit Conversion ==================================================="
Procedure Unit_Conv_11_(Unit_Sys$, G_T_inp, T_amb_inp, WindSp_inp : G_T, T_amb,

WindSp)
If (Unit_Sys$ = 'SI Units') then
G_T = G_T_inp
T_amb = T_amb_inp
WindSp = WindSp_inp
Endif
If (Unit_Sys$ = 'English Units') then
G_T = G_T_inp*convert(Btu/hr-ft^2, W/m^2)
T_amb = ConvertTemp('F', 'C', T_amb_inp)
WindSp = WindSp_inp*convert(ft/s,m/s)
Endif
End
Procedure Unit_Conv_12_(Unit_Sys$,Length_inp,Width_inp, Thickness_inp, Length_p_inp,

Width_p_inp: Length, Width, Thickness, Length_p, Width_p)
Length = Length_inp
Width = Width_inp
Thickness = Thickness_inp
Length_p = Length_p_inp
Width_p = Width_p_inp
Endif
Length = Length_inp*convert(ft,m)
Width = Width_inp*convert(ft,m)
thickness = thickness_inp*convert(ft,m)
Length_p = Length_p_inp*convert(ft,m)
Width_p = Width_p_inp*convert(ft,m)
Endif
End
Procedure Unit_Conv_13_(Unit_Sys$, d_cp_inp, d_c1c2_inp, cond_pl_inp, thick_pl_inp :

d_cp, d_c1c2, cond_pl, thick_pl)
d_cp = d_cp_inp*convert(cm,m)
d_c1c2 = d_c1c2_inp*convert(cm,m)
cond_pl = cond_pl_inp
thick_pl = thick_pl_inp*convert(cm,m)
88
Endif
d_cp = d_cp_inp*convert(in, m)
d_c1c2 = d_c1c2_inp*convert(in, m)
Cond_pl = Cond_pl_inp*convert(Btu/hr-ft-F, W/m-K)
Thick_pl = Thick_pl_inp*convert(in, m)
Endif
End
Procedure Unit_Conv_14_(Unit_Sys$,t_e_inp,t_b_inp,k_e_inp,k_b_inp: t_e,t_b,k_e,k_b)

t_e = t_e_inp*convert(cm,m)
t_b = t_b_inp*convert(cm,m)
k_e = k_e_inp
k_b = k_b_inp
Endif
t_b = t_b_inp*convert(in, m)
t_e = t_e_inp*convert(in,m)
k_b = k_b_inp*convert(Btu/hr-ft-F, W/m-K)
k_e = k_e_inp*convert(Btu/hr-ft-F, W/m-K)
Endif
End
Procedure Unit_Conv_15_(Unit_Sys$, TubeDiam_i_inp, TubeDiam_o_inp, Q_dot_inp,

P_in_inp, BondCond_inp : TubeDiam_i, TubeDiam_o, Q_dot, P_in, BondCond)
TubeDiam_i = TubeDiam_i_inp*convert(cm,m)
TubeDiam_o = TubeDiam_o_inp*convert(cm,m)
Q_dot = Q_dot_inp*convert(L/min, m^3/s)
P_in = P_in_inp
BondCond = BondCond_inp
Endif
TubeDiam_i = TubeDiam_i_inp*convert(in, m)
TubeDiam_o = TubeDiam_o_inp*convert(in, m)
Q_dot = Q_dot_inp*convert(Gal/min, m^3/s)
P_in = P_in_inp*convert(psi,kPa)
BondCond = BondCond_inp*convert(Btu/hr-ft-F, W/m-K)
Endif
End
Procedure Unit_Conv_22_(Unit_Sys$, A_p, A_c : A_p_out, A_c_out)

A_p_out = A_p
A_c_out = A_c
Endif
A_c_out = A_c*convert(m^2, ft^2)
A_p_out = A_p*convert(m^2, ft^2)
Endif
End
89
Procedure Unit_Conv_25_(Unit_Sys$, TubeSp : TubeSp_out)

TubeSp_out = TubeSp*convert(m,cm)
Endif
TubeSp_out = TubeSp*convert(m, in)
Endif
End
"! Preparation ========================================================="
"
Function to check the collector dimension"
Function check_1_(Width,Length, Thickness, Width_p, Length_p, d_cp, d_c1c2, thick_pl,
TubeDiam_i, TubeDiam_o, t_b)
if (Width<Width_p) then CALL ERROR('Your width of absorber (Width_p) is greater
than the width of collector (Width).',Width_p)
if (Length<Length_p) then CALL ERROR('Your length of absorber (Length_p) is
greater than the length of collector (Legnth).',Length_p)
thick_tot = d_cp + d_c1c2 + thick_pl + TubeDiam_i + t_b
if (Thickness<thick_tot) then CALL ERROR('Your collector thickness (Thickness) is
less than the thickness calculated from your data (d_cp + d_c1c2 + thick_pl + TubeDiam_i
+ t_b).',Thickness)
if (TubeDiam_o<TubeDiam_i) then CALL ERROR('Outer diameter of tubes should be
larger than inner diameter.',TubeDiam_o)
check_1_ = 0
End
"
Function to check optical properties"
Function check_2_(epsilon_IR_c1, tau_IR_c1, epsilon_IR_c2, tau_c_IR_2)
Dum1 = epsilon_IR_c1+tau_IR_c1
Dum2 = epsilon_IR_c2+tau_c_IR_2
if (Dum1 > 1) then CALL ERROR('Emittance + transmittance of Cover1 should be less
than or equal to 1.',epsilon_IR_c1)
if (Dum2 > 1) then CALL ERROR('Emittance + transmittance of Cover2 should be less
than or equal to 1.',epsilon_IR_c2)
check_2_ = 0
End
"
Procedure to set the temperature range for simulation"
Procedure T_bound_(T_amb, G_T, Fluid$, P_in : T_in_max, T_in_min)
T_max = T_amb+0.1*G_T
T_sat1 = 100.0
T_in_max = min(99.9, T_max)
T_in_min = max(0,T_amb)
END
"! Thermodynamic Properties ======================================="

90
"
Property Procedures for Propylene glycol and Ethylene glycol solution: From BRINEPROP"
Procedure Prop_Coeff_(Fl, Pr: c[1..18])
if (Fl = 1) then
If (Pr=1) then
c[1] = -2.196E+0001;c[2] = 9.186E-0006 ;c[3] = -1.136E-0006 ;c[4] =
1.798E-0008 ;c[5] = -1.015E+0000 ;c[6] = -3.391E-0006 ;c[7] = 7.548E-0008 ;c[8] =
8.493E-0010 ;c[9] = -1.414E-0002
c[10]= 2.355E-0007;c[11]= 2.159E-0009;c[12]= -1.311E-0010;c[13]= -
3.727E-0005;c[14]= 6.091E-0010;c[15]= -1.465E-0010;c[16]= -1.398E-0007;c[17]= -
2.269E-0010;c[18]= -2.512E-0008
Endif
If (Pr=2) then
c[1] = 1.056E+0003;c[2] = -3.987E-0001;c[3] = -3.068E-0003;c[4] = 1.233E-
0005;c[5] = 1.505E+0000;c[6] = -8.953E-0003;c[7] = 6.378E-0005;c[8] = -1.152E-
0007;c[9] = -1.634E-0003
c[10]= 1.541E-0004;c[11]= -1.874E-0006;c[12]= -9.809E-0009;c[13]= -
2.317E-0004;c[14]= 2.549E-0006;c[15]= -5.523E-0008;c[16]= -8.510E-0006;c[17]= -
3.848E-0008;c[18]= -1.128E-0007
Endif
If (Pr=3) then
c[1] = 3.501E+0003;c[2] = 3.954E+0000;c[3] = 6.065E-0005;c[4] = -5.979E-
0006;c[5] = -2.419E+0001;c[6] = 1.031E-0001;c[7] = 4.312E-0005;c[8] = 5.168E-
0006;c[9] = 4.613E-0003
c[10]= -6.595E-0005;c[11]= 1.620E-0005;c[12]= -3.250E-0007;c[13]=
6.028E-0003;c[14]= 5.642E-0005;c[15]= -7.777E-0007;c[16]= -7.977E-0005;c[17]=
5.190E-0007;c[18]= -3.380E-0006
Endif
If (Pr=4) then
c[1] = 4.211E-0001;c[2] = 7.995E-0004;c[3] = -5.509E-0008;c[4] = -1.460E-
0008;c[5] = -3.694E-0003;c[6] = -1.751E-0005;c[7] = 6.656E-0008;c[8] = 2.017E-0009;c[9]
= 2.095E-0005
c[10]= 2.078E-0007;c[11]= -2.394E-0009;c[12]= -6.772E-0011;c[13]=
3.663E-0007;c[14]= -5.272E-0009;c[15]= -1.126E-0010;c[16]= -6.389E-0009;c[17]= -
1.112E-0010;c[18]= -1.820E-0010
Endif
If (Pr=5) then
c[1] = 1.453E+0000;c[2] = -3.747E-0002;c[3] = 2.842E-0004;c[4] = -8.025E-
0007;c[5] = 2.920E-0002;c[6] = -1.131E-0004;c[7] = 1.729E-0006;c[8] = -5.073E-0008;c[9]
= 1.264E-0004
c[10]= 6.785E-0009;c[11]= -1.685E-0008;c[12]= -1.082E-0009;c[13]=
4.386E-0006;c[14]= -2.191E-0007;c[15]= -9.117E-0011;c[16]= -9.223E-0008;c[17]= -
4.294E-0009;c[18]= -3.655E-0009
Endif
Endif
if (Fl=2) then
if (Pr=1) then
c[1] = -2.360E+0001 ;c[2] = -2.970E-0004 ;c[3] = 1.871E-0007 ;c[4] =
1.590E-0007 ;c[5] = -1.088E+0000 ;c[6] = 4.693E-0005 ;c[7] = -9.089E-0007 ;c[8] = -
9.845E-0010 ;c[9] = -2.815E-0002
91
c[10]= 1.613E-0006 ;c[11]= 5.066E-0008 ;c[12]= -1.251E-0009 ;c[13]= -

5.285E-0004 ;c[14]= -1.786E-0007 ;c[15]= 2.051E-0009 ;c[16]= 9.794E-0006 ;c[17]= -
5.668E-0009 ;c[18]= 4.270E-0007
Endif
If (Pr=2) then
c[1] = 1.042E+0003;c[2] = -4.907E-0001;c[3] = -2.819E-0003;c[4] = -5.895E-
0007;c[5] = 8.081E-0001;c[6] = -9.652E-0003;c[7] = 7.168E-0005;c[8] = 2.404E-0007;c[9]
= -7.156E-0003
c[10]= 1.088E-0004;c[11]= -3.328E-0006;c[12]= 1.153E-0007;c[13]=
1.190E-0004;c[14]= -6.226E-0006;c[15]= -3.026E-0008;c[16]= -1.170E-0005;c[17]= -
2.915E-0007;c[18]= -6.033E-0007
Endif
If (Pr=3) then
c[1] = 3.679E+0003;c[2] = 1.571E+0000;c[3] = 1.331E-0002;c[4] = 1.975E-
0007;c[5] = -1.933E+0001;c[6] = 1.118E-0001;c[7] = -1.108E-0003;c[8] = 4.924E-
0006;c[9] = -4.879E-0002
c[10]= -2.338E-0004;c[11]= 2.753E-0005;c[12]= -3.148E-0007;c[13]=
4.749E-0003;c[14]= -2.621E-0005;c[15]= 1.286E-0006;c[16]= -2.871E-0004;c[17]= -
9.050E-0008;c[18]= -1.068E-0005
Endif
if (Pr=4) then
c[1] = 3.806E-0001;c[2] = 5.765E-0004;c[3] = -3.477E-0007;c[4] = -6.041E-
0009;c[5] = -3.815E-0003;c[6] = -1.423E-0005;c[7] = -1.203E-0008;c[8] = -5.854E-0010;c[9]
= 8.420E-0006
c[10]= 1.081E-0007;c[11]= 1.959E-0009;c[12]= 1.271E-0010;c[13]= -
1.110E-0006;c[14]= -1.612E-0009;c[15]= 3.005E-0010;c[16]= 5.503E-0009;c[17]=
1.437E-0010;c[18]= 1.290E-0009
Endif
if (Pr=5) then
c[1] = 2.274E+0000;c[2] = -5.342E-0002;c[3] = 5.372E-0004;c[4] = -4.955E-
0006;c[5] = 4.500E-0002;c[6] = -5.488E-0004;c[7] = 1.845E-0006;c[8] = 1.192E-0007;c[9]
= -7.808E-0005
c[10]= 1.453E-0006;c[11]= -2.816E-0007;c[12]= 8.562E-0009;c[13]=
6.565E-0006;c[14]= -4.032E-0007;c[15]= -1.212E-0009;c[16]= 6.441E-0007;c[17]= -
1.430E-0008;c[18]= 1.092E-0008
Endif
Endif
End
Procedure Prop_Mean_(Fl:xm, ym)

If (Fl=1) then
xm = 38.1615
ym = 6.3333
Endif
If (Fl=2) then
xm = 42.7686
ym = 5.3571
Endif
End
Function BRINEPROP_(Fl$,Pr$,Conc,Temp)
92
IF (Fl$='EG') AND (Conc<0) THEN

Call ERROR('Concentration must be equal to or larger than 0.0%.',Conc)
ELSE
IF (Fl$='EG') AND (Conc>56.1) THEN
Call ERROR('Concentration must be equal to or smaller than 56.1%.',Conc)
ELSE
IF (Fl$='PG') AND (Conc<15.2) THEN
ELSE
IF (Fl$='PG') AND (Conc>57.0) THEN
ENDIF;ENDIF;ENDIF;ENDIF
"Sets property parameter"

Freeze=1;Density=2;SpecHeat=3;ThermalC=4;DynVisc=5
IF (Pr$='Freeze') THEN Pro:=Freeze ELSE
IF (Pr$='Density') THEN Pro:=Density ELSE
IF (Pr$='SpecHeat') THEN Pro:=SpecHeat ELSE
IF (Pr$='ThermalC') THEN Pro:=ThermalC ELSE
IF (Pr$='DynVisc') THEN Pro:=DynVisc
ENDIF;ENDIF;ENDIF;ENDIF;
Pr:=Pro
"Sets fluid parameter"

EG=1;PG=2
IF (Fl$='EG') THEN Flu:=EG ELSE
IF (Fl$='PG') THEN Flu:=PG ELSE
ENDIF;ENDIF
Fl:=Flu
"Coefficients"
call Prop_Coeff_(Fl, Pr: c[1..18])
"Mean values"
call Prop_Mean_(Fl:xm, ym)
x=Conc-xm
y=Temp-ym
"Equation, f(temp,conc)"
Funkt=c[1]+(c[2]*y)+(c[3]*y^2)+(c[4]*y^3)+(c[5]*x)+(c[6]*x*y)+(c[7]*x*y^2)+(c[8]*x*y^3)+
(c[9]*x^2)+(c[10]*x^2*y)+(c[11]*x^2*y^2)+(c[12]*x^2*y^3)+(c[13]*x^3)+(c[14]*x^3*y)+(c[15]*x
^3*y^2)+(c[16]*x^4)+(c[17]*x^4*y)+(c[18]*x^5)
"Conditions
Mode=mu => output = exp(f)
Mode<>mu => output = f"
IF (Pr=5) THEN
BRINEPROP_=exp(Funkt)
ELSE
IF (Pr=3) THEN
BRINEPROP_=Funkt/1000
93
ELSE
BRINEPROP_=Funkt
ENDIF;ENDIF
END
"
User External Functions to calculate properties of fluid"
Function C_p_(Fluid$, T, P, Percent)
If (Fluid$ = 'Water') then C_p_ = SPECHEAT(Water,T=T,P=P)
If (Fluid$ = 'Propylene Glycol Solution') then C_p_ =
BRINEPROP_('PG','SpecHeat',Percent,T)
If (Fluid$ = 'Ethylene-Glycol Solution') then C_p_ =
BRINEPROP_('EG','SpecHeat',Percent,T)
End
Function mu_(Fluid$, T, P, Percent)

If (Fluid$ = 'Water') then mu_ = VISCOSITY(Water,T=T,P=P)
If (Fluid$ = 'Propylene Glycol Solution') then mu_ =
BRINEPROP_('PG','DynVisc',Percent,T)*1.0e-3
If (Fluid$ = 'Ethylene-Glycol Solution') then mu_ =
BRINEPROP_('EG','DynVisc',Percent,T)*1.0e-3
End
Function k_(Fluid$, T, P, Percent)

If (Fluid$ = 'Water') then k_ = CONDUCTIVITY(Water,T=T,P=P)
If (Fluid$ = 'Propylene Glycol Solution') then k_ =
BRINEPROP_('PG','ThermalC',Percent,T)
If (Fluid$ = 'Ethylene-Glycol Solution') then k_ =
BRINEPROP_('EG','ThermalC',Percent,T)
End
Function rho_(Fluid$, T, P, Percent)

If (Fluid$ = 'Water') then rho_ = DENSITY(Water,T=T,P=P)
If (Fluid$ = 'Propylene Glycol Solution') then rho_ =
BRINEPROP_('PG','Density',Percent,T)
If (Fluid$ = 'Ethylene-Glycol Solution') then rho_ =
BRINEPROP_('EG','Density',Percent,T)
End
"! Heat Transfer Relations ======================================="
"
Heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop in circular tubes"
Procedure Circular_tube_(Q_dot, D, L, Fluid$, T, P, SolPer, Num_tube : m_dot, C_p, h,
DELTAP, Re, DELTAP_1, DELTAP_2)
T = min(100, T)
T = max(0, T)
rho = rho_(Fluid$, T, P, SolPer)
m_dot = rho*Q_dot "Mass flow rate"
C_p = C_p_(Fluid$, T, P, SolPer)*convert(kJ, J)
If (C_p < 0.01) then C_p = 4000
94
mu = mu_(Fluid$, T, P, SolPer)
k = k_(Fluid$, T, P, SolPer)
Re = (4*m_dot/Num_tube)/(pi*D*mu)
Pr = mu*C_p/k
A_inner = pi*D^2/4*Num_tube
u = Q_dot/A_inner
if (Re > 2300) then "for turbulent flow"

fricfac = (0.79*ln(Re)-1.64)^(-2)
Nusselt_long = ((fricfac/8)*(Re-1000)*Pr)/(1+12.7*sqrt(fricfac/8)*(Pr^(2/3)-1))
"Gnielinski"
Nusselt = Nusselt_long*(1+(D/L)^0.7)
else "For laminar flow"
fricfac = 64/Re
"for laminar flow (assumption : constant heat flux condition and fully developed flow)"
a = 0.00172
b = 0.00281
m = 1.66
n = 1.29
Nusselt = 4.4+a*(Re*Pr*D/L)^m/(1+b*(Re*Pr*D/L)^n)
Endif
"Heat Transfer Coefficient"

h = Nusselt*k/D
if (h <0) then h = 5
"Pressure Drop"
DELTAP_1 = fricfac*(rho*u^2)/(2*D)*L "Pressure drop of fully developed flow"
K = 0.5 "Loss Coefficient for Sharp edge"
DELTAP_2 = K*D*(rho*u^2)/(2*D) "Pressure drop due at pipe entrance : Sharp
Edge"
DELTAP = DELTAP_1+DELTAP_2
END
"
Function for calculating Nusselt number for natural convection between parallel plates"
Function NuFlatPlate_(Slope,T1,T2,PlateSp,WLDP1,WLDP2)
Slope`=if(Slope,0,.001,.001,Slope)
Slope``=if(Slope`,75,Slope`,Slope`,75)
Tmean_1=(T1+T2)/2
Tmean = min(500, Tmean_1)
Tmean = max(-5, Tmean) "For convergence"
TmeanK=Tmean+273*unitsystem('C')
k=Conductivity(Air,T=Tmean)
Rho=1/Volume(Air,T=Tmean,P=101.3)
Nu=Viscosity(Air,T=Tmean)/Rho
Cp=SpecHeat(Air,T=Tmean)*1000
Alpha=k/(Rho*Cp)
Ra=max(10,9.81*abs(T2-T1)*PlateSp^3/(TmeanK*Nu*Alpha))
if (WLDP1 < 0.5) then
a=1.44*(1-1708*(sin(1.8*Slope``)^1.6)/(Ra*cos(Slope``)))*max(0,1-
(1708/(Ra*cos(Slope``)))) "Hollands et al., 1976"
else
95
a=1.77*(1-1296*(sin(1.8*Slope``)^1.6)/(Ra*cos(Slope``)))*max(0,1-
(1296/(Ra*cos(Slope``)))) "Yiqin et al., 1991 for plastic cover 1 and glass cover 2"
Endif
b=max(0,(Ra*cos(Slope``)/5830)^(1/3)-1)
NuFlatPlate_=1+a+b
END
"! Absorbed Radiation ======================================="
"
Function to calculate Sky temperature"
Function SkyTemp_JK_(T_amb,T_dp,HrAng)
Time=(180-HrAng) "sky emittance always greater at night"
T_amb`=T_amb+273.15
T_dp`=T_dp
SkyTemp_JK_=(T_amb`*(.711+.0056*T_dp`+.000073*T_dp`^2+.013*cos(Time))^.25)
END
"
Function to evaluate the angluar dependence of absorptance of the absorber plate"
Function Abs\Abs_n_(IncAng)
Abs\Abs_n_=1.0000-1.5879e-3*IncAng+2.7314e-4*IncAng^2-2.3026e-5*IncAng^3
+9.0244e-7*IncAng^4-1.8000e-8*IncAng^5+1.7734e-10*IncAng^6-6.9937e-13*IncAng^7
END
"
Function to calculate perpendicular and parallel components of optical properties"
Procedure OpticalProp1_(IncAng,KL,n : TRANSperp, TRANSpara, RHOperp, RHOpara,
ABSperp, ABSpara)
IncAng = max(IncAng, 0.0001) "To make possible 0 as an input of incident angle"
RefrAng = arcsin(sin(IncAng)/n)
REFperp=(sin(RefrAng-IncAng)/sin(RefrAng+IncAng))^2
REFpara=(tan(RefrAng-IncAng)/tan(RefrAng+IncAng))^2
TRANSabs=exp(-KL/cos(RefrAng))
TRANSperp = TRANSabs*(1-REFperp)^2/(1-(REFperp*TRANSabs)^2)
TRANSpara = TRANSabs*(1-REFpara)^2/(1-(REFpara*TRANSabs)^2)
RHOperp = REFperp*(1+TRANSabs*TRANSperp)
RHOpara = REFpara*(1+TRANSabs*TRANSpara)
ABSperp = (1-TRANSabs)*(1-REFperp)/(1-REFperp*TRANSabs)
ABSpara = (1-TRANSabs)*(1-REFpara)/(1-REFpara*TRANSabs)
END
"
Function to classify the kind of covers"
Procedure OpticalProp3_(tau_IR, epsilon_IR: WLDP, TRANS_IR, Emitt_IR)
if (tau_IR=0) then WLDP = 0
if (tau_IR>0) then WLDP = 1
TRANS_IR=tau_IR
Emitt_IR = epsilon_IR
End
"
96
Function calculating transmittance-absorptance product"

Function TauAlpha_(Ncov,IncAng, KL_c1, KL_c2, n_c1, n_c2, Alpha_n)
if (Ncov = 0) then
Tau = 1
rho_d = 0
Endif
if (Ncov = 1) then
Call OpticalProp1_(IncAng,KL_c1,n_c1 : TRANSperp, TRANSpara,a, b,c,d)
tau = (TRANSperp+TRANSpara)/2
Call OpticalProp1_(60,KL_c1,n_c1 : a, b, RHOperp, RHOpara,c,d)
rho_d = (RHOperp+RHOpara)/2
Endif
if (Ncov = 2) then
Call OpticalProp1_(IncAng,KL_c1,n_c1: TRANSperp1,TRANSpara1,RHOperp1,
RHOpara1,c,d)
Call OpticalProp1_(IncAng,KL_c2,n_c2: TRANSperp2,TRANSpara2,RHOperp2,
RHOpara2,c,d)
tau=((TRANSperp2*TRANSperp1)/(1-RHOperp2*RHOperp1)+(TRANSpara2
*TRANSpara1)/(1-RHOpara2*RHOpara1))/2
Call OpticalProp1_(60,KL_c1,n_c1:TRANSperp1d,TRANSpara1d,RHOperp1d,
RHOpara1d,c,d)
Call OpticalProp1_(60,KL_c2,n_c2:TRANSperp2d,TRANSpara2d,RHOperp2d,
RHOpara2d,c,d)
tau_d=((TRANSperp2d*TRANSperp1d)/(1-RHOperp2d*RHOperp1d)+
(TRANSpara2d*TRANSpara1d)/(1-RHOpara2d*RHOpara1d))/2
rho_d=((RHOperp2d+(tau_d*RHOperp1d*TRANSperp2d)/TRANSperp1d)
+(RHOpara1d+(tau_d*RHOpara1d*TRANSpara2d)/TRANSpara1d))/2
Endif
alpha = Abs\Abs_n_(IncAng)*Alpha_n
TauAlpha_ = (tau*alpha)/(1-(1-Alpha)*rho_d)
END
"! Loss Coefficient ======================================="
"
Function to calculate the wind coefficient"
Function WindCoeff`FS_(WindSp,Length,Width,T_amb,Pr)
CharLength=4*Length*Width/(2*(Length+Width))
Density=1/Volume(Air, T=T_amb, P=101.3)
Visc=Viscosity(Air, T=T_amb)
Re=CharLength*WindSp*Density/Visc
Nu=.86*Re^.5*Pr^.333
WindCoeff`FS_=max(5,Nu*Conductivity(Air, T=T_amb)/CharLength)
END
"
Calculation of the Exact Top Loss Coefficient"
"No Cover"
Procedure U_T_0_(T_pl,T_amb,T_s`,Slope,WindCoeff,epsilon_IR_p: U_t, T_c1, T_c2)
97
T_pl`=T_pl+273
q_r_pa = epsilon_IR_p*5.67e-8*(T_pl`^4-T_s`^4)
q_c_pa = WindCoeff*(T_pl-T_amb)
q_loss_t = q_r_pa + q_c_pa
U_t = q_loss_t/(T_pl-T_amb)
T_c1 = 0
T_c2 = 0
END
"One Cover"
Procedure U_T_1_(T_pl,T_amb,T_s`,Slope,WindCoeff,Emitt_IR_p,Emitt_IR_c1,d_cp,
WLDP1, TRANS_IR_c1: U_t, T_c1, T_c2)
REF_IR_p =1-Emitt_IR_p
REF_IR_c1 = 1-(Emitt_IR_c1+TRANS_IR_c1)
T_amb` = T_amb+273.15
T_pl`=T_pl+273.15
T_c`_new = (T_pl` + T_s`)/2
q_1_o = 400
REPEAT
T_c` = T_c`_new
T_c = T_c`-273.15
Nu = NuFlatPlate_(Slope,T_c,T_pl,d_cp,0,0)
T_mean = Max(-10, (T_pl+T_c)/2)
T_mean = Min(500, T_mean)
h_c_pc = Nu*Conductivity(Air,T=T_mean)/d_cp
q_c_pc = h_c_pc*(T_pl-T_c)
q_2_i = 5.67e-8*T_s`^4
q_1_i = REF_IR_p*q_1_o+Emitt_IR_p*5.67e-8*T_pl`^4
q_1_o = TRANS_IR_c1*q_2_i+REF_IR_c1*q_1_i+Emitt_IR_c1*5.67e-8*T_c`^4
q_2_o = TRANS_IR_c1*q_1_i+REF_IR_c1*q_2_i+Emitt_IR_c1*5.67e-8*T_c`^4
T_c`_new=T_c`+((q_1_i-q_1_o-q_2_o+q_2_i+h_c_pc*T_pl`+WindCoeff*T_amb`)
/(WindCoeff+h_c_pc)-T_c`)*0.3
Error = abs(T_c`_new-T_c`)
UNTIL (Error < 1.0e-4)
q``_t = q_1_i-q_1_o+q_c_pc
U_t = q``_t/(T_pl-T_amb)
T_c1 = T_c`-273.15
T_c2 = 0
End
"Two Covers"
Procedure U_T_2_(T_pl, T_amb, T_s`, Slope, WindCoeff, Emitt_IR_p, Emitt_IR_c1,
Emitt_IR_c2, Ncov,d_cp,d_c1c2, WLDP1, WLDP2, TRANS_IR_c1, TRANS_IR_c2,
xfraccov: U_t, T_c1, T_c2)
REF_IR_p =1-Emitt_IR_p
T_amb` = T_amb+273.15
T_pl`=T_pl+273.15
T_c1`_new = (T_pl` + T_s`)/2
T_c2`_new = T_c1`_new - 1
q_1_o = 400; q_2_o = 400; q_3_o = 400
98
REPEAT
T_c1` = T_c1`_new
T_c1 = T_c1`-273.15
T_c2` = T_c2`_new
T_c2 = T_c2`-273.15
Nu_1 = NuFlatPlate_(Slope,T_c1,T_pl,d_cp,WLDP1,WLDP2)
T_mean1 = Max(-10, (T_pl+T_c1)/2)
T_mean1 = Min(500, T_mean1)
h_c_pc1 = Nu_1*Conductivity(Air,T=T_mean1)/d_cp
q_c_pc1 = h_c_pc1*(T_pl-T_c1)
Nu_2 = NuFlatPlate_(Slope,T_c2,T_c1,d_c1c2,WLDP1,WLDP2)
T_mean2 = Max(-10, (T_c1+T_c2)/2)
T_mean2 = Min(500, T_mean2)
h_c_c1c2 = Nu_2*Conductivity(Air,T=T_mean2)/d_c1c2
q_c_c1c2 = h_c_c1c2*(T_c1-T_c2)
q_1_i = REF_IR_p*q_1_o+Emitt_IR_p*5.67e-8*T_pl`^4
q_2_i = q_3_o
q_3_i = q_2_o
q_4_i = 5.67e-8*T_s`^4
q_1_o = TRANS_IR_c1*q_2_i+REF_IR_c1*q_1_i+Emitt_IR_c1*5.67e-8*T_c1`^4
T_c1`_new=T_c1`+((q_1_i-q_1_o-q_2_o+q_2_i+h_c_pc1*T_pl`+h_c_c1c2*T_c2`)
/(h_c_pc1+h_c_c1c2)-T_c1`)*0.2
T_c2`_new=T_c2`+((q_3_i-q_3_o-q_4_o+q_4_i+h_c_c1c2*T_c1`+WindCoeff*
T_amb`)/(h_c_c1c2+WindCoeff)-T_c2`)*0.2
Error = abs(T_c1`_new-T_c1`)+abs(T_c2`_new-T_c2`)
UNTIL (Error < 1.0e-4)
T_c1 = T_c1`-273.15
T_c2 = T_c2`-273.15
q``_t = q_1_i-q_1_o+q_c_pc1
U_t = q``_t/(T_pl-T_amb)
End
"
Procedure to evaluate overall heat loss coefficient"
Procedure U_L_(T_pl,T_amb,T_s`,Slope,WindCoeff,Emitt_IR_p,Emitt_IR_c1,Emitt_IR_c2,
Ncov,U_b,U_e,d_cp,d_c1c2, WLDP1, WLDP2, TRANS_IR_c1, TRANS_IR_c2, xfraccov :
U_L,T_c1, T_c2 )
If (Ncov = 0) then call U_T_0_(T_pl,T_amb,T_s`,Slope,WindCoeff,Emitt_IR_p: U_t,

T_c1, T_c2)
if (Ncov=1) then call U_T_1_(T_pl,T_amb,T_s`,Slope,WindCoeff,Emitt_IR_p,
Emitt_IR_c1,d_cp, WLDP1, TRANS_IR_c1: U_t, T_c1, T_c2)
if (Ncov = 2) then call U_T_2_(T_pl,T_amb,T_s`,Slope,WindCoeff,Emitt_IR_p,
Emitt_IR_c1,Emitt_IR_c2, Ncov,d_cp,d_c1c2, WLDP1, WLDP2, TRANS_IR_c1,
TRANS_IR_c2, xfraccov: U_t, T_c1, T_c2)
U_L = max((U_t + U_b + U_e), U_b+U_e)

End
"! Solar Collector Gain ======================================="

99
"
Mean fluid temperature"
Function T_Fl`M_(T_in,Q_u,A,F_R,F``,U_L)
T_Fl`M_=T_in+Q_u/(A*F_R*U_L)*(1-F``)
END
"
Mean plate temperature"
Function T_Pl`M_(T_in,Q_u,A,F_R,U_L)
T_Pl`M_=T_in+Q_u/(A*F_R*U_L)*(1-F_R)
END
"
Collector efficiency factor"
Function CollEffFact_(U_L,Cond_pl,Thick_pl,TubeSp,TubeDiam_i,TubeDiam_o,BondCond,
h_fi)
m=(U_L/(Cond_pl*Thick_pl))^.5
F=tanh(m*(TubeSp-TubeDiam_o)/2)/(m*(TubeSp-TubeDiam_o)/2)
CollEffFact_=(1/U_L)/(TubeSp*(1/(U_L*(TubeDiam_o+(TubeSp-TubeDiam_o)*F))+
1/BondCond+1/(pi*TubeDiam_i*h_fi)))
END
"
Collector heat removal factor"
Function F_R_(MassFR,C_P,A,U_L,CollEffFact)
DimFlowRate=MassFR*C_P/(A*U_L*CollEffFact)
F``=DimFlowRate*(1-exp(-1/DimFlowRate))
F_R_=CollEffFact*F``
END
"! Post processing

=========================================================="
"Procedure for the output in the stagnation temperature window"

Procedure Stag_disp(Unit_Sys$, Ncov, T_stag_p, T_stag_c1, T_stag_c2: T_stag_p$,
T_stag_c1$, T_stag_c2$)
T_stag_p_out = T_stag_p
T_stag_c1_out = T_stag_c1
T_stag_c2_out = T_stag_c2
if (Ncov = 0) then
T_stag_p$=CONCAT$(String$(T_stag_p_out), ' [C]')
T_stag_c1$=' '
T_stag_c2$=' '
Endif
if (Ncov = 1) then
T_stag_c1$=CONCAT$(String$(T_stag_c1_out), ' [C]')
T_stag_c2$=' '
Endif
if (Ncov = 2) then
100

Endif
Endif

T_stag_p_out = ConvertTemp('C', 'F', T_stag_p)
T_stag_c1_out = ConvertTemp('C', 'F', T_stag_c1)
T_stag_c2_out = ConvertTemp('C', 'F', T_stag_c2)
if (Ncov = 0) then
T_stag_p$=CONCAT$(String$(T_stag_p_out), ' [F]')
T_stag_c1$=' '
T_stag_c2$=' '
Endif
if (Ncov = 1) then
T_stag_c1$=CONCAT$(String$(T_stag_c1_out), ' [F]')
T_stag_c2$=' '
Endif
if (Ncov = 2) then
Endif
Endif
End
"
Procedure to plot efficiency curves in both English and SI units"
Procedure Efficiency_curve_(Unit_Sys$, Eff_temp_diff$, T_in[0..10], T_av[0..10], T_amb,
G_T : DELTAT\G_T[0..10], DELTAT2\G_T[0..10])
if (Eff_temp_diff$ = 'T_i - T_a') then
Duplicate jj = 0, 10
DELTAT\G_T[jj] = (T_in[jj] - T_amb)/G_T
DELTAT2\G_T[jj] = (T_in[jj]-T_amb)^2/G_T
End
else
DELTAT\G_T[jj] = (T_av[jj] - T_amb)/G_T
DELTAT2\G_T[jj] = (T_av[jj]-T_amb)^2/G_T
End
Endif
Endif

if (Eff_temp_diff$ = 'T_i - T_a') then
DELTAT\G_T[jj] = (T_in[jj] - T_amb)/G_T*Convert(C,F)/Convert(W/m^2,
Btu/hr-ft^2)
DELTAT2\G_T[jj] = (T_in[jj]-T_amb)^2/G_T*Convert(C,F)^2/
Convert(W/m^2, Btu/hr-ft^2)
101
End
else
DELTAT\G_T[jj] = (T_av[jj] - T_amb)/G_T*Convert(C,F)/Convert(W/m^2,
Btu/hr-ft^2)
DELTAT2\G_T[jj]=(T_av[jj]-T_amb)^2/G_T*Convert(C,F)^2/
Convert(W/m^2, Btu/hr-ft^2)
End
Endif
Endif
End
"! Comparison with the experimental equations ========================"
"
Procedure to draw a graph of the experimental test results"
Procedure comp_exp_(Unit_Sys$, Comp_exp$, a_0_exp, a_1_exp, a_2_exp, b_0_exp,
DELTAT\G_T_max:
x_i_exp_SI[0..10],x_i_exp_English[0..10],eta_i_exp[0..10],x_j_exp[0..10], K_ta_exp[0..10])
If (Comp_exp$ = 'Yes') then
Stepsize = DELTAT\G_T_max/10
duplicate i=0,10
if (Unit_Sys$ = 'SI Units') then
x_i_exp_SI[i] = stepsize*i
x_i_exp_English[i] = x_i_exp_SI[i]*convert(m^2-K/W,F-hr-ft^2/Btu)
eta_i_exp[i] = a_0_exp+a_1_exp*x_i_exp_SI[i]+a_2_exp*x_i_exp_SI[i]^2
Endif
if (Unit_Sys$ = 'English Units') then
x_i_exp_English[i] = stepsize*i
x_i_exp_SI[i] = x_i_exp_English[i]*convert(F-hr-ft^2/Btu, m^2-K/W)
eta_i_exp[i] =
a_0_exp+a_1_exp*x_i_exp_English[i]+a_2_exp*x_i_exp_English[i]^2
Endif
x_j_exp[i] = 0.1*i
K_ta_exp[i] = 1+b_0_exp*x_j_exp[i]
End
Endif
If (Comp_exp$ = 'No') then
duplicate i=0,10
x_i_exp_SI[i] = 0; x_i_exp_English[i]=0;eta_i_exp[i]=0;x_j_exp[i]=0;
K_ta_exp[i] = 0
End
Endif
End
"! Data Handling =================================================="
"
Subroutines to set the value of a variable used as an index"
Function Set_i_backup_(i_backup_1$)
if (i_backup_1$ = '[Erase All Data]') then Set_i_backup_ = -1
if (i_backup_1$ = '[Do Not Save]') then Set_i_backup_ = 0
102
if (i_backup_1$ = 'Set 1') then Set_i_backup_ = 1

end
"Subroutine to store results in lookup table"

Function backup_(i_backup, A_c, A_p, TubeSp, DELTAT\G_T[0..10], eta_i_fit3[0..10],
index1[0..10], k_ta_fit[0..10], a_3_0,a_3_1, a_3_2,b_0, T_stag_p, T_stag_c1, T_stag_c2)
$COMMON
Unit_Sys,G_T,I_d\I_T,IncAng,Slope,T_amb,WindSp,Rel_hum,Eff_temp_diff$,Length,Width,
thickness,Length_p,Width_p
$COMMON
Ncov,Coverkind2$,n_c2,tau_s_c2,epsilon_IR_c2,tau_IR_c2,Coverkind1$,n_c1,tau_s_c1,ep
silon_IR_c1,tau_IR_c1,d_cp,d_c1c2,Thick_pl,alpha_n,epsilon_IR_p,Cond_pl
$COMMON
t_b,t_e,k_b,k_e,N_Tube,TubeDiam_i,TubeDiam_o,Fluid$,SolPer,Q_dot_inp,P_in,BondCon
d, a_0_exp, a_1_exp, a_2_exp, b_0_exp
if (i_backup = -1) then
duplicate ii=2,11
duplicate jj=1,97
lookup(jj,ii)=0
End
End
duplicate ii=13,22
duplicate jj=2,24
lookup(jj,ii)=0
End
End
backup_ = -1
else
if (i_backup = 0) then
backup_ =0
else
i_backup_1 = i_backup*2
i_backup_2 = i_backup*2+1
lookup(1,i_backup_2) = Unit_Sys
jjm = jj-2
lookup(jj,i_backup_1) = DELTAT\G_T[jjm]
lookup(jj,i_backup_2) = eta_i_fit3[jjm]
End
Duplicate jj=13,23
jjm = jj-13
lookup(jj,i_backup_1) = index1[jjm]
lookup(jj,i_backup_2) = k_ta_fit[jjm]
End
lookup(25,i_backup_2) = a_3_0
103
lookup(29,i_backup_2) = b_0
lookup(31,i_backup_2) = a_0_exp
lookup(34,i_backup_2) = b_0_exp
lookup(37,i_backup_2) = T_stag_p
lookup(38,i_backup_2) = T_stag_c1
lookup(39,i_backup_2) = T_stag_c2
lookup(43,i_backup_2) = G_T
lookup(44,i_backup_2) = I_d\I_T
lookup(45,i_backup_2) = IncAng
lookup(46,i_backup_2) = Slope
lookup(47,i_backup_2) = T_amb
lookup(48,i_backup_2) = WindSp
lookup(49,i_backup_2) = Rel_hum
{lookup(50,i_backup_2) = Reserved row}
lookup(51,i_backup_2) = Eff_temp_diff$
lookup(53,i_backup_2) = Length
lookup(54,i_backup_2) = Width
lookup(55,i_backup_2) = thickness
lookup(56,i_backup_2) = A_c
lookup(58,i_backup_2) = Length_p
lookup(59,i_backup_2) = Width_p
lookup(60,i_backup_2) = A_p
lookup(62,i_backup_2) = Ncov
lookup(63,i_backup_2) = Coverkind2$
lookup(64,i_backup_2) = n_c2
lookup(65,i_backup_2) = tau_s_c2
lookup(66,i_backup_2) = epsilon_IR_c2
lookup(67,i_backup_2) = tau_IR_c2
lookup(68,i_backup_2) = Coverkind1$
lookup(69,i_backup_2) = n_c1
lookup(70,i_backup_2) = tau_s_c2
lookup(71,i_backup_2) = epsilon_IR_c1
lookup(72,i_backup_2) = tau_IR_c1
lookup(74,i_backup_2) = d_cp
lookup(75,i_backup_2) = d_c1c2
lookup(77,i_backup_2) = alpha_n
lookup(78,i_backup_2) = epsilon_IR_p
lookup(79,i_backup_2) = Thick_pl
lookup(80,i_backup_2) = Cond_pl
lookup(82,i_backup_2) = t_b
104
lookup(83,i_backup_2) = k_b
lookup(85,i_backup_2) = t_e
lookup(86,i_backup_2) = k_e
lookup(87,i_backup_2) = N_Tube
lookup(88,i_backup_2) = TubeDiam_i
lookup(90,i_backup_2) = TubeDiam_o
lookup(91,i_backup_2) = TubeSp
lookup(93,i_backup_2) = Fluid$
lookup(94,i_backup_2) = SolPer
lookup(95,i_backup_2) = Q_dot_inp
lookup(96,i_backup_2) = P_in
lookup(97,i_backup_2) = BondCond
"For Efficiency graph for both SI and English Units"

if (Unit_Sys <0.5) then

jjm = jj-2
lookup(jj,i_backup_3) = DELTAT\G_T[jjm]
lookup(jj,i_backup_4) = eta_i_fit3[jjm]
End
jjm = jj-14
lookup(jj,i_backup_3)= DELTAT\G_T[jjm]*convert(m^2-K/W,F-hr-ft^2/Btu)
lookup(jj,i_backup_4)=eta_i_fit3[jjm]
End
else
jjm = jj-2
lookup(jj,i_backup_3)=DELTAT\G_T[jjm]*convert(F-hr-ft^2/Btu,m^2-K/W)
End
jjm = jj-14
lookup(jj,i_backup_3)=DELTAT\G_T[jjm]
End
Endif
backup_ = 1
Endif
Endif
End
"!Modules
================================================================"
"
105
Calculation of product of Extincton coefficient and thickness of a cover"

Module KL_s_(n, tau:KL)
REF =((n-1)/(n+1))^2 "For normal incidenct angle"
TRANSabs = exp(-KL)
tau = TRANSabs*(1-REF)^2/(1-(REF*TRANSabs)^2)
End
"!==================================================================="
"
"
"!Main Routine"
"
Unit Conversion"
Call Unit_Conv_11_(Unit_Sys$,G_T_inp,T_amb_inp,WindSp_inp: G_T,T_amb,WindSp)
Call Unit_Conv_12_(Unit_Sys$, Length_inp, Width_inp, Thickness_inp, Length_p_inp,
Width_p_inp: Length, Width, Thickness, Length_p, Width_p)
Call Unit_Conv_13_(Unit_Sys$, d_cp_inp, d_c1c2_inp, cond_pl_inp, thick_pl_inp : d_cp,
d_c1c2, cond_pl, thick_pl)
Call Unit_Conv_14_(Unit_Sys$, t_e_inp, t_b_inp, k_e_inp, k_b_inp: t_e, t_b, k_e, k_b)
Call Unit_Conv_15_(Unit_Sys$, TubeDiam_i_inp, TubeDiam_o_inp, Q_dot_inp, P_in_inp,
BondCond_inp : TubeDiam_i, TubeDiam_o, Q_dot, P_in, BondCond)
"
Set the value of a variable related to save option"
i_backup = Set_i_backup_(i_backup_1$)
"
Check the collector dimension"
dumdim_1 = check_1_(Width,Length,Thickness, Width_p, Length_p, d_cp, d_c1c2,
thick_pl, TubeDiam_i, TubeDiam_o, t_b)
dumchk_1 = check_2_(epsilon_IR_c1, tau_IR_c1, epsilon_IR_c2, tau_IR_c2)
"
Evaluation of the optical characteristics of cover and absorber plate"
Call KL_s_(n_c1, tau_s_c1:KL_c1)
Call KL_s_(n_c2, tau_s_c2:KL_c2)
Call OpticalProp3_(tau_IR_c1, epsilon_IR_c1: WLDP1, TRANS_IR_c1, Emitt_IR_c1)

Call OpticalProp3_(tau_IR_c2, epsilon_IR_c2: WLDP2, TRANS_IR_c2, Emitt_IR_c2)
xfraccov = epsilon_IR_c1
Emitt_IR_p = epsilon_IR_p
"
a] Calculation of Instantaneous Efficiency"
"Areas"
A_c = Width*Length
A_p = Width_p*Length_p
106
A_edge = thickness*2*(Length+Width)
"Tube Spacing"
N_Tube = Width_p/TubeSp
"Sky Temperature"
T_dp = DEWPOINT(AirH2O,T=T_amb,P=101.3,R = Rel_Hum/100)
T_s` = SkyTemp_JK_(T_amb,T_dp,0) "Assumption : Hour Angle is zero."
"Absorbed radiation"
I_dT = G_T*I_d\I_T/100 "Diffuse Radiation"
I_d = I_dT/(1+cos(Slope))/2
rho_g = 0.4 "Ground Reflectance is assumed to be 0.4"
I_gT = (I_bT+I_d)*rho_g*(1-cos(Slope))/2 "Ground-reflected radiation"
G_T = I_bT`+I_dT+I_gT
I_bT = max(0,I_bT`) "Beam Radiation"
taualpha_b = TauAlpha_(Ncov,IncAng, KL_c1, KL_c2, n_c1, n_c2, Alpha_n)

IncAng_d = 59.7-0.1388*slope+0.001497*slope^2 "Equivalent angle of diffuse radiation"
taualpha_d = TauAlpha_(Ncov,IncAng_d, KL_c1, KL_c2, n_c1, n_c2, Alpha_n)
IncAng_g = 90-0.5788*slope+0.002693*slope^2 "Equivalent angle of diffuse radiation"
taualpha_g = TauAlpha_(Ncov,IncAng_g, KL_c1, KL_c2, n_c1, n_c2, Alpha_n)
S = I_bT*taualpha_b+I_dT*taualpha_d+I_gT*taualpha_g "Isotropic sky model"
"Loss Coefficients"
WindCoeff =WindCoeff`FS_(WindSp,Length,Width,T_amb,0.7)
U_b = k_b/t_b*(A_c/A_p)
U_e = (k_e/t_e)*(A_edge/A_p)
"Loop"
jj_max1 = 10 "Number of iteration"
Call T_bound_(T_amb, G_T, Fluid$, P_in : T_in_max, T_in_min) "Maximum&Minimum Inlet

Temperature"
Duplicate jj = 0, jj_max1
T_in[jj] = (T_amb-5)+jj*(T_in_max-T_in_min)/jj_max1
F``[jj] = F_R[jj]/F`[jj]
T_fl[jj] = T_Fl`M_(T_in[jj],Q_u[jj],A_p,F_R[jj],F``[jj],U_L[jj])
Call Circular_tube_(Q_dot, TubeDiam_i, Length_p, Fluid$, T_fl[jj], P_in, SolPer,
N_Tube : m_dot[jj], C_p[jj], h_fi[jj], DELTAP[jj], Re[jj], DELTAP_1[jj], DELTAP_2[jj])
Call U_L_(T_pl[jj],T_amb,T_s`,Slope,WindCoeff,Emitt_IR_p,Emitt_IR_c1,Emitt_IR_c2,
U_L[jj],T_c1[jj], T_c2[jj])
T_pl[jj] = T_Pl`M_(T_in[jj],Q_u[jj],A_p,F_R[jj],U_L[jj])
F`[jj] = CollEffFact_(U_L[jj],Cond_pl,Thick_pl,TubeSp,TubeDiam_i,
TubeDiam_o,BondCond,h_fi[jj])
F_R[jj] = F_R_(m_dot[jj],C_p[jj],A_p,U_L[jj],F`[jj])
"Useful gain from the Collector"
{Q_u[jj] = max(F_R[jj]*(S*A_p-U_L[jj]*A_p*(T_in[jj]-T_amb)),0) }
Q_u[jj] = max((S*A_p-U_L[jj]*A_p*(T_pl[jj]-T_amb)),0)
"Exit Fluid Temperature"
107
Q_u[jj] = m_dot[jj]*C_p[jj]*(T_out[jj] - T_in[jj])

"Average Temperature for European practice"
T_av[jj] = (T_in[jj]+T_out[jj])/2
"Calculate Efficiency of Solar Collector"

eta_i[jj] = Q_u[jj]/(A_p*G_T)
"Linear Regression curve fitting"

eta_i_fit1[jj] = a_1_0 + a_1_1*(DELTAT\G_T[jj])
eta_i_fit2[jj] = a_2_0 + a_2_1*(DELTAT\G_T[jj]) + a_2_2*DELTAT\G_T[jj]^2
eta_i_fit3[jj] = a_3_0 + a_3_1*(DELTAT\G_T[jj]) + a_3_2*DELTAT2\G_T[jj]
End
"
b] Calculation of incidence angle modifier, b_0"
"transmittance-absorptance product at normal incidence"

taualpha_n = TauAlpha_(Ncov,0, KL_c1, KL_c2, n_c1, n_c2, Alpha_n)
jj_max2 = 10 "Number of anlges to be calculated"

Maxtheta = 60 "Maximum angle of incidence"
DELTAtheta = Maxtheta/(JJ_max2)
Duplicate jj = 0, jj_max2
IncAng[jj] = DELTAtheta*jj
ta[jj] = TauAlpha_(Ncov,IncAng[jj], KL_c1, KL_c2, n_c1, n_c2, Alpha_n)
K_ta[jj] = ta[jj]/taualpha_n
index1[jj] = 1/cos(incAng[jj])-1
K_ta_fit[jj] = 1+ b_0*index1[jj]
End
"
Curve Fitting by Linear Regression"
bias=sum(eta_i_fit1[jj]-eta_i[jj],jj=0,jj_max1)/(jj_max1+1)+sum(eta_i_fit2[jj]-eta_i[jj],jj=0,
jj_max1)/(jj_max1+1)+sum(eta_i_fit3[jj]-eta_i[jj],jj=0,jj_max1)/(jj_max1+1)+sum(K_ta_fit[jj]-
K_ta[jj],jj=0,jj_max2)/(jj_max2+1) {bias error}
sigma=sum((eta_i_fit1[jj]-eta_i[jj])^2,jj=0,jj_max1)+sum((eta_i_fit2[jj]-eta_i[jj])^2,jj=0,
jj_max1)+sum((eta_i_fit3[jj]-eta_i[jj])^2,jj=0,jj_max1)+sum((K_ta_fit[jj]-K_ta[jj])^2,jj=0,
jj_max2) {sum of square errors}
"Regression Formulae to find a_0, a_1, a_2, b_0"

0 = sum(eta_i_fit1[jj]-eta_i[jj],jj=0,jj_max1)
0 = sum((eta_i_fit1[jj]-eta_i[jj])*(DELTAT\G_T[jj]),jj=0,jj_max1)
0 = sum((eta_i_fit2[jj]-eta_i[jj])*(DELTAT\G_T[jj]),jj=0,jj_max1)
0 = sum((eta_i_fit2[jj]-eta_i[jj])*(DELTAT\G_T[jj])^2,jj=0,jj_max1)
0 = sum((eta_i_fit3[jj]-eta_i[jj])*DELTAT\G_T[jj],jj=0,jj_max1)
0 = sum((eta_i_fit3[jj]-eta_i[jj])*DELTAT2\G_T[jj],jj=0,jj_max1)
0 = sum((K_ta_fit[jj]-K_ta[jj])*index1[jj],jj=0,jj_max2)
108
"
c] Stagnation Temperature"
S = U_L*(T_stag_p-T_amb)
Call U_L_(T_stag_p,T_amb,T_s`, Slope,WindCoeff,Emitt_IR_p,Emitt_IR_c1,Emitt_IR_c2,
U_L,T_stag_c1, T_stag_c2 )
Call Stag_disp(Unit_sys$,Ncov,T_stag_p,T_stag_c1,T_stag_c2:T_stag_p$,T_stag_c1$,
T_stag_c2$)
"
d] Comparison with the experimental equation"
call
comp_exp_(Unit_Sys$,Comp_exp$,a_0_exp,a_1_exp,a_2_exp,b_0_exp,DELTAT\G_T[10]:
x_i_exp_SI[0..10], x_i_exp_English[0..10],eta_i_exp[0..10],x_j_exp[0..10], K_ta_exp[0..10])
"
e] Post-Processing"
"Efficiency Curves : for SI and English units"

Call Efficiency_curve_(Unit_Sys$, Eff_temp_diff$, T_in[0..10], T_av[0..10], T_amb, G_T :
DELTAT\G_T[0..10], DELTAT2\G_T[0..10])
Call Efficiency_curve_('SI Units', Eff_temp_diff$, T_in[0..10], T_av[0..10], T_amb, G_T :
DELTAT\G_T_SI[0..10], DELTAT2\G_T_SI[0..10])
Call Efficiency_curve_('English Units', Eff_temp_diff$, T_in[0..10], T_av[0..10], T_amb, G_T
: DELTAT\G_T_English[0..10], DELTAT2\G_T_English[0..10])
"Put the results in Lookup table"

dum1= backup_(i_backup, A_c, A_p, TubeSp, DELTAT\G_T[0..10], eta_i_fit3[0..10],
index1[0..10], k_ta_fit[0..10], a_3_0,a_3_1, a_3_2,b_0,T_stag_p, T_stag_c1, T_stag_c2)
"Unit Conversion for Output"

Call Unit_Conv_22_(Unit_Sys$, A_p, A_c : A_p_out, A_c_out)
Call Unit_Conv_25_(Unit_Sys$, TubeSp : TubeSp_out)
109
APPENDIX B
HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PROGRAM FOR

SDHW SYSTEM
B.1 Introduction
There are three types of heat exchangers frequently used in solar domestic
heating water systems; shell-and-tube, immersed internal, and natural convection heat
exchangers. In the configuration of SDHW systems, the addition of a heat exchanger
reduces the overall performance of the system. However, using anti-freeze in collector
loop in cold climates is an advantage. To calculate the characteristics of heat exchanger,
design programs for shell-and-tube and immersed internal heat exchanger are developed
so that details of heat exchanger configuration can be specified in an easy-to-use
graphic interface. The calculation results from the programs can be used as input
parameters for simulation programs like TRNSYS [7].

110
B.2 Shell-And-Tube Type Heat Exchanger
Figure B.1 shows a schematic diagram of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger with
straight tubes. Water or an anti-freeze is pumped though the collector and heat
exchanger shell while water circulates through the storage tank and heat exchanger
tubes by mechanical pump.
With the assumption of no phase change and constant specific heats of the
working fluids, the energy balance equations are given by
Q = C s (Ts ,i − Ts ,o ) (B.2.1)
Q = C t (Tt ,o − Tt ,i ) (B.2.2)
where C is heat capacity rate, the product of mass flow rate m& and specific heat cp.
Subscripts s and t represent shell and tube side fluid while i and o means inlet and outlet
temperatures, respectively. By applying log-mean-temperature-difference method the
total heat transfer rate Q can be calculated by
Q = (UA)⋅∆Tlm (B.2.3)
where (UA) is the overall heat transfer coefficient-area product and ∆Tlm is log-mean-
temperature-difference. Log-mean-temperature-difference is defined as

111
Tube exit
Shell inlet
Shell exit
Tube inlet
Figure B.2.1 Shell-and-tube type heat exchanger
∆T2 − ∆T1
∆Tlm = (B.2.4)
ln (∆T2 ∆T1 )
where for parallel-flow heat exchanger the endpoint temperature differences are defined
as
112
∆T1 = Ts ,i − Tt ,i , ∆T2 = Ts ,o − Tt ,o (B.2.5)
and for counter-flow exchanger
∆T1 = Ts ,i − Tt ,o , ∆T2 = Ts ,o − Tt ,i (B.2.6)
The thermal performance of heat exchanger is determined by solving Equations B.2.1 –
B.2.4 simultaneously. With the assumption of negligible fouling factors, the overall heat
transfer coefficient-area product is defined as
nt
(UA)= (B.2.7)
1 ln (Do Di ) 1
+ +
hi Ai 2πkL ho Ao
where subscripts i and o represent inside and outside of the tube, respectively. nt is the
number of tubes, h is the convection heat transfer coefficient, and k is the thermal
conductivity of tube material. L, D and A are the length, diameter, and heat transfer area
of each tube, respectively. The heat transfer coefficient inside of tubes can be
determined by Section 1.1.5. It is assumed that the shell-and-tube heat exchanger does
not have bafflings in shell side. For this case Liu et al. [9] suggested that the heat
transfer coefficients of shell side be calculated using the relation of Su and El-Genk [18]
113
Nu = (2.34 − 3.09e )Re (0.89e − 0.044 ) Pr 0.33 (laminar flow ) (B.2.8)
 4.47  0.8 0.33

Nu = 5.5 ×10 − 3 
 
Re Pr (turbulent flow) (B.2.9)
 1− e 
where e is the tube-bundle porosity defined as the ratio of the actual shell side flow area
to the shell inside cross-sectional area. The transition Reynolds number from laminar to
turbulent flow is defined as
 0.91 
Re T = 1.23 ×10 4 
 − 1
. (B.2.10)
 1− e 
The thermal performance of the shell-and-tube type heat exchanger can be
represented as the effectiveness ε that is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transfer
rate to the maximum possible heat transfer rate for a heat exchanger [5]:
q act C s (Ts ,i − Ts ,o ) C t (Tt ,o − Tt ,i )

ε≡ = =
q max C min (Ts ,o − Tt ,i ) C min (Ts ,o − Tt ,i )
(B.2.11)
where Cmin is minimum heat capacity rate of the heat exchanger.

114
B.3 Immersed Internal Heat Exchanger
Figure B.1 illustrates an immersed internal shell-and-tube heat exchanger used
in unpressurized thermal storage tanks. The bundle of tubes is placed inside of storage
tank where the local tank temperature is Ttank. It is a bundle of horizon tubes with or
without fins outside of tubes. Mechanical pump circulates either water or an anti-freeze
through the collector and inside of tubes while the heat transfer outside of tube occurs
by natural convection in a water storage tank.
The thermal performance of the heat exchanger can be determined by the
solution of the energy balance equations given by
Q = C t (Tt ,i − Tt ,o ) (B.3.1)
Tank node i at Ttank Bundle of Tubes
from collector
Header
to collector
Figure B.3.1 Immersed internal heat exchanger inside of tank

115
Q = (UA)⋅∆Tlm (B.3.2)
where it is assumed that there is no phase change and the specific heats of the working
fluids are constant. The log-mean-temperature-difference of an immersed internal heat
exchanger is defined as
Tt ,i − Tt ,o
∆Tlm = (B.3.3)
 Tt ,i − Ttan k 
ln 
T − T


 t ,o tan k 
where subscript tank indicates the node of storage tank where the tube bundle is
immersed.
The overall heat transfer coefficient-area product is calculated by
nt
(UA)= (B.3.4)
1 ln (Do Di ) 1
+ +
hi Ai 2πkL ho (Ao + η fin A fin )
where subscripts fin represents the property of fins attached to outside of tube to
enhance natural convection heat transfer. The natural convection heat transfer
coefficient for the outside of the heat exchanger is calculated by

116
Nu = 0.513Ra 0.25 (B.3.5)
where
ρ 2 βc p gDo3
Ra = (∆T ). (B.3.6)
µk
lm ,corr
The coefficients in Equation B.3.5 are determined to provide a good generalized
correlation for immersed bodies [10]. The corrected log-mean-temperature-difference is
defined as [10]
Q  1 ln (D0 Di )
∆Tlm ,corr = ∆Tlm −  +  (B.3.7)
nt  Ai hi 2πkL 
where nt is number of tubes.
B.3.1 Fin Efficiency
The fins attached to the tubes are circular with a rectangular cross section as
shown in Figure B.3.2. In this case, the fin efficiency is calculated using [5]
117
Af = 2π(rf2-r o2)
r0
rf
Figure B.3.2 Circular fin for Immersed tubes
ηf =
(ro
m ) K 1 (mro )I 1 (mrc )− I 1 (mro )K 1 (mrc )
( )
r − ro2 I 0 (mro )K 1 (mrc )− K 0 (mro )I1 (mrc )
c
2
(B.3.8)
where
2h
m= (B.3.9)
kt
Do
ro = (B.3.10)
2
t
rc = r f + (B.3.11)
2
and K0, K1, I0 and I1 are zero-order and first-order modified Bessel functions and k is
thermal conductivity of the fin.

118
B.4 Heat Exchanger Design Program
Based on the theory in Appendix B, a heat exchanger design program for solar
energy systems has been developed. In the calculation, the thermal conductivity of the
tube and fin material is assumed to be constant and thermal properties of working fluids
are evaluated at a mean fluid temperature. For tube material, properties of high
temperature nylon and cross-linked polyethylene are built-in along with the
conventional materials. The working fluid can be chosen among water, propylene glycol
solution, and ethylene-glycol solution. The design program calculates the thermal
performance of the heat exchanger: effectiveness, actual heat transfer rate, exit
temperatures, and pressure drop of the tube side. Figure B.4.1 – B.4.6 show the main
and child windows of the heat exchanger program.

119
Figure B.4.1 Main diagram window of Shell-and tube heat exchanger design program
Figure B.4.2 Geometric configuration window for Shell-and tube heat exchanger
120
Figure B.4.3 Operating condition window for Shell-and tube heat exchanger
Figure B.4.4 Main diagram window of immersed internal heat exchanger design
program
121
Figure B.4.5 Geometric configuration window for immersed heat exchanger
Figure B.4.6 Operating condition window for immersed heat exchanger

122
EES CODE OF HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PROGRAM
1. Sell –and-Tube Heat Exchanger
"Heat Exchanger Design Program for Solar Domestic Heating Water System"
"Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger"
"Jae-Mo Koo(koo@sel.me.wisc.edu)
SaThx050, 12/05/1999"
"Note : All the calculations are done with SI units."
$INCLUDE Therprop.LIB
"! Unit Conversion ====================================="
Procedure Unit_conv_11_(Unit_Sys$, D_t_inner_inp, D_t_outer_inp, D_s_inner_inp,

L_t_inp, k_tube_inp: D_t_inner, D_t_outer, D_s_inner, L_t, k_tube)
D_t_inner = D_t_inner_inp*convert(mm,m)
D_t_outer = D_t_outer_inp*convert(mm,m)
D_s_inner = D_s_inner_inp*convert(mm,m)
L_t = L_t_inp
k_tube = k_tube_inp
Endif
D_t_inner = D_t_inner_inp*convert(in,m)
D_t_outer = D_t_outer_inp*convert(in,m)
D_s_inner = D_s_inner_inp*convert(in,m)
L_t = L_t_inp*convert(ft,m)
k_tube = k_tube_inp*convert(Btu/hr-ft-F,W/m-K)
Endif
End
Procedure Unit_conv_12_(Unit_Sys$, Q_dot_t_inp, Q_dot_s_inp, T_t_i_inp, T_s_i_inp,

P_t_i_inp, P_s_i_inp : Q_dot_t, Q_dot_s, T_t_i, T_s_i, P_t_i, P_s_i)
Q_dot_t = Q_dot_t_inp*convert(L/min, m3/s)
Q_dot_s = Q_dot_s_inp*convert(L/min, m3/s) "[m3/s]"
T_t_i = T_t_i_inp
T_s_i = T_s_i_inp
P_t_i = P_t_i_inp
123
P_s_i = P_s_i_inp
Endif
Q_dot_t = Q_dot_t_inp*convert(Gal/min, m3/s)
Q_dot_s = Q_dot_s_inp*convert(Gal/min, m3/s) "[m3/s]"
T_t_i = ConvertTemp('F', 'C', T_t_i_inp)
T_s_i = ConvertTemp('F', 'C', T_s_i_inp)
P_t_i = P_t_i_inp*convert(psi,kPa)
P_s_i = P_s_i_inp*convert(psi,kPa)
Endif
End
Procedure Unit_conversion_21_(Unit_Sys$, Flow_arrange$, T_t_o, T_s_o, DELTAP_t, UA,

Q_tot, LMTD : Flow_arrange_out$, T_t_o$, T_s_o$, DELTAP_t$, UA$, Q_act$,
DELTAT_lm$)
"Flow arrangement"
dumb_1$ = CONCAT$('[ ',Flow_arrange$)
Flow_arrange_out$ = CONCAT$(dumb_1$, ' ]')

T_t_o$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(T_t_o), ' [C]')
T_s_o$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(T_s_o), ' [C]')
DELTAP_t$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(DELTAP_t), ' [Pa]')
UA$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(UA), ' [W/K]')
Q_act = abs(Q_tot)
Q_act$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(Q_act), ' [W]')
DELTAT_lm = abs(LMTD)
DELTAT_lm$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(DELTAT_lm), ' [C]')
Endif
T_t_o_out = ConvertTemp('C', 'F', T_t_o)
T_t_o$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(T_t_o_out), ' [F]')
T_s_o_out = ConvertTemp('C', 'F', T_s_o)
T_s_o$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(T_s_o_out), ' [F]')
DELTAP_t_out = DELTAP_t*convert(Pa, psi)
DELTAP_t$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(DELTAP_t_out), ' [psi]')
UA_out = UA*convert(W/K, Btu/h-F)
UA$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(UA_out), ' [Btu/h-F]')
Q_act = abs(Q_tot*convert(W, Btu/h))
Q_act$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(Q_act), ' [Btu/h]')
DELTAT_lm = abs(LMTD*convert(C, F))
DELTAT_lm$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(DELTAT_lm), ' [F]')
Endif
End
"! Preparation ====================================="
Procedure Check_range_1_(T_t_i, T_s_i, Num_tube, D_t_inner, D_t_outer, D_s_inner:

Check_range_1)
If (D_t_inner > D_t_outer) then CALL ERROR('The Inner diameter of tubes (I.D.) is
greater than outer diameter of them (O.D.).',D_t_inner)
A_s = pi*D_s_inner^2/4
A_t = Num_tube*pi*D_t_inner^2/4
124
if (A_t > A_s) then CALL ERROR('You cannot put tube bundle into your shell. Increase
Shell Diameter.',D_s_inner)
if (T_t_i >100) then CALL ERROR('This is sensible heat exchanger. Tube inlet
temperature should be lower than boiling temperature.',T_t_i)
if (T_s_i >100) then CALL ERROR('This is sensible heat exchanger. Shell inlet
temperature should be lower than boiling temperature.',T_s_i)
if (T_t_i < 0) then CALL ERROR('This is sensible heat exchanger. Tube inlet
temperature should be higher than melting temperature.',T_t_i)
if (T_s_i < 0) then CALL ERROR('This is sensible heat exchanger. Shell inlet
temperature should be higher than ice temperature.',T_s_i)
if (T_s_i = T_t_i) then CALL ERROR('Since the inlet temperatures of Shell and tube
sides are the same, there is no heat transfer.',T_s_i)
Check_range_1 = 0
End
"! For LMTD METHOD ====================================="
Procedure Hot_Cold_check_1_(T_t_i, T_s_i, C_t, C_s:Index_HC, T_h_i, T_c_i, C_h, C_c)

if (T_t_i > T_s_i) then
Index_HC = -1
T_h_i = T_t_i
T_c_i = T_s_i
C_h = C_t
C_c = C_s
Endif
if (T_t_i < T_s_i) then
Index_HC = 1
T_h_i = T_s_i
T_c_i = T_t_i
C_h = C_s
C_c = C_t
Endif
End
Procedure Tube_Shell_check_1_(Index_HC, T_h_o, T_c_o : T_t_o, T_s_o)

if (Index_HC = -1) then
T_t_o = T_h_o
T_s_o = T_c_o
Endif
if (Index_HC = 1) then
T_s_o = T_h_o
T_t_o = T_c_o
Endif
End
"! Calculation of Shell Side ====================================="
Procedure Shell_(m_dot, D_t, D_s, L, Fluid$, T, P, SolPer, Num_tube : h, Re)

rho = rho_(Fluid$, T, P, SolPer)"[kg/m3]"
mu = mu_(Fluid$, T, P, SolPer)"[kg/s-m]"
C_p = C_p_(Fluid$, T, P, SolPer)*convert(kJ, J) "[J/kg-K]"
k = k_(Fluid$, T, P, SolPer) "[W/m-K]"
Pr = mu*C_p/k
125
por = (D_s^2-Num_tube*D_t^2)/D_s^2
A_ts = pi*D_s^2/4-Num_tube*pi*D_t^2/4
P_ts = pi*D_s+Num_tube*pi*D_t
D_ts = 4*A_ts/P_ts
U = m_dot/rho/A_ts
Re = (rho*U*D_ts)/mu
Re_t = 1.23E4*(0.91/sqrt(1-por)-1)
if (Re<Re_t) then
A = 2.34-3.09*por
B = 0.89*por-0.044
Nusselt = A*Re^b*Pr^0.33
Else
C = 5.5E-3*(4.47/sqrt(1-por)-1)
Nusselt = C*Re^0.8*Pr^0.33
Endif
h = Nusselt*k/D_ts "[W/m^2-K]"
End
"! Calculation of LMTD ====================================="
Procedure LMTD_1_(Flow_arrange$, T_h_i, T_c_o, T_h_o,T_c_i: LMTD)

if (Flow_arrange$ = 'Counter Flow') then
If (T_h_o < T_c_i) then T_h_o = T_c_i
If (T_c_o > T_h_i) then T_c_o = T_h_i
DELTAT_1 = T_h_i - T_c_o
DELTAT_2 = T_h_o - T_c_i
Endif
if (Flow_arrange$ = 'Parallel Flow') then
If (T_h_o < T_c_o) then T_h_o = T_c_i
DELTAT_1 = T_h_i - T_c_i
DELTAT_2 = T_h_o - T_c_o
Endif
if (DELTAT_1 = 0) then DELTAT_1 = 1
DELTAT_2_1 = DELTAT_2/DELTAT_1
if (DELTAT_2_1 = 1) then DELTAT_2_1 = 2
if (DELTAT_2_1 <= 0) then DELTAT_2_1 = 2
LMTD=(DELTAT_2-DELTAT_1)/ln(DELTAT_2_1)
End
"! Main Program ============================================"
"
Pre-processing ============================================="
Call Unit_conv_11_(Unit_Sys$, D_t_inner_inp, D_t_outer_inp, D_s_inner_inp, L_t_inp,

k_tube_inp : D_t_inner, D_t_outer, D_s_inner, L_t, k_tube)
Call Unit_conv_12_(Unit_Sys$, Q_dot_t_inp, Q_dot_s_inp, T_t_i_inp, T_s_i_inp, P_t_i_inp,
P_s_i_inp : Q_dot_t, Q_dot_s, T_t_i, T_s_i, P_t_i, P_s_i)
126
Call Check_range_1_(T_t_i, T_s_i, Num_tube, D_t_inner, D_t_outer, D_s_inner:

Check_range_1)
"
Areas ====================================================="
A_t_inner = L_t*pi*D_t_inner
A_t_outer = L_t*pi*D_t_outer
"
Calculation-Tube Side =========================================="
T_t = T_t_i
rho_t = rho_(Fluid_t$, T_t, P_t_i, SolPer_t) "[kg/m3]"
C_p_t = C_p_(Fluid_t$, T_t, P_t_i, SolPer_t)*convert(kJ, J) "[J/kg-K]"
m_dot_t = Q_dot_t*rho_t "[kg/s]"

C_t = m_dot_t*C_p_t
Call Circular_tube_(m_dot_t, D_t_inner, L_t, Fluid_t$, T_t, P_t_i, SolPer_t, Num_tube
: h_t, DELTAP_t, Re_t, DELTAP_t_1, DELTAP_t_2)
Power_t = DELTAP_t*Q_dot_t
"
Calculation-Shell Side =========================================="
T_s =T_s_i
rho_s = rho_(Fluid_s$, T_s, P_s_i, SolPer_s)"[kg/m3]"
C_p_s = C_p_(Fluid_s$, T_s, P_s_i, SolPer_s)*convert(kJ, J) "[J/kg-K]"
m_dot_s = Q_dot_s*rho_s "[kg/s]"
Call Shell_(m_dot_s, D_t_outer, D_s_inner, L_t, Fluid_s$, T_s, P_s_i, SolPer_s,

Num_tube : h_s, Re_s)
C_s = m_dot_s*C_p_s
"
Switch from Tube-Shell to Hot-Cold ================================="
Call Hot_Cold_check_1_(T_t_i, T_s_i, C_t, C_s:Index_HC, T_h_i, T_c_i, C_h, C_c)
"
Overall Calculation =============================================="
"Total heat transfer coefficient*Area"
R_t_inner = 1/(h_t*A_t_inner)
R_w = ln(D_t_outer/D_t_inner)/(2*pi*k_tube*L_t)
R_t_outer = 1/(h_s*A_t_outer)
UA = Num_tube/(R_t_inner+R_w+R_t_outer)
"Total Heat Transfer rate"

Q_tot = C_h*(T_h_i-T_h_o)
Q_tot = C_c*(T_c_o-T_c_i)
Q_tot = UA*LMTD
"Log Mean Temperature Difference"

127
Call LMTD_1_(Flow_arrange$, T_h_i, T_c_o, T_h_o,T_c_i: LMTD)
"Maximum heat transfer rate"

C_min = Min(C_h, C_c)
Q_max = C_min*(T_h_i-T_c_i)
"Effectiveness"
epsilon = Q_tot/Q_max
NTU = UA/C_min
"Switch from Hot-Cold to Tube-Shell"

Call Tube_Shell_check_1_(Index_HC, T_h_o, T_c_o : T_t_o, T_s_o)
"
Post-Processing for output ====================================="
Call Out_1_(Fluid_t$, SolPer_t: Fluid_t_out$)
Call Out_1_(Fluid_s$, SolPer_s: Fluid_s_out$)
Call Unit_conversion_21_(Unit_Sys$, Flow_arrange$, T_t_o, T_s_o, DELTAP_t, UA, Q_tot,

LMTD : Flow_arrange_out$, T_t_o$, T_s_o$, DELTAP_t$, UA$, Q_act$, DELTAT_lm$)
128
2. Immersed Internal Heat Exchanger
"Immersed Internal Heat Exchanger"
"Jae-Mo Koo (koo@sel.me.wisc.edu)

ImmHX050, 12/05/1999"
"Note : All the calculations are done with SI units."
$INCLUDE Therprop.LIB
"! Unit Conversion ======================================="
Procedure Unit_conversion_21_(Unit_Sys$, k_tube_inp, D_t_inner_inp, D_t_outer_inp,

L_t_inp, k_fin_inp, H_fin_inp, t_fin_inp: k_tube, D_t_inner, D_t_outer, L_t, k_fin, H_fin,
t_fin)
k_tube = k_tube_inp
D_t_inner = D_t_inner_inp*convert(mm,m)
D_t_outer = D_t_outer_inp*convert(mm,m)
L_t = L_t_inp
k_fin = k_fin_inp
H_fin = H_fin_inp*convert(mm,m)
t_fin = t_fin_inp*convert(mm,m)
Endif
k_tube = k_tube_inp*convert(Btu/hr-ft-F,W/m-K)
D_t_inner = D_t_inner_inp*convert(in,m)
D_t_outer = D_t_outer_inp*convert(in,m)
L_t = L_t_inp*convert(ft,m)
k_fin = k_fin_inp**convert(Btu/hr-ft-F,W/m-K)
H_fin = H_fin_inp*convert(in,m)
t_fin = t_fin_inp*convert(in,m)
Endif
End
Procedure Unit_conversion_22_(Unit_Sys$, Q_dot_t_inp, T_t_i_inp, P_t_i_inp,

T_tank_inp, P_tank_inp : Q_dot_t, T_t_i, P_t_i, T_tank, P_tank)
Q_dot_t = Q_dot_t_inp*convert(L/min, m3/s)
T_t_i = T_t_i_inp
T_tank = T_tank_inp
P_t_i = P_t_i_inp
P_tank = P_tank_inp
Endif
129

Q_dot_t = Q_dot_t_inp*convert(Gal/min, m3/s)
T_t_i = ConvertTemp('F', 'C', T_t_i_inp)
T_tank = ConvertTemp('F', 'C', T_tank_inp)
P_t_i = P_t_i_inp*convert(psi,kPa)
P_tank = P_tank_inp*convert(psi,kPa)
Endif
End
Procedure Unit_conversion_26_(Unit_Sys$, Q_dot_t_inp, T_t_i_inp, T_tank_inp, T_t_o,

DELTAP_t, UA, Q_tot, LMTD : Q_dot_t$, T_t_i$, T_tank$, T_t_o$, DELTAP_t$, UA$,
Q_act$, DELTAT_lm$)

Q_dot_t$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(Q_dot_t_inp), ' [L/min]')
T_t_i$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(T_t_i_inp), ' [C]')
T_tank$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(T_tank_inp), ' [C]')
T_t_o$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(T_t_o), ' [C]')
DELTAP_t$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(DELTAP_t), ' [Pa]')
UA$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(UA), ' [W/K]')
Q_act = abs(Q_tot)
Q_act$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(Q_act), ' [W]')
DELTAT_lm$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(DELTAT_lm), ' [C]')
Endif
Q_dot_t$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(Q_dot_t_inp), ' [G/min]')
T_t_i$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(T_t_i_inp), ' [F]')
T_tank$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(T_tank_inp), ' [F]')
T_t_o_out = ConvertTemp('C', 'F', T_t_o)
T_t_o$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(T_t_o_out), ' [F]')
DELTAP_t_out = DELTAP_t*convert(Pa, psi)
DELTAP_t$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(DELTAP_t_out), ' [psi]')
UA_out = UA*convert(W/K, Btu/h-F)
UA$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(UA_out), ' [Btu/h-F]')
DELTAT_lm = abs(LMTD*convert(C,F))
DELTAT_lm$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(DELTAT_lm), ' [F]')
Q_act = abs(Q_tot*convert(W, Btu/h))
Q_act$ = CONCAT$(STRING$(Q_act), ' [Btu/h]')
Endif
End
"! Preparation ======================================="
Procedure Check_range_2_(T_t_i, T_tank,D_t_inner, D_t_outer: Check_range_2)

If (D_t_inner > D_t_outer) then CALL ERROR('The Inner diameter of tubes (I.D.) is
greater than outer diameter of them (O.D.).',D_t_inner)
if (T_t_i >100) then CALL ERROR('This is sensible heat exchanger. Tube inlet
temperature should be lower than boiling temperature.',T_t_i)
if (T_tank >100) then CALL ERROR('This is sensible heat exchanger. Shell inlet
temperature should be lower than boiling temperature.',T_s_i)
if (T_t_i < 0) then CALL ERROR('This is sensible heat exchanger. Tube inlet
temperature should be higher than melting temperature.',T_t_i)
130
if (T_tank < 0) then CALL ERROR('This is sensible heat exchanger. Shell inlet
temperature should be higher than melting temperature.',T_s_i)
if (T_tank = T_t_i) then CALL ERROR('Since the inlet temperatures of Shell and tube
sides are the same, there is no heat transfer.',T_s_i)
Check_range_2 = 0
End
"! Tank Calculations ======================================="
Procedure h_tank_(Fluid_tank$, SolPer_tank, T_tank, P_tank, C1_tank,n_tank, D_t_outer,

LMTD_corr:h_tank)
g = 9.81 "[m/s^2]"
rho_tank = rho_(Fluid_tank$, T_tank, P_tank, SolPer_tank) "[kg/m3]"
C_p_tank = C_p_(Fluid_tank$, T_tank, P_tank, SolPer_tank)*convert(kJ, J) "[J/kg-K]"
mu_tank = mu_(Fluid_tank$, T_tank, P_tank, SolPer_tank) "[kg/s-m]"
beta_tank = beta_water_(T_tank)
k_tank_fluid = k_(Fluid_tank$, T_tank, P_tank, SolPer_tank) "[W/m-K]"
Ra_tank =
(rho_tank^2*beta_tank*C_p_tank*g)/(mu_tank*k_tank_fluid)*D_t_outer^3*abs(LMTD_corr)
"!Check!"
if (Ra_tank <0) then Ra_tank = -Ra_tank
Nusselt_tank = C1_tank*Ra_tank^n_tank
h_tank = Nusselt_tank*k_tank_fluid/D_t_outer "[W/m^2-K]"
End
"! Calculation of LMTD ======================================="
Procedure LMTD_2_(T_t_i, T_t_o, T_tank: LMTD)

DELTAT_1 = T_t_o-T_tank
DELTAT_2 = T_t_i-T_tank
if (DELTAT_1 = 0) then DELTAT_1 = 1
DELTAT_2_1 = DELTAT_2/DELTAT_1
If (DELTAT_2_1 <= 0) then DELTAT_2_1 = 2
if (DELTAT_2_1 = 1) then DELTAT_2_1 = 2
LMTD=(DELTAT_2-DELTAT_1)/ln(DELTAT_2_1)
End
"! Main Program =========================================="
"
Pre-processing ==========================================="
Call Unit_conversion_21_(Unit_Sys$, k_tube_inp, D_t_inner_inp, D_t_outer_inp, L_t_inp,
k_fin_inp, H_fin_inp, t_fin_inp: k_tube, D_t_inner, D_t_outer, L_t, k_fin, H_fin, t_fin)
Call Unit_conversion_22_(Unit_Sys$, Q_dot_t_inp, T_t_i_inp, P_t_i_inp, T_tank_inp,
P_tank_inp : Q_dot_t, T_t_i, P_t_i, T_tank, P_tank)
Call Check_range_2_(T_t_i, T_tank,D_t_inner, D_t_outer: Check_range_2)
"
Heat transfer areas"
A_t_inner = L_t*pi*D_t_inner
A_t_outer = L_t*pi*D_t_outer
131
"
Calculation ======================================"
"
Tube Side"
T_t = (T_t_i+T_t_o)/2
rho_t = rho_(Fluid_t$, T_t, P_t_i, SolPer_t) "[kg/m3]"
C_p_t = C_p_(Fluid_t$, T_t, P_t_i, SolPer_t)*convert(kJ, J) "[J/kg-K]"
m_dot_t = Q_dot_t*rho_t "[kg/s]"
C_t = m_dot_t*C_p_t
Call Circular_tube_(m_dot_t, D_t_inner, L_t, Fluid_t$, T_t, P_t_i, SolPer_t, Num_tube :
h_t, DELTAP_t, Re_t, DELTAP_t_1, DELTAP_t_2)
Power_t = DELTAP_t*Q_dot_t
"
Tank Side "
Fluid_tank$ = 'Water'
SolPer_tank = 50
C1_tank = 0.513
n_tank = 0.25
Call h_tank_(Fluid_tank$, SolPer_tank, T_tank, P_tank, C1_tank,n_tank,

D_t_outer,LMTD_corr:h_tank)
N_fin = Fin_pitch*L_t*Num_tube "Total number of fin"

Call fin_annular_(fin_YN$, N_fin, h_fin, D_t_outer, t_fin, h_tank, k_fin : A_fin, eta_fin)
"
Overall Calculation ==================================="
"Total heat transfer coefficient*Area"
R_t_inner = 1/(h_t*A_t_inner)
R_w = ln(D_t_outer/D_t_inner)/(2*pi*k_tube*L_t)
R_t_outer = 1/(h_tank*(A_t_outer+eta_fin*A_fin))
UA = Num_tube/(R_t_inner+R_w+R_t_outer)
"Total Heat Transfer rate"

Q_tot = C_t*(T_t_i-T_t_o)
Q_tot = UA*LMTD
"Log Mean Temperature Difference"

Call LMTD_2_(T_t_i, T_t_o, T_tank: LMTD)
LMTD_corr = LMTD-Q_tot*(R_t_inner+R_w)/Num_tube
"
Post-Processing for output ====================================="
Call Out_1_(Fluid_t$, SolPer_t: Fluid_t_out$)
Q_act = abs(Q_tot)
Call Unit_conversion_26_(Unit_Sys$, Q_dot_t_inp, T_t_i_inp, T_tank_inp, T_t_o,
DELTAP_t, UA, Q_tot, LMTD : Q_dot_t$, T_t_i$, T_tank$, T_t_o$, DELTAP_t$, UA$,
Q_act$, DELTAT_lm$)
132
3. THERPROP.LIB
"Common Library File, Therprop.lib"
"Jae-Mo Koo (koo@sel.me.wisc.edu)

University of Wisconsin - Madison"
"This library file contains thermodynamic property functions and some other routines for
Heat Exchanger Design Program."
"! Thermodynamic Properties ======================================="
"
Property Procedure for Propylene glycol and Ethylene glycol solution"
Procedure Prop_Coeff_(Fl, Pr: c[1..18])
if (Fl = 1) then
If (Pr=1) then
c[1] = -2.196E+0001;c[2] = 9.186E-0006 ;c[3] = -1.136E-0006 ;c[4] =
1.798E-0008 ;c[5] = -1.015E+0000 ;c[6] = -3.391E-0006 ;c[7] = 7.548E-0008 ;c[8] =
8.493E-0010 ;c[9] = -1.414E-0002
c[10]= 2.355E-0007;c[11]= 2.159E-0009;c[12]= -1.311E-0010;c[13]= -
3.727E-0005;c[14]= 6.091E-0010;c[15]= -1.465E-0010;c[16]= -1.398E-0007;c[17]= -
2.269E-0010;c[18]= -2.512E-0008
Endif
If (Pr=2) then
c[1] = 1.056E+0003;c[2] = -3.987E-0001;c[3] = -3.068E-0003;c[4] = 1.233E-
0005;c[5] = 1.505E+0000;c[6] = -8.953E-0003;c[7] = 6.378E-0005;c[8] = -1.152E-
0007;c[9] = -1.634E-0003
c[10]= 1.541E-0004;c[11]= -1.874E-0006;c[12]= -9.809E-0009;c[13]= -
2.317E-0004;c[14]= 2.549E-0006;c[15]= -5.523E-0008;c[16]= -8.510E-0006;c[17]= -
3.848E-0008;c[18]= -1.128E-0007
Endif
If (Pr=3) then
c[1] = 3.501E+0003;c[2] = 3.954E+0000;c[3] = 6.065E-0005;c[4] = -5.979E-
0006;c[5] = -2.419E+0001;c[6] = 1.031E-0001;c[7] = 4.312E-0005;c[8] = 5.168E-
0006;c[9] = 4.613E-0003
c[10]= -6.595E-0005;c[11]= 1.620E-0005;c[12]= -3.250E-0007;c[13]=
6.028E-0003;c[14]= 5.642E-0005;c[15]= -7.777E-0007;c[16]= -7.977E-0005;c[17]=
5.190E-0007;c[18]= -3.380E-0006
Endif
If (Pr=4) then
c[1] = 4.211E-0001;c[2] = 7.995E-0004;c[3] = -5.509E-0008;c[4] = -1.460E-
0008;c[5] = -3.694E-0003;c[6] = -1.751E-0005;c[7] = 6.656E-0008;c[8] = 2.017E-0009;c[9]
= 2.095E-0005
133
c[10]= 2.078E-0007;c[11]= -2.394E-0009;c[12]= -6.772E-0011;c[13]=

3.663E-0007;c[14]= -5.272E-0009;c[15]= -1.126E-0010;c[16]= -6.389E-0009;c[17]= -
1.112E-0010;c[18]= -1.820E-0010
Endif
If (Pr=5) then
c[1] = 1.453E+0000;c[2] = -3.747E-0002;c[3] = 2.842E-0004;c[4] = -8.025E-
0007;c[5] = 2.920E-0002;c[6] = -1.131E-0004;c[7] = 1.729E-0006;c[8] = -5.073E-0008;c[9]
= 1.264E-0004
c[10]= 6.785E-0009;c[11]= -1.685E-0008;c[12]= -1.082E-0009;c[13]=
4.386E-0006;c[14]= -2.191E-0007;c[15]= -9.117E-0011;c[16]= -9.223E-0008;c[17]= -
4.294E-0009;c[18]= -3.655E-0009
Endif
Endif
if (Fl=2) then
if (Pr=1) then
c[1] = -2.360E+0001 ;c[2] = -2.970E-0004 ;c[3] = 1.871E-0007 ;c[4] =
1.590E-0007 ;c[5] = -1.088E+0000 ;c[6] = 4.693E-0005 ;c[7] = -9.089E-0007 ;c[8] = -
9.845E-0010 ;c[9] = -2.815E-0002
c[10]= 1.613E-0006 ;c[11]= 5.066E-0008 ;c[12]= -1.251E-0009 ;c[13]= -
5.285E-0004 ;c[14]= -1.786E-0007 ;c[15]= 2.051E-0009 ;c[16]= 9.794E-0006 ;c[17]= -
5.668E-0009 ;c[18]= 4.270E-0007
Endif
If (Pr=2) then
c[1] = 1.042E+0003;c[2] = -4.907E-0001;c[3] = -2.819E-0003;c[4] = -5.895E-
0007;c[5] = 8.081E-0001;c[6] = -9.652E-0003;c[7] = 7.168E-0005;c[8] = 2.404E-0007;c[9]
= -7.156E-0003
c[10]= 1.088E-0004;c[11]= -3.328E-0006;c[12]= 1.153E-0007;c[13]=
1.190E-0004;c[14]= -6.226E-0006;c[15]= -3.026E-0008;c[16]= -1.170E-0005;c[17]= -
2.915E-0007;c[18]= -6.033E-0007
Endif
If (Pr=3) then
c[1] = 3.679E+0003;c[2] = 1.571E+0000;c[3] = 1.331E-0002;c[4] = 1.975E-
0007;c[5] = -1.933E+0001;c[6] = 1.118E-0001;c[7] = -1.108E-0003;c[8] = 4.924E-
0006;c[9] = -4.879E-0002
c[10]= -2.338E-0004;c[11]= 2.753E-0005;c[12]= -3.148E-0007;c[13]=
4.749E-0003;c[14]= -2.621E-0005;c[15]= 1.286E-0006;c[16]= -2.871E-0004;c[17]= -
9.050E-0008;c[18]= -1.068E-0005
Endif
if (Pr=4) then
c[1] = 3.806E-0001;c[2] = 5.765E-0004;c[3] = -3.477E-0007;c[4] = -6.041E-
0009;c[5] = -3.815E-0003;c[6] = -1.423E-0005;c[7] = -1.203E-0008;c[8] = -5.854E-0010;c[9]
= 8.420E-0006
c[10]= 1.081E-0007;c[11]= 1.959E-0009;c[12]= 1.271E-0010;c[13]= -
1.110E-0006;c[14]= -1.612E-0009;c[15]= 3.005E-0010;c[16]= 5.503E-0009;c[17]=
1.437E-0010;c[18]= 1.290E-0009
Endif
if (Pr=5) then
c[1] = 2.274E+0000;c[2] = -5.342E-0002;c[3] = 5.372E-0004;c[4] = -4.955E-
0006;c[5] = 4.500E-0002;c[6] = -5.488E-0004;c[7] = 1.845E-0006;c[8] = 1.192E-0007;c[9]
= -7.808E-0005
134
c[10]= 1.453E-0006;c[11]= -2.816E-0007;c[12]= 8.562E-0009;c[13]=

6.565E-0006;c[14]= -4.032E-0007;c[15]= -1.212E-0009;c[16]= 6.441E-0007;c[17]= -
1.430E-0008;c[18]= 1.092E-0008
Endif
Endif
End
Procedure Prop_Mean_(Fl:xm, ym)

If (Fl=1) then
xm = 38.1615
ym = 6.3333
Endif
If (Fl=2) then
xm = 42.7686
ym = 5.3571
Endif
End
Function BRINEPROP_(Fl$,Pr$,Conc,Temp)
IF (Fl$='EG') AND (Conc<0) THEN

ELSE
IF (Fl$='EG') AND (Conc>56.1) THEN
ELSE
IF (Fl$='PG') AND (Conc<15.2) THEN
ELSE
IF (Fl$='PG') AND (Conc>57.0) THEN
ENDIF;ENDIF;ENDIF;ENDIF
"Sets property parameter"

Freeze=1;Density=2;SpecHeat=3;ThermalC=4;DynVisc=5
IF (Pr$='Freeze') THEN Pro:=Freeze ELSE
IF (Pr$='Density') THEN Pro:=Density ELSE
IF (Pr$='SpecHeat') THEN Pro:=SpecHeat ELSE
IF (Pr$='ThermalC') THEN Pro:=ThermalC ELSE
IF (Pr$='DynVisc') THEN Pro:=DynVisc
ENDIF;ENDIF;ENDIF;ENDIF;
Pr:=Pro
"Sets fluid parameter"

EG=1;PG=2
IF (Fl$='EG') THEN Flu:=EG ELSE
IF (Fl$='PG') THEN Flu:=PG ELSE
ENDIF;ENDIF
Fl:=Flu
"Coefficients"
call Prop_Coeff_(Fl, Pr: c[1..18])
135
"Mean values"
call Prop_Mean_(Fl:xm, ym)
x=Conc-xm
y=Temp-ym
"Equation, f(temp,conc)"
Funkt=c[1]+(c[2]*y)+(c[3]*y^2)+(c[4]*y^3)+(c[5]*x)+(c[6]*x*y)+(c[7]*x*y^2)+(c[8]*x*y^3)+
(c[9]*x^2)+(c[10]*x^2*y)+(c[11]*x^2*y^2)+(c[12]*x^2*y^3)+(c[13]*x^3)+(c[14]*x^3*y)+(c[15]*x
^3*y^2)+(c[16]*x^4)+(c[17]*x^4*y)+(c[18]*x^5)
"
Conditions
Mode=mu => output = exp(f)
Mode<>mu => output = f"
IF (Pr=5) THEN
BRINEPROP_=exp(Funkt)
ELSE
IF (Pr=3) THEN
BRINEPROP_=Funkt/1000
ELSE
BRINEPROP_=Funkt
ENDIF;ENDIF
END
"
User External Functions"
"Functions to get properties of fluid"

Function C_p_(Fluid$, T, P, Percent)
If (Fluid$ = 'Water') then C_p_ = SPECHEAT(Water,T=T,P=P)
If (Fluid$ = 'Propylene Glycol Solution') then C_p_ =
BRINEPROP_('PG','SpecHeat',Percent,T)
If (Fluid$ = 'Ethylene-Glycol Solution') then C_p_ =
BRINEPROP_('EG','SpecHeat',Percent,T)
End
Function mu_(Fluid$, T, P, Percent)

If (Fluid$ = 'Water') then mu_ = VISCOSITY(Water,T=T,P=P)
If (Fluid$ = 'Propylene Glycol Solution') then mu_ =
BRINEPROP_('PG','DynVisc',Percent,T)*1.0e-3
If (Fluid$ = 'Ethylene-Glycol Solution') then mu_ =
BRINEPROP_('EG','DynVisc',Percent,T)*1.0e-3
End
Function k_(Fluid$, T, P, Percent)

If (Fluid$ = 'Water') then k_ = CONDUCTIVITY(Water,T=T,P=P)
If (Fluid$ = 'Propylene Glycol Solution') then k_ =
BRINEPROP_('PG','ThermalC',Percent,T)
If (Fluid$ = 'Ethylene-Glycol Solution') then k_ =
BRINEPROP_('EG','ThermalC',Percent,T)
136
End
Function rho_(Fluid$, T, P, Percent)

If (Fluid$ = 'Water') then rho_ = DENSITY(Water,T=T,P=P)
If (Fluid$ = 'Propylene Glycol Solution') then rho_ =
BRINEPROP_('PG','Density',Percent,T)
If (Fluid$ = 'Ethylene-Glycol Solution') then rho_ =
BRINEPROP_('EG','Density',Percent,T)
End
Function beta_water_(T) "Temperature unit : C"

if (T<0) then T = 0
if (T>100) then T = 100
beta=-64.99 + 17.236*T - 0.21274*T^2 + 0.0018762*T^3 - 0.0000066052*T^4
beta_water_ = beta*1.0e-6
End
"!Heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop in circular tubes"
Procedure Circular_tube_(m_dot, D, L, Fluid$, T, P, SolPer, Num_tube : h, DELTAP, Re,

DELTAP_1, DELTAP_2)
rho = rho_(Fluid$, T, P, SolPer)"[kg/m3]"
C_p = C_p_(Fluid$, T, P, SolPer)*convert(kJ, J) "[J/kg-K]"
mu = mu_(Fluid$, T, P, SolPer)"[kg/s-m]"
k = k_(Fluid$, T, P, SolPer) "[W/m-K]"
Re = 4*(m_dot/Num_tube)/(pi*D*mu)
Pr = mu*C_p/k
A_inner = pi*D^2/4*Num_tube
u = m_dot/rho/A_inner
if (Re > 2300) then "for turbulent flow"

fricfac = (0.79*ln(Re)-1.64)^(-2)
{Nusselt = 0.023*Re^0.8*Pr^0.4 "Dittus-Doelter"}
Nusselt_long = ((fricfac/8)*(Re-1000)*Pr)/(1+12.7*sqrt(fricfac/8)*(Pr^(2/3)-1))
"Gnielinski"
Nusselt = Nusselt_long*(1+(D/L)^0.7)
else "For laminar flow"
fricfac = 64/Re
{Nusselt = 4.364}
{for laminar flow (assumption : constant heat flux condition and fully developed flow)}
a = 0.00172 {Table 3.14.1 from Duffie & Beckman}
b = 0.00281
m = 1.66
n = 1.29
Nusselt = 4.4+a*(Re*Pr*D/L)^m/(1+b*(Re*Pr*D/L)^n) {Equation 3.14.5}
Endif
"Heat Transfer Coefficient"
h = Nusselt*k/D "[W/m^2-K]"
"Pressure Drop"
DELTAP_1 = fricfac*(rho*u^2)/(2*D)*L "Pressure drop of fully developed flow"
K = 0.5+1.0 "Loss Coefficient for Sharp edge at inlet and exit"
137
DELTAP_2 = K*D*(rho*u^2)/(2*D) "Pressure drop due at pipe entrance : Sharp

Edge"
DELTAP = DELTAP_1+DELTAP_2
END
"Function for Fins around Tubes"

Procedure fin_annular_(fin_YN$, N_fin, h_fin, D_tube, t_fin,h_o, k_fin : A_fin, eta_fin)
if (fin_YN$ = 'Annular fins around tubes') then
r_tube = D_tube/2
r_fin = r_tube+h_fin
r_fin_c = r_fin+(t_fin/2) "Corrected length of fin"
A_f_1 = 2*pi*(r_fin_c^2-r_tube^2)
A_fin = N_fin*A_f_1
m = sqrt(2*h_o/(k_fin*t_fin))
C_1 = (2*r_tube/m)/(r_fin_c^2-r_tube^2)
mr_1 = m*r_tube
mr_2 = m*r_fin_c
eta_fin = C_1*(Bessel_K1(mr_1)*Bessel_I1(mr_2)-
Bessel_I1(mr_1)*Bessel_K1(mr_2))/(Bessel_I0(mr_1)*Bessel_K1(mr_2)+Bessel_K0(mr_1)
*Bessel_I1(mr_2))
else
eta_fin = 0
A_fin = 0
Endif
End
"! Procedures for output ============================================="
Procedure Out_1_(Fluid$,SolPer : Fluid_out$)

if (Fluid$ = 'Water') then Fluid_out$ = Fluid$
if (Fluid$ = 'Propylene Glycol Solution') or (Fluid$ = 'Ethylene-Glycol Solution') then
Dum1$ = CONCAT$(Fluid$,' (')
Dum2$ = CONCAT$(Dum1$, String$(SolPer))
Fluid_out$ = CONCAT$(Dum2$, '%)')
Endif
End
138
REFERENCES
1. ASHRAE Standard 93-86, Methods of Testing to Determine the Thermal

Performance of Solar Collectors, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and
Air Conditioning Engineers, 1986.
2. Brandemuehl, M. J. and Beckman, W. A., “Transmission of Diffuse Radiation

through CPC and Flat-Plate Collector Glazings,” Solar Energy, Vol. 24, pp. 511,
1980.
3. Duffie, J. A. and Beckman W. A., Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, 2nd

Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1991.
4. Hollands, K. G. T., Unny, T. E., Raithby, G. D., and Lonicek, L, “Free Convection
Heat Transfer Across Inclined Air Layers,” Transactions of ASME Journal of Heat
Transfer, Vol. 98, pp. 189, 1976.
5. Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 4th
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1996.
6. Klein, S. A. and Alvarado, F. L., EES: Engineering Equation Solver, F-Chart

Software, Middleton, WI, 1999.
7. Klein, S. A. et al., TRNSYS 14 Manual, Solar Energy Laboratory, University of

Wisconsin-Madison, WI, 1994.
8. Liu, B. Y. H. and Jordan, R. C., “The Interrelationship and Characteristic

Distribution of Direct, Diffuse, and Total Solar Radiation,” Solar Energy, Vol 4, pp.
1, 1960.
9. Liu, W., Davidson, J., Raman, R., and Mantell, S., “Thermal and Economic
Analysis of Plastic Heat Exchangers for Solar Water Heating,” Proceedings of
ASES Annual Conference, Portland, Maine, USA, June 12-16, pp. 101, 1999.
139
10. Newton, B. J., Schmid, M., Mitchell, J. W., and Beckman, W. A., “Storage Tank
Models,” Proceedings of the ASME International Solar Energy Conference, Vol. 2,
pp. 1111, 1995.
11. Pettit, R. B. and Sowell, R. P., “Solar Absorptance and Emittance Properties,”
Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 596, 1976.
12. Siegel, R. and Howell, J. R., Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, 3rd Edition, Taylor
& Francis, New York, 1992.
13. Solar Collector Test Report on MSC-32 American Energy Technologies Inc.,
Testing And Laboratories Division, Florida Solar Energy Center, 1988.
14. Solar Collector Test Report on STG-24 Sun Trapper Solar Systems, Inc., Testing
And Laboratories Division, Florida Solar Energy Center, 1995.
15. Solar Collector Test Report on SX-600 Solmax Inc., Testing And Laboratories
Division, Florida Solar Energy Center, 1993.
16. Souka, A. F. and Safwat, H. H, “Optimum Orientations for the Double Exposure
Flat-Plate Collector and Its Reflector,” Solar Energy, Vol. 10, pp. 170, 1966.
17. SRCC Document RM-1, Methodology for Determining the Thermal Performance
Rating for Solar Collectors, Solar Rating and Certification Corporation, Florida,
1994.
18. Su, B. and El-Genk, M. S., “Forced Convection of Water in Rod-Bundles, Int.
Comm. Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 20, pp. 295, 1993.
19. Whillier, A., “Prediction of Performance of Solar Collectors,” Applications of Solar

Energy for Heating and Cooling of Buildings, ASHRAE, New York, pp. VIII-1,
1977.
20. White, F. M, Fluid Mechanics, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1987.
21. Yiqin, Y, Hollands, K. G. T., Brunger, A. P., “Measured Top Heat Loss Coefficients
for Flat Plate Collectors with Inner Teflon Covers,” Proceedings of the Biennial
Congress of the International Solar Energy Society, Denver, Colorado, USA,
August 19-23, pp. 1200, 1991.

Development of A Flat-Plate Solar Collector Design Program

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Development of A Flat-Plate Solar Collector Design Program

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

DEVELOPMENT OF A FLAT-PLATE SOLAR

COLLECTOR DESIGN PROGRAM

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of

always thank you and respect your thought and life.

work with confidence.

with you in near future.

Flat-plate solar collectors have potential applications in HVAC system,

predicting the performance of a flat-plate solar collector.

and absorber plate.

the thermal performance of flat-plate solar collectors.

collector can be specified with an easy-to-use graphic interface. Compiled versions of

2.4.2.4 Sky Temperature .................................................................................. 29

APPENDIX A FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR DESIGN PROGRAM

Figure 1.1 Schematic of a typical solar domestic hot water system........................... 2

Ac Gross collector area

m Parameter of the fin-air arrangement

Tdp Dew point temperature

ρf Density of working fluid

circulation SDHW system.

To evaluate the performance of solar heating systems, experimental or numerical

modeling allows differentiating between designs at reasonable costs. A simulation

Collector Pump Cold water supply

Figure 1.1 Schematic of a typical solar domestic hot water system

information can be specified to allow solar engineers to investigate the impact of

design changes on the collector performance.

1.1 Flat-Plate Solar Collectors

Flat-plate solar collectors have potential applications in many space-heating

chosen with care.

A flat-plate solar collector consists of a radiation-absorbing flat plate beneath

circulates through the collector by a pump or by natural convection to remove the

1.2 Engineering Equation Solver

Engineering Equation Solver (EES) is a program developed by Professor

Sanford A. Klein of the Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin – Madison

quality plots. Since it automatically identifies and groups equations to be solved

simultaneously, the solver always operates at optimum efficiency. Many mathematical

functions, thermophysical properties, and transport properties are also provided by

built-in functions that are helpful in solving engineering problems in thermodynamics,

the impacts of one or more parameters need to be investigated.

The professional version of EES provides multiple diagram windows and

valuable feature of the professional version is “make distributable.” Once a program is

will be developed with EES.

allow a company specializing in SDHW systems to investigate the impact of design

analyzing innovative designs.

FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS

transfer should be considered thoroughly in the calculation of absorbed solar radiation

in this thesis to obtain a thorough understanding of the performance of flat-plate solar

2.1 Physical Model For Flat-Plate Solar Collectors

A flat-plate solar collector is illustrated in detail in Figure 2.1.1. It is the MSC-

32 flat-plate solar collector manufactured by American Energy Technologies, Inc. [13].

Frontal Transparent Area

(a) Frontal view (b) Side view

Figure 2.1.2 Physical flat-plate collector model

based on the configuration shown in Figure 2.1.2.

1. The collector operates in steady state.

2. Temperature gradient through the covers is negligible.

through the cover system.

4. The temperature gradient around and through tubes is negligible.

5. The temperature gradient through the absorber plate is negligible.

6. The collector may have zero to two covers.

solar and infrared spectrum.

8. In calculating instantaneous efficiency, the radiation is incident on the solar

collector with fixed incident angle.

9. The collector is free-standing.