Constructivism, or learning by doing, is a classic approach to educational instruction that has

generated renewed interest in the digital era. Constructivist practices such as apprenticeships have a
long history, but in contemporary classrooms they and other hands-on programs often take a back
seat to teachers telling students what they need to know rather than facilitating each person’s
natural curiosity and learning style. Digital learning tools have the potential of being customized to
fit the abilities of individual students and can engage them with interactive tasks and simulate real-
life situations.

One approach to digital learning is to harness the broad appeal of video games for educational
purposes. While research on the cognitive and behavioral impacts of violent video games have
shown mixed outcomes, some nonviolent games have shown promise. Certain video games have
been shown to improve brain functions, while others have the potential of reversing cognitive
loss associated with aging. These “serious games” require players to make decisions to drive its
progress, and they can range from the simple to the sophisticated.

Serious games harness the form and popularity of electronic entertainment to teach everything from
the three Rs to public-policy issues, and it has been suggested that game design could even save
the humanities through its emphasis on storytelling. Off-the-shelf games such as Civilization or The
Sims have been used as a platform for students to learn a language and explore world history while
developing skills such as reading, math, logic and collaboration. Emerson College professor Eric
Gordon and his team designed an online platform that encourages community engagement through
a game-like rewards process. Former Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O’Connor has invested
in iCivics, which instructs players on issues of civil rights, voting and public policy, and MTV
produced Darfur Is Dying, an online game that involves fetching water from a desert well without
getting kidnapped by guerilla fighters.

While serious games have been embraced by educators in and out of the classroom, many questions
remain. What are the possible effects of digital gaming, connectivity and multitasking for younger
learners, whose bodies and brains are still maturing? Some research has shown that laptop use
can hinder classroom learning, and critics assert that online learning disrupts deep reading practices.
And where connections have been seen between students’ gameplay and improved cognitive
abilities, boys and girls don’t benefit equally.

In a June 2013 article, Yale University School of Medicine researchers suggest how the future of
these technologies is now evolving:

Electronic games are a promising tool for educating people and changing behavior. While the first
wave of interactive educational games relied on what some call the “chocolate-covered broccoli”
model, where the narrative was interrupted by tedious, poorly constructed tasks that proceeded like
homework, the new trend is to integrate learning and fun. One of our primary goals is that more
researchers and funding sources will emerge to take on the task of developing and rigorously testing
evidence-based electronic games to find the best ways to encourage healthy behaviors among
young people.
Below is a collection of recent academic scholarship that addresses the use and effectiveness of
digital and game-based learning in the classroom and beyond.

_______________________

“A Meta-Analytic Examination of the Instructional Effectiveness of Computer-Based

Simulation Games”
Sitzmann, Traci. Personnel Psychology, Summer 2011, Vol. 64, No. 2, 489-528.

Abstract: “Interactive cognitive complexity theory suggests that simulation games are more
effective than other instructional methods because they simultaneously engage trainees’ affective
and cognitive processes. Meta-analytic techniques were used to examine the instructional
effectiveness of computer-based simulation games relative to a comparison group (k= 65, N=
6,476). Consistent with theory, post-training self-efficacy was 20% higher, declarative knowledge
was 11% higher, procedural knowledge was 14% higher, and retention was 9% higher for trainees
taught with simulation games, relative to a comparison group. However, the results provide strong
evidence of publication bias in simulation games research. Characteristics of simulation games and
the instructional context also moderated the effectiveness of simulation games. Trainees learned
more, relative to a comparison group, when simulation games conveyed course material actively
rather than passively, trainees could access the simulation game as many times as desired, and the
simulation game was a supplement to other instructional methods rather than stand-alone
instruction. However, trainees learned less from simulation games than comparison instructional
methods when the instruction the comparison group received as a substitute for the simulation
game actively engaged them in the learning experience.”

“Serious Games as New Educational Tools: How Effective Are They? A Meta-Analysis of
Recent Studies”
Girard, C.; Ecalle, J.; Magnan, A. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, June 2013, Vol. 29, No. 3,
207-219. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2012.00489.x.

Findings: “Three of the 11 studied games had a positive effect on learning compared with other
types of training or no training at all. These included two SGs [serious games] (Re-
Mission and DimensionM) and one VG (SimCity). Seven games had no beneficial effect on learning,
including three SGs … and four VGs (Indiana Jones & the Emperor’s Tomb, Medal of Honor Allied
Assault, Rise of Nations, New Super Mario Bros.). Finally, the results for one SG (Triage Trainer)
were mixed. Because of the lack of precise quantitative data in many studies, it was not possible to
calculate the size of the learning effect.”
“Game-Based Learning in Science Education: A Review of Relevant Research”
Li, Ming-Chaun; Tsai, Chin-Chun. Journal of Science Education and Technology, February 2013. doi:
10.1007/s10956-013-9436-x.

Abstract: “The purpose of this study is to review empirical research articles regarding game-based
science learning (GBSL) published from 2000 to 2011…. The results indicate that cognitivism and
constructivism were the major theoretical foundations employed by the GBSL researchers and that
the socio-cultural perspective and enactivism are two emerging theoretical paradigms that have
started to draw attention from GBSL researchers in recent years. The analysis of the learning foci
showed that most of the digital games were utilized to promote scientific knowledge/concept
learning, while less than one-third were implemented to facilitate the students’ problem-solving
skills. Only a few studies explored the GBSL outcomes from the aspects of scientific processes,
affect, engagement, and socio-contextual learning. Suggestions are made to extend the current
GBSL research to address the affective and socio-contextual aspects of science learning. The roles of
digital games as tutor, tool, and tutee for science education are discussed, while the potentials of
digital games to bridge science learning between real and virtual worlds, to promote collaborative
problem-solving, to provide affective learning environments, and to facilitate science learning for
younger students are also addressed.”

“Our Princess Is in Another Castle: A Review of Trends in Serious Gaming for Education”
Young, Michael F.; Slota, Stephen; Cutter, Andrew B. Review of Educational Research, March 2012,
Vol. 82, No. 1, pp. 61-89. 10.3102/003465431243698

Abstract: “Do video games show demonstrable relationships to academic achievement gains when
used to support the K-12 curriculum? In a review of literature, we identified 300+ articles whose
descriptions related to video games and academic achievement. We found some evidence for the
effects of video games on language learning, history, and physical education (specifically
exergames), but little support for the academic value of video games in science and math. We
summarize the trends for each subject area and supply recommendations for the nascent field of
video games research. Many educationally interesting games exist, yet evidence for their impact on
student achievement is slim. We recommend separating simulations from games and refocusing the
question onto the situated nature of game-player-context interactions, including meta-game social
collaborative elements.”

“Intercultural Simulation Games: A Review (of the United States and Beyond)”
Fowler, Sandra M.; Pusch, Margaret D. Simulation and Gaming, February 2010, Vol. 41, No. 1, 94-
115. doi: 10.1177/1046878109352204.

Abstract: “Intercultural simulations are instructional activities that engage and challenge
participants with experiences integral to encounters between people of more than one cultural
group. Simulations designed specifically to support intercultural encounters have been in use since
the 1970s. This article examines the conceptual bases for intercultural simulation games, their
history, contexts in which they are being or have been used, their efficacy, and the current situation
for intercultural simulation games. The article concludes with a look at future directions, which will
rely on technological advances and the creative work of promising young interculturalists.”

“Digital Game-Based Learning in High School Computer Science Education: Impact on

Educational Effectiveness and Student Motivation”
Papastergiou, Marina. Computers & Education, January 2009, Vol. 52, No. 1, 1-12. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2008.06.004.

Abstract: “The aim of this study was to assess the learning effectiveness and motivational appeal
of a computer game for learning computer memory concepts, which was designed according to the
curricular objectives and the subject matter of the Greek high school Computer Science (CS)
curriculum, as compared to a similar application, encompassing identical learning objectives and
content but lacking the gaming aspect…Data analyses showed that the gaming approach was both
more effective in promoting students’ knowledge of computer memory concepts and more
motivational than the non-gaming approach. Despite boys’ greater involvement with, liking of and
experience in computer gaming, and their greater initial computer memory knowledge, the learning
gains that boys and girls achieved through the use of the game did not differ significantly, and the
game was found to be equally motivational for boys and girls. The results suggest that within high
school CS, educational computer games can be exploited as effective and motivational learning
environments, regardless of students’ gender.”

“The Concept of Flow in Collaborative Game-Based Learning”

Admiraal, Wilfried; Huizenga, Jantina; Akkerman, Sanne; ten Dam, Geert. Computers in Human
Behavior, May 2011, Vol. 27, No. 3, 1185-1194. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.12.013.

Abstract: “Generally, high-school students have been characterized as bored and disengaged from
the learning process. However, certain educational designs promote excitement and engagement.
Game-based learning is assumed to be such a design. In this study, the concept of flow is used as a
framework to investigate student engagement in the process of gaming and to explain effects on
game performance and student learning outcome. Frequency 1550, a game about medieval
Amsterdam merging digital and urban play spaces, has been examined as an exemplar of game-
based learning. This one-day game was played in teams by 216 students of three schools for
secondary education in Amsterdam. Generally, these students show flow with their game activities,
although they were distracted by solving problems in technology and navigation. Flow was shown to
have an effect on their game performance, but not on their learning outcome. Distractive activities
and being occupied with competition between teams did show an effect on the learning outcome of
students: the fewer students were distracted from the game and the more they were engaged in
group competition, the more students learned about the medieval history of Amsterdam.”

“The Relationship Between Design, Gameplay and Outcomes: Computer Games and
Learning”
Schrader, Claudia; Bastiaens, Theo. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 2012, Vol. 23, No. 3,
251-271.

Findings: “Overall, authors agree on the beneficial effect on learning of the engagement and
motivation generated by games. They often refer to the Flow Theory of Csikszentmihalyi. According
to this theory, the ‘flow’ state experienced by players (state of complete involvement or engagement
in an activity that results in an optimum experience of the activity) during the game has a positive
effect on their learning. Good games are particularly adept at keeping subjects in a state of flow by
increasing the skill level involved in the game as the skill level exhibited by the player increases.
However, our observations indicate that not all the experimental results support this theory and that
further research is therefore required.”

“Digital Game-Based Learning: Impact of Instructions and Feedback on Motivation and

Learning Effectiveness”
Erhel, S.; Jamet, E. Computers and Education, September 2013, Vol. 67, 156-167. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.02.019.

Abstract: “Although many studies have investigated the effects of digital game-based learning
(DGBL) on learning and motivation, its benefits have never been systematically demonstrated. In
our first experiment, we sought to identify the conditions under which DGBL is most effective, by
analyzing the effects of two different types of instructions (learning instruction
vs. entertainment instruction). Results showed that the learning instruction elicited deeper learning
than the entertainment one, without impacting negatively on motivation. In our second experiment,
we showed that if learners are given regular feedback about their performance, the entertainment
instruction results in deep learning. These two experiments demonstrate that a serious game
environment can promote learning and motivation, providing it includes features that prompt
learners to actively process the educational content.”

“Evaluating Learners’ Motivational and Cognitive Processing in an Online Game-Based

Learning Environment”
Hao-Huang, Wen. Computers in Human Behavior, March 2011, Vol. 27, No. 2, 694-704. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.07.021.

Abstract: “This paper describes the process and results of an evaluation on an online game-based
learning environment (GBLE) by focusing on learners’ motivational processing and cognitive
processing. The goal is to explore how online GBLE might initiate and support learners’ goal-setting
activities and impact learners’ cognitive loads. The study surveyed 144 undergraduate students after
their autonomous participation in the online game available at the Nobel Prize Foundation website
teaching the Heckscher–Ohlin Theory on international trade. Grounded in the integrative theory of
motivation, volition, and performance (MVP), the evaluation indicated that participants felt
significantly confident in learning the subject. The perceived satisfaction, however, was lower than
the rest of motivational components possibly due to heavy cognitive processing. The finding of
cognitive load reported that learners perceived a significantly higher level of intrinsic load than the
germane load due to the novelty of the subject matter. Data analysis further indicated a significant
canonical correlation between learners’ motivational and cognitive processing. This particular finding
could inform future research to investigate specific motivational processing components’ effects on
learners’ cognitive load levels in online GBLEs.”

“Learning through Playing for or Against Each Other? Promoting Collaborative Learning
in Digital Game-Based Learning”
Romero, Margarida; Usert, Mireia; Ott, Michela; Earp, Jeffrey. European Conference on Information
Systems, 2012.

Abstract: “The process of learning through Game Based Learning (GBL) presents both positive
aspects and challenges to be faced in order to support the achievement of learning goals and
knowledge creation. This study aims to characterize game dynamics in the adoption of multi-player
GBL. In particular, we examine the multi-player GBL dynamics may enhance collaborative learning
through a relation of positive interdependence while at the same time maintaining a certain level of
competition for ensuring multi-player GBL gameplay. The first section of the paper introduces
collaborative GBL and describes the combination of intragroup dynamics of cooperation and positive
interdependence and an intergroup dynamic of competition to maintain gameplay. The second part
of the paper describes two multi-player GBL scenarios: the multi-player game with interpersonal
competition and the multi-player game with intergroup competition. For each scenario a case
analysis of existing collaborative games is provided, which may help instructional and game
designers when defining the collaborative GBL dynamics.”

“Video Game–Based Learning: An Emerging Paradigm for Instruction”

Squire, Kurt D. Performance Improvement Quarterly, April 2013, Vol. 26, No. 1, 101-130. doi:
10.1002/piq.21139.

Abstract: “Interactive digital media, or video games, are a powerful new medium. They offer
immersive experiences in which players solve problems. Players learn more than just facts — ways
of seeing and understanding problems so that they ‘become’ different kinds of people. ‘Serious
games’ coming from business strategy, advergaming, and entertainment gaming embody these
features and point to a future paradigm for eLearning. Building on interviews with leading designers
of serious games, this article presents case studies of three organizations building serious games,
coming from different perspectives but arriving at similar conclusions. This article argues that such
games challenge us to rethink the role of information, tools, and aesthetics in a digital age.”

“Dynamical Model for Gamification: Optimization of Four Primary Factors of Learning

Games for Educational Effectiveness”
Kim, Jung Tae; Lee, Won-Hyung. Computer Applications for Graphics, Grid Computing, and
Industrial Environment, Communications in Computer and Information Science, 2012, Vol. 351, 24-
32. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-35600-1_4.

Abstract: “This paper proposes a dynamical model for the gamification of learning. The main idea
of this model is based on the correlations of four primary factors (curiosity, challenge, fantasy and
control) originating from digital games which are built on the foundations of separate theories: (1)
Game Design Features, (2) Key Characteristics of a Learning Game, (3) ARCS Model, and (4) MDA
framework. Through this dynamical model, we will show that the effectiveness of the gamification of
learning is educationally superior to traditional ways of learning in a specific setting, after an elapsed
adaptive time period with a reasonable relationship of the four primary factors. The model presents
the meaningful positions of four primary factors on the equation for educational effectiveness of
gamification. We posit that this dynamical model for the gamification can strengthen the ‘theoretical
foundation’ of gamification as well as spread the idea of ‘the pure and right function of game.’”

“Gamification in a Social Learning Environment”

Giannetto, David; Chao, Joseph; Fontana, Anthony. Issues in Informing Science and Information
Technology, 2013, Vol. 10.

Abstract: “Gamification has gained traction in recent years as an effective way of engaging users to
perform actions in contexts that would otherwise be considered tedious and undesirable. Education
is an area in which user engagement could have the greatest impact on success, with some
advantages for students being improved grades or better comprehension. The authors of this paper
have designed and implemented a three-part system for gamifying a social learning environment
designed for use in higher education lecture classrooms. Our goal in doing so is to foster greater
user engagement from the students using the system and thereby promote an environment better
suited for active learning.”

“Gamifying Learning Experiences: Practical Implications and Outcomes”

Dominguez, Adrian; Saenz-de-Navarrete, Joseba; de Marcos, Luis; Fernandoes-Sanz, Luis; Pages,
Carmen; Martinez-Herriaiz, Jose-Javier. Computers in Education, April 2013, Vol. 63, 380-392. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.12.020.
Abstract: “Gamification is the use of game design elements and game mechanics in non-game
contexts. This idea has been used successfully in many web-based businesses to increase user
engagement. Some researchers suggest that it could also be used in web-based education as a tool
to increase student motivation and engagement. In an attempt to verify those theories, we have
designed and built a gamification plugin for a well-known e-learning platform. We have made an
experiment using this plugin in a university course, collecting quantitative and qualitative data in the
process. Our findings suggest that some common beliefs about the benefits obtained when using
games in education can be challenged. Students who completed the gamified experience got better
scores in practical assignments and in overall score, but our findings also suggest that these
students performed poorly on written assignments and participated less on class activities, although
their initial motivation was higher.”

“Serious Games and Learning Effectiveness: The Case of It’s a Deal!”

Guillen-Nieto, Victoria; et al. Computers and Education, January 2012, Vol. 58, No. 1, 435-448. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.07.015.

Abstract: “Although the value of serious games in education is undeniable and the potential
benefits of using video games as ideal companions to classroom instruction is unquestionable, there
is still little consensus on the game features supporting learning effectiveness, the process by which
games engage learners, and the types of learning outcomes that can be achieved through game
play… Findings of this study demonstrate that the video game is an effective learning tool for the
teaching of intercultural communication between Spaniards and Britons in business settings in which
English is used as the lingua franca. In particular, whereas the game had a small learning effect on
intercultural awareness and a medium learning effect on intercultural knowledge, it had a large
learning effect on intercultural communicative competence. The study also documents correlating
factors that make serious games effective, since it shows that the learning effectiveness of It’s a
Deal! stems from the correct balance of the different dimensions involved in the creation of serious
games, specifically instructional content, game dimensions, game cycle, debriefing, perceived
educational value, transfer of learned skills and intrinsic motivation.”

“Learning in Serious Virtual Worlds: Evaluation of Learning Effectiveness and Appeal to

Students in the E-Junior Project”
Wrzesien, Maja; Alcaniz-Raa, Mariano. Computers and Education, August 2010, Vol. 55, No. 1, 178-
187. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.01.003.

Abstract: “The objective of this study is to present and to evaluate the E-Junior application: a
serious virtual world (SVW) for teaching children natural science and ecology. E-Junior was designed
according to pedagogical theories and curricular objectives to help children learn about the
Mediterranean Sea and its environmental issues while playing. In this study, we present data about
the E-Junior evaluation. A class in a serious virtual world (virtual group) was compared with a
traditional type of class (traditional group) that contained identical learning objectives and contents
but lacked a gaming aspect…. The results showed that the serious virtual world does not present
statistically significant differences with the traditional type of class. However, students from the
virtual group reported enjoying the class more, being more engaged, and having greater intentions
to participate than students from the traditional group. The plausible explanation for this can be
found in the qualitative data. The implications of these results and improvement proposals are also
discussed in this work.”

“The Effects of Modern Mathematics Computer Games on Mathematics Achievement and

Class Motivation”
Kebritchi, Mansureh; Hirumi, Atsusi; Bai, Haiyan. Computers and Education, September 2010, Vol.
22, No. 2, 427-443. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.02.007.

Abstract: “This study examined the effects of a computer game on students’ mathematics
achievement and motivation, and the role of prior mathematics knowledge, computer skill, and
English language skill on their achievement and motivation as they played the game. A total of 193
students and 10 teachers participated in this study…. The results indicated significant improvement
of the achievement of the experimental versus control group. No significant improvement was found
in the motivation of the groups. Students who played the games in their classrooms and school labs
reported greater motivation compared to the ones who played the games only in the school labs.
Prior knowledge, computer and English language skill did not play significant roles in achievement
and motivation of the experimental group.”

“Red Light, Purple Light: Findings from a Randomized Trial Using Circle Time Games to
Improve Behavioral Self-Regulation in Preschool”
Tominey, Shauna L.; McClelland, Megan M. Early Education & Development Special Issue: Self-
Regulation in Early Childhood, 2011, Vol. 22, No. 3, 480-519.

Findings: “The present study examined the efficacy of a self-regulation intervention with 65
preschool children. Using circle time games, the study examined whether participating in a
treatment group significantly improved behavioral self-regulation and early academic outcomes. Half
of the children were randomly assigned to participate in 16 playgroups during the winter of the
school year. Behavioral aspects of self-regulation and early achievement were assessed in the fall
and spring. Although there was no treatment effect in the overall sample, post hoc analyses
revealed that participation in the treatment group was significantly related to self-regulation gains in
children who started the year with low levels of these skills. Children in the treatment group also
demonstrated significant letter-word identification gains compared to children in the control group….
The findings from this study provide preliminary evidence for the efficacy of the intervention in
terms of improving preschoolers’ behavioral self-regulation for children low in these skills and
improving letter-word identification. Although preliminary, these results have the potential to inform
preschool curricula that emphasize behavioral self-regulation as a means of facilitating school
readiness.”

“Students’ Perceptions About the Use of Video Games in the Classroom”

Bourgonjon, Jeroen; Valcke, Martin; Soetaert, Ronald; Schellens, Tammy. Computers and Education,
May 2010, Vol. 54, No. 4, 1145-1156. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.10.022.

Abstract: “In this study, a path model to examine and predict student acceptance of video games
is proposed, and empirically tested by involving 858 secondary school students. The results show
that students’ preference for using video games in the classroom is affected directly by a number of
factors: the perceptions of students regarding the usefulness, ease of use, learning opportunities,
and personal experience with video games in general. Gender effects are found as well, but appear
to be mediated by experience and ease of use.”

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