_ IRRIGATION AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES Theory, Design and Practice ~ i Dr. Iqbal Ali B.E. (Hons), M. Tech, Ph.D, (Leeds) M.ASCE., F.L.E. (Pak), PE. Former Professor of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering; University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals Dhaharan, S.A. * NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi Published By: ‘| Farhat Iqbal col 64/2, Street 25, Kh-e-Badban, Phase V, D.H.A. Karachi-75500 SFirst Edition 1993 Second Edition 2003 Copyright © 1993 and 2003 by Dr. Iqbal Ali All Rights Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any from or by means, electronic or mechanical, including photography, recording or any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the author. Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Ali, Dr. Iqbal, 1937 Irrigation and Hydraulic Structures, written by Dr. Iqbal Ali, 2nd Edition Contents: Introduction and Eleven Chapters 1. Irrigation 2. Hydraulic Structures 3. Environmental Impact of Irrigation 4. Fathat Iqbal 627.52 - de20 ISBN 969-8160-00-0 Composed and printed at Laser Enterprises, Karachi, Phone: 92-21-2625587 in Paper Back edition, for Mrs. Farhat Iqbal 64/2, Street 25, Kh-e-Badban Phase V, D.H.A., Karachi-75500Preface to Second Edition In this edition, there is not much change from the contents of the first edition except that of an addition of Scour Depth equation for the hill streams. Lacey's Scour Depth formula is applicable to rivers and streams in alluvial plains and if applied to hill torrents give erroneous results. Author gratefully acknowledges the support received for publication of this edition from Mr. Dost Muhammad of Allied Book Co. The Mall, Lahore. January 2003 Dr. Iqbal Ali Karachi Environmental ConsultantPreface to Second Edition In this edition, there is not much change from the contents of the first edition except that of an addition of Scour Depth equation for the hill streams. Lacey's Scour Depth formula is applicable to rivers and streams in alluvial plains and if applied to hill torrents give erroneous results. Author gratefully acknowledges the support received for publication of this edition from Mr. Dost Muhammad of Allied Book Co. The Mall, Lahore. January 2003 Dr. Iqbal Ali Karachi Environmental ConsultantPreface to First Edition The subject of irrigation has assumed a worldwide importance since it holds the key to provide food to the teeming billions living in developed and developing countries. The science of irrigation en- gineering vary from situation to situation. In the riverless middle east it depends on small discharges of wells and springs while in countries like Pakistan, Iraq, and Egypt it is based on huge river discharges. The man made canal discharge of 22000 cfs and more may be exceeding those natural rivers in other countries. Pakistan has one of the world’s largest continuous irrigation system with three storage dams, seventeen barrages, more than 40,000 miles of canals and thousands of hydraulic structures. This was initiated in the last century and continues to expand, with more areas coming under canal irrigation. Similar systems exist in other countries like India, Bangladesh, Iraq, Egypt, Jordan, Malaysia and U.S.A., ete. This book covers the theory, design principles and practice of the canal irrigation system components. Starting with the source of irrigation water and basic hydrological principles, the book follows the flow path of the irrigation water in a gravity flow irrigation system upto the canal outlet which happens to be the last structure on the canals. This is followed by chapters on the design of high dams, and design of irrigation wells. The chapter on irrigation systems and farm management has been kept towards the end, since it is common to canal irrigation, well irrigation and direct irrigation from storage dams. Environmental impact assessment which has currently been recognized as an integral part of planning of an irrigation system has been given due attention. Topics like waterlogging, salinity and remedial measures have been discussed, with an environmental consideration, in the last chapter. All the chapters include solved examples and set of questions at the end. The chapter on canal design covers all the old and latest theories that exist and an attempt has been made to illustrate the design procedure by taking up numerical examples. A reference list is provided at the end of each chapter. The units used in most cases are in fps system and only in the early chapters of the book equivalent metric units have been Provided. The irrigation engineers are used to fps units, and inspite vvi PREFACE of the fact that SI units have been adopted internationally, the irrigation engineers still think and conceive various parameters in fps units. Therefore fps system has been used in general while, when considered necessary, and useful, SI units have also been given. However at the end of the book "Some Useful Conversions" from one system to the other has been provided. : It is hoped that this book will serve the civil, agriculture and ir- rigation engineering students, the practicing engineers and the con- sultants in regions with large gravity canal system as well as riverless arid regions depending on well irrigation. September 1993 Dr. Iqbal Ali Karachi. as11 12 1.3 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 3. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 CONTENTS Introduction History Definition Scope Questions References Water Resources for Irrigation Introduction Water resources Rainfall Surface water Ground water Quality of water Methods of indicating quality Salt concentration and its limit for irrigation water Quality of water in the Indus plain Basic hydrology Questions References Low Head Diversion Dams (Barrages) Introduction Purpose of a barrage Components of a barrage Site selection Design considerations Overflow consideration Subsoil flow considerations Questions References Appendix I: Example of Barrage Design Part I Design of barrage profile for overflow conditions ConnaHevill CONTENTS 41 4.2 4.3 44 45 46 47 4.8 49 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 5. 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.1 6.2 6.3 64 Part II Design of barrage profile for sub-surface flow conditions Appendix II : Barrages in Pakistan Irrigation Canals Introduction Design of lined irrigation canals Design of unlined canals Kennedy’s silt theory Lacey’s regime theory Further development in regime theory Rational approach Bed load functions - Duboy’s formula Einstein’s bed load formula Suspended load functions Example of canal design as per above equations Design methodology based on maximum permissible velocity Design methodology based on tractive force method Hydraulic design criteria (HDC) Munir and Quraishi method Canal lining Method for fixing the discharge capacity of irrigation canals. Questions References Silt Control in Irrigation Canals Introduction Exclusion of silt at entrance Method of silt ejection and proper distribution Questions References Structures on Canal Falls Introduction Location of falls Historical Types of falls 108 115 117 119 122 123 126 135 143, 144 147 150 161 156 162 169 174 182 188 196 197 199 210 221 222 223 224 225 227— 6.5 6.6 6.7 vA 71 7.2 7.3 TA 75 76 UT 78 8. 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 CONTENTS Vertical drop falls Glacis type canal fall Roughening devices for stilling basins appurtenances Questions References Appendix I Design of Montague type canal fall Appendix II Design of Pubjab C.D.0. type fall Appendix IM Design of Mushtaq’s spreading floor type of fall Cross Drainage Structures Introduction Canal alignment and cross-drainage structures ‘Types of cross-drainage structures Design procedure for an aqueduct, Hydraulic design of siphon (aqueduct or superpassage) Transition Types of transitions Design of drainage inlet Questions References Appendix I Design of an Aqueduct Irrigation Outlets Introduction Definition Essential requirements of an outlet Types of outlets Characteristics of outlets Pipe or barrel type outlet Scratchley outlet Semi-modular outlet Kennedy's gauge outlet Open flume outlet Orifice semi-module Modules or modular outlets or rigid modules Gibbs’ module Ghafoor’s rigid flume module 228 231 238 240 241 242 251 255 261 263 270 274 280 281 286 289 290 291 301 302 302 303 307 308 309 309 311 314 320 321 326x 8.15 8.16 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7, 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 10. 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 CONTENTS Setting of outlets for proportional distribution for varying discharges Selection of type of outlet Questions References ‘Appendix I Symbols used in the Appendices Appendix II Crump’s open flume outlet design. ‘Appendix III Crump’s Adjustable Proportional Module ‘Appendix IV Orifice Semi-Module Outlet Design Dams Introduction Classification of dams ‘Factors in selecting the type of a dam Design procedure for gravity dams Forces to be considered Stability analysis - stress factors and stability factors Profile of the gravity dam by method of zoning using stability analysis Single block design Design of an arch dam Design of buttress dams Earth dam design Questions References ‘Appendix I Examples of gravity dam design ‘Appendix II Examples of arch dam design Appendix III Example of earth dam design ‘Appendix IV. Some Important Dams in Pakistan ‘Appendix V Some Important Dam sites in Pakistan Appendix VI Worldwide distribution of dams over 100ft height Design of Wells Introduction General Some definitions used in well design Well hydraulics Design of wells in unconsolidated formation 327 330 333 334 335 336 339 343 406 411 4l7 418 420 421 425 429 435CONTENTS xi 10.6 Design of gravel pack 440 Questions 451 References 453 11. Irrigation Systems 11.1 General 455 11.2 Mechanism of water availability to plants 456 11.3 Forms of soil moisture 457 11.4 Irrigation methods 460 4 11.5 Sprinkler irrigation 466 5 11.6 Drip irrigation system 470 Questions 473 References 474 7 12 Environmental Impact of Irrigation 12.1 Introduction 415 12.2 Definition of waterlogging 477 12.3. Salinity 478 12.4 Environmental impact of waterlogging 478 12.5 Mechanism of destruction 478 12.6 Causes of waterlogging 480 12.7 Remedial measures 480 12.8 Design of drains 482 12.9 Bio-agricultural methods of reclamation 12.10 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 487 Questions 492 References 493 Some Useful Conversions 494 Index 4961 nc soideiwoh sili Jo Wino os Introduction 1.1. History ‘The art of applying water to the land dates back to the beginning of human civilization. The oldest canal still in use was begun about 1900 b.c. in Beypt, by the Prophet Joseph when he was Grand Vizier to the Pharaoh. This canal is situated in Medinet-el-Faiyum, 80 miles south of Cairo and irrigates the lush green fruit gardens of that area. It leads off the Nile, is about 200 miles long, and is- ealled Joseph’s Canal by the fellahin. The Holy Quran also throws some light on the great canal system inherited by Ramses 11 (1304- 1237 bie.) It is thought that the floating basket carrying the infant Moses may have reached the gardens of the Pharaoh's palace by way of a canal leading off the Nile. Egypt claims to have the world’s oldest dam, 355 feet long and 40 feet high, built some 5000 years ago to store water for drinking and irrigation. It was built by King Menes (3100 bc.) across the Nile near Memphis. Basin Irrigation introduced on the Nile about 3300 be. etill plays an important part in present day Egyptian agriculture.2 Introduction Alhazen (965-1038 a.d.), the great Muslim physicist, mathematician and astronomer suggested to Caliph Hakim of Egypt a scheme for controlling the Nile at Aswan. Implementation was, however, im- possible due to lack of technical expertise. The high Aswan Dam recently built, it is said is located close to the site first proposed by Alhazen. One of the letters of Hammurabi, King of Mesopotamia about 1800 b.c., contains the following order to Sid-Indiannam who was in- charge of works on the canals in the vicinity of Lagesh. "Gather the men that have fields along the Damanum canal to clear out the Damanum canal. Within this month, let them complete the digging of the Damanum canal". This letter is preserved in the British Museum. The Holy Quran mentions the destruction of the flourishing com- munity of Saba (Shiba) in Yemen in the following verse. "But they turned away, wherefore We sent upon them the inundation of the dam and We exchanged their two gardens for two gardens bearing bitter fruit and tamarisk and some few lote-trees". ‘The dam mentioned in the above verse is known as Sadde Marib (Marib Dam) and was built 3 miles from the capital city of Marib, 60 miles east of Sana in 800 b.c. The dam was built to block the runoff from a valley between two hills. It is said to have been 150 feet long and 50 feet wide with thirty sluices each at three different levels. Water was first collected in a pond downstream which had two sluice gates for right and left bank canals. The area irrigated was some 300 square miles. At a site 3 miles upstream of the old dam a new Marib dam has been built and was commissioned in 1986 by Government of North Yemen. Kanats (also called Karez in Baluchistan) are underground tunnels which intercept the water table, as a result of which water flows down the tunnel and is then collected and carried to the fields. The origin of Kanat building has not been ascertained. The first system of Kanats for the purpose of irrigation was constructed by Admiral Scylax in Egypt about 500 b.c. He built an extensive system penetrating sandstone strata which irrigated 1,800 square miles of fertile land. In celebration of the completion of this great project, the Egyptians built the Temple of Amon at Thebes and officially recognised for the first time their conqueror Darius I as Pharaoh of Egypt. The outlets of these Kanats became blocked over the centuries and those still flowing were thought until recently to be springs. However, the translation of ancient inscriptions and sub-History 3 sequent exploration has revealed their true origin. They are believed to extend 100 miles to the east under rolling desert to intercept seepage from the Nile. The Kanats of Teheran are over 250 years old, A Kanat constructed in the province of Mazandran is 10,500 feet long and runs 42 feet below the surface with about 60 shafts per mile. The art of Kanat building in Iran a very ancient one and the Kanat builders are called Mukanni. Ceylon also has ancient irrigation system. One of the world’s oldest earth dams was built in 505 b.c. as part of a tank irrigation system. The historian Tennet describes an earth bund of Padavil reservoir 11 miles in length, 200 feet wide at the base, 30 feet wide at the top and 70 feet high, with stone pitching on the upstream face. Irrigation in China is as old as its civilization. The famous Tu-Kiang Dam, still a functioning dam today, was built by Li and his son in the Ch'in Dynasty (21-207 b.c.) and provides irrigation water for about half a million acres of rice fields. The Indo-Gangetic plain also boast an ancient irrigation system. Archaeological excavation at Harappa, Moenjodaro and Kot Dijji has revealed the existence of advanced civilizations based on some form ofirrigation system. In the recorded history of the subcontinent, the practice of irrigation can be traced back to the 8th century when the Muslim rulers differentiated between irrigated and non- irrigated lands for the purpose of levying land tax. The present elaborate system of the Western Jamuna canal is believed to have been based on a system initiated by Feroze Shah Tughlaq. Ali Mardan Khan, an engineer and Governor of Punjab during Shah Jahan’s rule, constructed the Hasli canal leading off the Ravi which forms the nucleus of the present Upper Bari Doab canal. In the middle of the 19th century when the British took control, there were only a few inundation canals in the area now comprising Pakistan, irrigating some 200,000 acres. By the end of the 19th century, a number of separate inundation systems had been developed for each river. The total irrigated area increased to 3.6 million acres, with a total canal mileage of 4,340 miles. At the end of the 19th century efforts were also made to construct a weir-con- trolled irrigation system. The inundation systems were merged with the various perennial irrigation schemes when these were completed and both are now being fed from the storage dams at Warsak on4 Introduction the river Kabul, Mangla on the river Jhelum and Tarbela on river Indus as well as from the seventeen barrages and head-works. Pakistan’s perennial irrigation system is the world’s third largest, irrigating some 35 million acres with a total canal mileage of 43000 miles and a discharge of 230,000 cusecs (Figure 1.1). In addition, a vast system of link canals was constructed in the 1960s for trans- ferring the waters of the Western rivers Indus, Jhelum and Chenab to the canal systems which used to be fed by the Eastern rivers, Beas, Sutlej and Ravi. There are twenty five small dams which irrigate .05 ma, in addition to about 264,000 tubewells which add 37 maf to canal water supply and ensure the availability of water in dry weather flow. ‘Table 1.1 provides a picture of the development of irrigation the world over during this century. Table 11 Continentwise Irrigated Areas (Million Acres)” 1950 | 1960 247 | 37.1 160.5 |333.5 12.85 | 17.3 North America . 32.1 | 42.0 Sourth America ‘ . 7.4 | 12.0 Australia Oceania . 1.24) 25 * Figures rounded to the first place of decimal. 1.2 Definition Irrigation is the art of applying water to the land by artificial means to fulfill the water requirements of crops in areas where rainfall is insufficient. In addition to supply moisture, it helps crop growth by: i) Cooling the soil and atmosphere and thereby creating a favourable environment. ii) | Washing out or diluting undesirable salts in the soils. iii) Reducing the hazard of soil piping. Irrigation Engineering consists of four phases: i) Storage or diversion.4 Introduction” the river Kabul, Mangla on the river Jhelum and Tarbela on river Indus as well as from the seventeen barrages and head-works. Pakistan's perennial irrigation system is the world’s third largest, irrigating some 36 million acres with a total canal mileage of 43000 miles and a discharge of 230,000 cusecs (Figure 1.1). In addition, a vast system of link canals was constructed in the 1960s for trans- ferring the waters of the Western rivers Indus, Jhelum and Chenab to the canal systems which used to be fed by the Eastern rivers, Beas, Sutlej and Ravi. There are twenty five small dams which irrigate .05 ma, in addition to about 264,000 tubewells which add 37 maf to canal water supply and ensure the availability of water in dry weather flow. ‘Table 1.1 provides a picture of the development of irrigation the world over during this century. Table 1.1 Continentwise Irrigated Areas (Million Acres)’ 1940 | 1950 19.8 | 24.7 123.5 |160.5 9.9 | 12.35 North America .9 | 22.2 | 321 Sourth America : 3.7 | 74 ‘Australia Oceania 07 | 1.24 * Figures rounded to the first place of decimal. 1.2 Definition Irrigation is the art of applying water to the land by artificial means to fulfill the water requirements of crops in areas where rainfall is insufficient. In addition to supply moisture, it helps crop growth by: i) Cooling the soil and atmosphere and thereby creating a favourable environment. ii) Washing out or diluting undesirable salts in the soils. iii) Reducing the hazard of soil piping. Irrigation Engineering consists of four phases: i) Storage or diversion.Scope 5 ii) Conveyance of irrigation water. iii) Distribution and application of irrigation water. iv) Drainage of excess water. Climate in terms of precipitation is the basic factor for determining the need for irrigation. For arid zones (having less than 15 inches of mean annual rainfall) an irrigation system is a necessity. For semi-arid zones (having 15-30 inches of mean annual rainfall) ir- rigation is desirable. For humid zones (having over 30 inches of mean annual rainfall) irrigation is beneficial. It should be borne in mind that in short periods of drought during crop growth, ir- rigation may become necessary to save the crops. Such a situation exists in Bangladesh, a country with high average rainfall with periods of drought during crop growth. 3 35.0 33.0 20.35 w © 3 < é ant g g = 34 02 1850 1880 «= 1910 -=S 1940; «198701990 PERIODS Fig 1.1 Irrigated areas of Pakistan 13 Scope With the world "population explosion" and the demand for additional food, the science of irrigation is likely to become the science of6 Introduction survival. Vast areas of the earth are situated in arid zones and even those in humid zones may not have evenly distributed rainfall. It is only through the artificial application of water that large cul- turable tracks of land can be brought under cultivation. ‘Agalmost whole of the middle-east and greater part of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent is situated in the arid zone with scanty rainfall, ir- rigation science and engineeringis anecessity for survival. Irrigation engineering in alluvial plains of the rivers, like Indus in Pakistan, Ganges in India, Euphrates in Iraq, Helmend in Afghanistan and Tran, Nile in Egypt and river Jordan in Jordan, includes river train- ing works and building of diversion structures called barrages (small diversion dams) on permeable foundation, with the sole purpose to raise the water level and maintain it all the year round to increase the command. In the alluvial plains storage dams are not possible. However they can be built in the upstream river reach in the hilly regions where suitable sites are available. Storage on the river systems regulate and ensure water availability to the irrigated aoeas during dry season through barrages, built in the plains. ‘The irrigation system in the river plains are gravity flow systems in which water is carried by irrigation canals from the barrages to command area. Huge canals of upto 15,000 cusee® have been puilt in the Indus plain, most of them unlined. Canals with such hhuge unlined sections offer a great challenge to the designers and puilders. Even after more than hundred years the first unlined canal was designed, research continues today to find an stable unlined section. Hydraulic structures like canal fall structures, aqueducts, super passage, canal head works, bridges, flues, silt ejecting devices ond outlets are an integral part of the gravity flow irrigation system. Once the irrigation water has passed through the outlets to the fields, knowledge of irrigation methods is a must for an irrigation or agriculture engineer. Various types of methods used for applying water to the land are control flooding, borderstrip, furrow irrigation, basin irrigation, and where energy constraints do not prohibit, sprin- kler and boom type irrigation and drip system. ‘The knowledge of crops, their seasons, consumptive use, soil types, use of chemical and natural fertilizers and interaction between soil, water and crops, is required. Finally a drainage is the last link in a irrigation system to drain the extra water in the rootzone. This is accomplished by open drains, tile drains or by tubewells. There is a dual purpose of tubewells, of lowering the water table and augmenting the ir- rigation supplies. Such a large irrigation system as exists in the‘Scope 7 Indus plain, with so low irrigation efficiencies offer a great challenge and scope for research in the science of irrigation. This is also true for other systems in Egypt, India, Iraq etc. Half a century passed before engineers could successfully design and build a safe barrage on permeable soil. Most of the previous structures were washed away because they were designed on the basis of incorrect theories. E,W. Lane collected the case histories of about 200 dams and weirs which failed because the phenomenon of waterflow through the sub-soil, was not fully understood and the designs had been based on wrong assumptions. Thisis just one example of the many problems which we face in irrigation engineering, problems which can only be resolved by rational analysis and human ingenuity.8 Introduction Questions Define "Irrigation" and write a note on the environmental impact of irrigation. What are the major irrigation works built in Pakistan after the independence. Write a note on the History of Development of Irrigation System of Pakistan. ‘What are the major rivers of the world on which early irrigation systems were first built. Discuss briefly the advantages and disadvantages of an un- lined irrigation system. Compare gravity flow irrigation with sprinkler or drip system. "The inundation system of the Indus plain was merged with the perennial system", comment on the statment.References 9 10. References Keller, Werner, The Bible as History, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1961. Houk, LE., Irrigation Engineering, Vol. 1, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1951. Hansen, V.E., Israelsen, 0.W. and Stringham, G.E., Irrigation Principles and Practices, 4th edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1979. West Pakistan Engineering Congress, "A Hundred Years of P.W.D.", Lahore 1963. Duryabadi A.M., Translation and Commentary of Holy Quran, Vol. Il, Taj Company Ltd., Karachi,1957. Rehman M.H., Qasasul Quran, Nadwatul Mussanifeen Delhi, 1961. Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XIX, 1962. Planning Commission. The Sixth Five Year Plan, 1983-88, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad, 1983. Framji, K.K., Garg, B.C., and Luthra S.D.L. Irrigation and Drainage in the World International Commission on Irrigation & Drainage New Delhi, 3rd Edition, 1982. Planning Commission The Seventh Five Year Plan 1988-93, Government of Pakistan Islamabad, 1988.Water Resources for Irrigation 2.1 Introduction No kind of irrigation engineering work can be undertaken without a knowledge of the sources of water supply. A correct estimate of the water available for irrigation is a precondition for success. The quality as well as the quantity of water has to be assessed before hand and its suitability for irrigation purposes determined, In ad- dition to crop requirements, the maximum flood discharge has to be estimated to ensure that the hydraulic design will be safe. This chapter deals with these topics. Although hydrology is outside the scope of this book, basic concepts in hydrology and unit hydrograph methods are included towards the end of the chapter. 2.2 Water resources The water supply available to agriculture is derived from three main sources; rainfall which occurs directly on the crop areas, surface water from rivers or storage tanks, and usable ground water from12 Water Resources for Irrigation FRESH 2.5% WY (a) Total water 1,360 million Km* ‘SURFACE & ATMOSPHERE 0.4% GROUND WATER 12.5% POLAR + GLACIERS (b) Fresh water 33.5 million Km® ATMOSPHERE 9.3% RIVER 0.9% (c) Surface and atmosphere water 139,220 Km* Fig. 2.1 Total and fresh waterWater resources 13 the aquifers. Rainfall is normally inadequate to sustain more than a very low level of agricultural production, particularly in the semi- arid condition of Pakistan. The irrigation water is a diminishing source in Pakistan and the whole world. Yearly water budget, and availability of water through rains, surface and ground water for irrigation, for Pakistan will be discussed in subsequent pages in little greater detail but let us take a quick look at the global water situation. Table 2.1 below gives global distribution of Fresh and Saline water. The total es- timated amount of water on Earth is 11.0 x 10’ maf{1,360 m.km?) covering about 70% of earth’s surface. Nearly 97.5% of this water is saline, (97.2% contained by the oceans and 0.3% being ground water) and 2.5% is fresh water out of which 0.31% comes from ground water. Table 2.1 Global fresh and saline water Location Water Volume| Water Volume | % of Total (mkm*) mat Water Glaciers and ice caps 23.634x10° 33.761x10° 54.027x10* 10.530x10? Fresh water lakes 10.125x104 ‘Stream Channels (average) 97.20x107 Total 27.67187x10° ‘Saline Water Total Saline water 1,25.614 | 407.375x10" | 97.5249 |(Oceans+Ground water+Lakes) Grand Total = 1359.766 110.131 x 10” 100%14 Water Resources for Irrigation ‘The break down of the fresh water availability is as shown in the figure 2.1. Fig. 2.1 (c) shows the break down of fresh surface water. While the ground water present in deep aquifers is non-renewable, the surface water and water present in shallow aquifers is renewable which is the most important source for future survival. ‘The renewable component of water is about 40500 maf (50,000 km’) which is eternally evaporating from the oceans (86 ercent) and land (14 percent), and again returning to earth as precipitation (mostly rainfall). About 31590 maf (390,000 km.) falls back on the écean and 8910 maf (110,000 km’) rains on earth. The contribution of oceans to the earth in the form of rain is 3240 maf (40,000 km’) per year. [1 km®= 0.81 maf, 1mKm? = 810000 maf] ‘The actual volume of usable water is however 1148.8 maflyear (14,170 km®/year) and till 1972, only 2430 maflyear (3000 km’) wag under human control, while rest can be exploited with proper management and heavy capital outlay for energy and advanced technology. Fig. 2.2 present yearly water budget for Pakistan. There are three main sources of irrigation water viz i) direct rainfall and melting snow ii) surface water (mainly rivers) and iii) ground water (fresh). 2.3 Rainfall Rainfall can directly help irrigation by precipitation occurring over the crop area or indirectly by adding its runoff to the rivers. The runoff is then stored by weir, barrage or dam downstream or it may replenish an underground reservoir. Here we will confine our- selves to the first point, and deal with the subsequent points later. Direct rainfall is most helpful for plant growth if it occurs in the proper time. Unfortunately, itis unreliable as a source of irrigation water, It varies from year to year; likely it may fail altogether. It ie irregularly distributed throughout the year as well as within the same season. In Pakistan particularly, it occurs during the summer months when the temperature is high and evaporation Joss is great and as it mostly occurs in the form of heavy showers the runoff is heavy. Inspite of these draw backs, direct rainfall is a great booster for agriculture and therefore a must in whatever quantity it occurs. Further it is ultimately the rains and snow on which depends the availability of water in the canal systems. In Pakistan the monsoons are over before the Kharif crops (April to September) and before the Rabi (October to March) has been sown in October / November. Therefore barani areas (rain fed) with noRainfall 15 W3SWALdaS - Wav = NOSW3S 4IKVH e HON - 4380190 = NOSVAS lavi!'z onnrauvHosi VA wad JV NI UY SaUNOLS THY === Sa ‘SB10N ———SovGNS GNNOWD MOTIE DC OL SS av WalvM "AWN Te = (wa 008A NMS ATHOIH ‘AYINS = (iNdd 0O0E - 0001) HSLWA SNITS "AVA P1 = (widd ooot>) SNIIYS HSS HIOAHASAY UBLVM GNNOUS sa1ald ‘BOuvHOSIG 55) y STWNYS) SOEVHOSIT SasuN0O UALVM] STVNVONTT | _ ouvert _| SNIVH ® USA SZ, coe est iy t 1 aDvd 338 £08 €—NOUNSILLNOD iE 7am yee 4— mors sINvH Pee eee fee vee 42— = morsiave FIELDS AVNSZEL = WLOL, we yor @VN3HO USA, wav] sasunoof Av Oz sram_|uaivm_| TYNVO_| Saale AWW O12 WOHar HATH AVN0'08: ‘SMGNI SAI, NOLLWHOEWAS Fig 2.2 Water budget of Pakistan16 Water Resources for Irrigation canal or well irrigation totally depends on the occurrence of rain for growing Rabi crops. For canal irrigated areas rains compliment the irrigation water. In Pakistan the mean annual rainfall ranges from less than 4 inches in parts of the lower Indus region to more than 30 inches in the northern foot-hills. Of this annual rainfall only a small proportion makes any useful or direct contribution to irrigation water supplies. ‘According to consultants report of the World Bank the figure ranges from 1 to 17 inches. The rest is either surface runoff or addition to the ground water reservoir whilst some is lost by evaporation. It is estimated that the present direct contribution to the crops is 6 maf per annum. 2.4 Surface water In the dry months melting snow adds a large volume of water to the river discharge. Snow remaining on the ground provides storage far greater than any man-made reservoir, for 1 foot of snow holds between 1 to 4 inches of water. Snowfall usually occurs over many square miles of mountainous terrain, providing a surface reservoir which is then released in the summer months. When and how fast this vast quantity of water is released is important for the irrigation engineer. Pakistan's rivers carry the melting snow and rains from the northern hills down to the plains where they can be used for irrigation. From mid-March to mid-July (when the monsoon breaks) the river discharges derive mainly from melting snow. From mid-July to September rain water adds to the volume. ‘The various rivers have individual characteristics, as indicated in Fig 2.3, but all of them rise in July or August. From November to February the discharge is very low, amounting to about 10 percent of the summer discharge. The total mean annual river discharge of Pakistan amounts to 133 maf per annum (an average of 1962 to 1982). OF this, about 32 maf is discharged into the sea, some is lost in evaporation, and some is lost through infiltration to ground water reservoir, The entire culturable command area (CCA) of the Indus plain is 39.6 million acres in Pakistan which would require a perennial water supply of about 202 maf to develop an irrigation intensity of about 120%. It is evident that even the fullest develop- ment of surface water flow would not meet the requirements of the CCA. In fact, out of the CCA’s 39.6 million acres, only 25 million acres are being supplied with surface water. The rest, clas- sified as culturable waste, is mainly in the lower Indus plain.Ground water 17 JEHLUM INDUS 99 MAF DISCHARGE 8 z 5 J TIME(MONTHS) pb CHENAB DISCHARGE 26 MAF DISCHARGE ———— J =D TIME (MONTHS) D Me NIE) Fig. 2.3 River hydrograph of Indus, Chenab and Jhelum It is evident from these facts that any further development of the surface water flow must be achieved by storage schemes which can store the large summer discharge so that it can be used in winter. Although Pakistan has relatively poor dam sites for creating water reservoirs, dams are essential, for example inspite of a poor and problematic site the Tarbela dam on river Indus was successfully completed (1975) and its reservoir has played a great role in steady- ing the supply of irrigation water. The proposed Kalabagh dam 100 miles down-stream of Tarbela will further enhance the stability of irrigation water supplies. 2.5 Ground water After rainfall and surface water, ground water is the next most important water source for irrigation. In hilly areas, this in form of springs, artesian wells, etc., may be the only water source. Again, in very dry and sandy areas where surface water is unavailable and rainfall is sudden and untimely, the only source is ground water, In such areas, ground water is tapped by infiltration galleries or by underground tunnels intercepting the ground water table. In areas where a perennial river system flows through alluvium, the ground water supply may be in the form of open wells or tube-wells. Using ground water by sinking tube-wells may seem to be a direct and rapid way of meeting immediate irrigation water requirements, However, not all of the available ground water may be suitable for irrigation use. Water quality may be problem in some areas and detailed investigations are needed before ground water resources can be developed fully. Ground water is generally inferior to surface water because it often contains a large amount of salt which makes it unsuitable for the purpose of irrigation.18 Water Resources for Irrigation Table 2.2 Estimate of ground water recharge in Pakistan (Nazir Ahmed) Usable Ground Water Northern Southern Total Zone (maf) | Zone (maf) (maf) Recharge from rainfall 23 02 Recharge from rivers 19 12 3.1 Canal seepage 16.8 74 24.2 Water course, seepage 34 13 44 Field infiltration 8.5 3.5 Sub-Total 32.6 13.6 46.2 Non-Usable Ground Water Grand Total ‘The Indus plains are composed of deep alluvial deposits which form an extensive ground water aquifer of 40 million acres. Before the canal system came into existence, the recharge was estimated at 10 maf annually, mainly in the north, and was balanced by the outflow in various forms. After the large scale construction of canal eystems at the turn of the century, the present recharge is estimated to be 41.9 maf. A detailed breakdown is given in Table 2.2. Table, 2.3 Ground water withdrawls (Planning Commission) Type of Tubewell Fresh ground water pumped in maf per annum Public sector irrigation tube-wells (1569) 0.6 Private tube-wells (181200) 263 Scarp tube-wells (12,608) Open wells, Persian wheels outside the Indus plain 1.0 Total delivery With this enormous recharge, the water table has risen to within 10 feet of the surface over almost half the canal irrigated area,Quality of water 19 and in 13% of the canal-irrigated area the ground water is within 5 feet of the surface. The result is water-logging in 5.2 million acres of irrigated land in pre-monsoon season (June), rising to 12.4 ma, in post-monsoon ie. in October. Never the less, it offers a vast ground water potential which could be exploited for irrigation. The Indus plain forms the main ground water reservoir. Elsewhere there are individual and scattered aquifers not fit for tube-well exploita- tion. The Bannu basin, the Warsak-Peshawar area, and the Potwar plateau offer some ground water potential and is being exploited by public and private tube-wells. A breakdown of the volume of ground water used for irrigation in Pakistan upto the year 1983 is as follows: Evidently, ground water exploitation can be further developed to offset Pakistan’s surface water shortage. Whereas ground water can be exploited by individuals, with quick results and without large initial capital investment, surface water schemes demand both work on a gigantic scale and enormous capital investment. 2.6 Quality of water Some water may not be fit for crops. It can contain salts which may be injurious to crop growth. Therefore it is necessary to deter- mine the suitability of water before deploying it for irrigation pur- poses. %0 40 30 MEQ 72 100 200 300 500 1000 2000 3000 5000 CONDUCTIVITY (micro-mho/cm) Fig. 2.4 Relationship between salt concentration and conductivity20 Water Resources for Irrigation Rainfall occurring directly on the crop area offers the purest water. Surface water is the next best. However surface water in rivers or storage reservoirs may pick-up certain salts while flowing over the land tracts containing the salts. The problem of water quality is more acute in the case of ground water. Ground water reservoirs are built up as a result of seepage from surface water or rainfall, and the percolating water collects soluble salts from the various formations it passes through. 2.7 Methods of indicating quality 1. By electrical conductivity (EC) Pure water is a nonconductor of electricity. Ionization of pure water is of the order of 107" gm ions per litre. Soluble salts ionize in water and make it a better conductor. Therefore, with an increase in soluble salts the conductivity increases, the salt concentration to conductivity relation being linear. The salt concentration is in- dicated in terms of conductance for a unit volume of water expressed as EC, mho per cm, assuming that the area of cross-section is equal to 1 sq. em, Water conductivity being very low, the normal unit used is the milli-mho, i.e., 1/1000 mho, or the micromho per cm, ice., 1/1,000,000 mho. 2. Concentration of cations or anions by weight. If an electric current is passed between two electrodes through water containing salt, say NaCl, then ions or sodium, being positive, are drawn towards the cathode (connected to negative of the battery) and chlorine towards annode. Ions depositing on the cathode, e.g. Na are called cations and those depositing on the anode e.g. chlorine Table 2.4 Cations and anions in water Equivalent Weight in gms Cations 20.04 Calcium (Ca)"* 12.16 Magnesium (Mg)"* 23.00 Sodium (Na)* 39.10 Potassium (K)* Anions Carbonate (COs) Bicarbonate (NCOs) Sulphate (SOz) Chloride (Cl) 30.00 61.01 48.03 35.46_aneen Salt concentration and its limit for irrigation water 21 are called anions. Calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and hydrogen are examples of cations. The equivalent weights of cations and anions normally found in water are given. The concentration of salts, anions or cations in solution can be expressed in terms of 1/1000s of the equivalent weight in one litre of solution, ie. concentration meq/litre (milli-equivalent per litre). For example, when it is said that calcium concentration is 10 meqj/litre, it would mean that 10/1000 x 20.04 = 200 mg of calcium is present in one litre of solution. 3. Parts per million (ppm) This gives the concentration of salts by weight in a certain weight of solution. If the specific gravity of the solution is taken as one, the obvious meg/litre is equal to parts per million (1 litre being equal to 1000 gms). For irrigation water the salt content is also expressed as tons of salt per acre foot of water. Fig 2.4 gives the inter-relationship between EC, meg/ and ppm [600 ppm = 1000 micro-mhos/em and 5 megqj/l = 500 micro-mhos/em). 2.8 Salt concentration and its limit for irrigation water The main salt constituents which matter for irrigation water have been tabulated above (Table 2.4), other minor constituents which may be presentare aluminium, boron, silicon and sulphide, Irrigation water may be acidic or alkaline, depending on the hydrogen con- centration. The water may be soft or hard but this is not as important as it would be in domestic and industrial context, although hard water is more beneficial than soft for irrigation. There are about ninety or more elements found in plants, but only twenty elements contribute to the growth. The major nutrients are a) _ Nitrogen, posphorus, potassium, (primary) and calcium, magnesium and sulphur (secondary) are provided by soil and fertilizers. ‘The micro nutrients are b) Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (supplied by water and air) and iron, zinc, manganese, boron, copper, molyb- denum (by soils). The trace-elements as they are called listed in (b) above if exceed the safe limit, will damage the plant growth and reduce the yield. For example excess of sodium is injurious to plant growth and also chemically reacts and reduces soil permeability. Excess of potassium22 Water Resources for Irrigation may have the same effects as sodium. On the other hand excess of calcium and magnesium are not injurious to plant and improves soil permeability. Excess of nitrogen, increases the fruit size, but make them tasteless. Of the four anions listed in Table 2.4 chloride and sulphates are injurious to plant growth. Chlorides are more injurious than sul- phates. Water with nitrates and bicarbonates of calcium and mag- nesium is good for irrigation, whereas water with chlorides and sulphates of sodium is undesirable. The total salt content, (table 2.5) gives a reasonably correct idea of irrigation water qualities. This table is after Schofield and is based on total salt content, sodium percentage and concentration meq/l of chloride and sulphate. Table. 2.5 Quality of irrigation water (Schofiled) Water Total dissolved salts Concentration classification meq/l Ecx10> ppm Sodium %|Chloride] Sul- phates Excellent less than] 25 175 20 Good 25-75 | 175-525 | 20-40 47 Permissible 75-200 | 525-1400 | 40-60 | 7-12 200-300 1400-2100 Unsuitable more 300 2100 than Chlorides being more injurious than sulphates, some authors propose slightly lower permissible limits for them than for sulphates. Christiansen etal (table 2.6) have prepared another guide for the quality of irrigation water, including exchangeable sodium, sodium carbonates, SAR and boron in addition to the parameters given in Table 2.5. Water rated number 1 in the above table would be considered as excellent and at number 6 unusable for agriculture under any management or drainage condition, Use of irrigation water also lar- gely depends upon the type of crops to be grown. The water used for date palm (salt tolerant) can be highly saline (upto 3000 ppm) while it is unusable for lemon or orange. Coconuts and ‘Kallar grass’ can be grown on water as saline as sea water (30,000 to 34,000 ppm).Quality of water in the Indus plain 23 Table 2.6 Quality of irrigation water (Christiansen) EC Micro-mho/em 500 2000 2.9 Quality of water in the Indus plain : 2.9.1 Surface water quality As already said surface water in Pakistan does not pose any problem as regards quality. Nevertheless, a brief survey of this topic is given, as at some places saline ground water is used mixed with fresh water, therefore a knowledge of surface water quality becomes important. From the study and chemical analysis of river water the following conclusions may be drawn: (Refer table 2.7). i) River water contains soluble salts, the contents of which vary for each river depending on its catchment area, its source of supply and the season of the year. ii) Salt content is higher in winter when the river discharge is at its lowest. iii) Salt content is lowest in summer when river discharge is high due to the monsoon. iv) Salt content increases downstream. v) The salt content of rivers in Pakistan, irrespective of time and place is low enough for the water to be used for irrigation. .2 Ground water quality le main ground water reservoir in Pakistan lies under the Indus in. Ground water is available in the North, in the Bannu basin, Warsak-Peshawar area and the Potwar Plateau, but no quan- ‘titative assessment has yet been made. We shall therefore confine ourselves to the quality of ground water in the Indus plain. IACA24 Water Resources for Irrigation Table 2.7 Chemcial analysis of river water December, 1957 and 1980 (in paranthesis) River and sample ons meg Conductivity location Mg | Na+K|HCOs} CL | SOs ECx10°25°C Kabul at Jehangira 1.99 | 1.52 | 8.02 | 0.84] 092 (1:92)] (1.8) | 8.00) | 0.65) (1.80) Indus at Attock 074} oss | 293 | 037/037 {0.82)| (0.709 2.10) | (0.9) (1.10} (188) Jhelum at Mangia os4 | 038 | 235 | 0.15] 0.92] 170 {0.81)| (0.39) (8.05) |(0:30) (0.10) (188) Chenab at Marela 074 | 1.05 | 243 | 0.10] 0.10] 224 Ravi at Jassar 072 | 1.04 | 318 | 0.15] 0.15] 236 Sulte} at Gandasingh- 0.41 | 1.18 | 218 | 0.40] 040] 228 wala (in November) (Irrigation and Agriculture Consultants Association) has concluded that water containing not more than 1000 ppm of total dissolved solids is suitable for direct use on crops. In their opinion, in most cases the 1000 ppm criterion also covers an acceptable level for the other criteria and is therefore a safe condition. On the basis of this criteria World Bank Consultants, have estimated that in Pakistan’s 14.2 million acres of the canal-irrigated area lie over ground water of good quality which can be used directly for irrigation, and another 4.5 million acres lie over ground water which can be used for irrigation after dilution with canal water. Based on the salinity at 300 feet depth they have divided the CCA in the Indus Plain into the following three zones: i) Fresh water zone Ground water containing not more than 1000 ppm of dissolved salts. ii) Mixing zone Ground water containing more than 1000 ppm of salts and less than 3000 ppm, in all areas except lower Sind where the limit is 2000ppm; this is due to the increase in salinity with depth and the higher salt content of the river water. In this zone tubewell water has to be mixed with canal water to lower the salt content before being used for irrigation.Quality of water in the Indus plain 25 Table. 2.8 F Fresh, mixing and saline water zones in Pakistan Zone in million acres | S. No. Regions Fresh | Mixing | Saline a. Peshawar and Swat Valley 0.58 0.10 = 2. Thal Doab and Indus right bank 2.03 0.99 06 3. ‘Chaj Doab 1.19 0.36 0.49 4. Rachna Doab 3.37 8.84 0.49 5. Bari Doab 3.95 1.34 0.54 6. Bahawalpur 1.29 0.47 1.75 a Lower Indus 0.45 4.55 iii) Saline water zone Ground water containing more than 3000 ppm in general, more than 2000 ppm in lower Sind area is included in this zone. The water is excessively saline and is not suitable for irrigation purposes. It will be observed that the doabs (watershed between two rivers) have larger fresh water areas whereas Bahawalpur and Sind have larger saline water zones. The reasons are i) Before the coming of the canal system, the seepage of fresh water from rivers was the main source for the doabs. In doabs which are bounded by two rivers, fresh water from the two sides washed away the saline water and pushed it into deeper zones. At some places clay lenses may obstruct the flow and some saline water pock- ets are to be found. ii) The canal system may have changed the pattern and added to the inflow of fresh water. iii) The soil in this area is generally more permeable, thus facilitating the infiltration of fresh water and the pushing down of saline water. iv) In Sind, Bahawalpur and along the right bank of the Indus, the old existing saline water zone was pushed away from the river side. Fresh water zones are therefore located along the river.26 Water Resources for Irrigation y) With very low rainfall and high evaporation, the chances of salts being washed down are almost negligible. vi) Compared with the north, the soils in the south are heavier, thereby obstructing subsoil flow. As a result, larger areas of saline water exist in the south. The table 2.9 gives a complete analysis of the ground water of Rachna doab, (area lying between rivers Ravi and Chenab). Table. 2.9 Chemical analysis of some samples of groundwater in Rachna Doab. 2.10 Basic hydrology ‘To the irrigation engineer concerned with the planning, design and construction of hydraulic structures in a irrigation system, hydrology is an indispensable tool. While he has to depend on a hydrologist to provide the details of runoff and therefore floods, their frequency, intensity, peak and duration and the total yield etc, he must have the knowledge of basic principles of hydrology. It is with this view that following basic principles are being discussed. Hydrological process consists of; i) Precipitation ii) Evaporation and evopo-transpiration iii) Infiltration iv) Runoff For the purposes of the hydraulic structure design and operation the runoff from the catchments and ultimately flowing into rivers is most important. Runoff no doubt depends on the other factors i.e. precipitation, evaporation, infiltration and evopotranspiration, however here we will confine to the discussion of estimation of runoff which determines theBasic hydrology 27 i) storage and yield, and ii) spillway or barrage discharge capacity for a hydraulic structure. ‘The term runoff designates all water that drains from overland flow or subterranean passage into surface channels. Runoffis, there- fore, the water remaining from precipitation after the losses from evaporation, transpiration and seepage into the ground. Estimating runoff is necessary for two purposes: i) for determining the storage or yield available. ii) for calculating inflow design floods. 2.10.1 By empirical formulae _ There are many formulas given by different authors, being empirical they may not produce accurate results and are being given here as academic information: a. R = KP. Values of K for Urban areas: Areas Value of K i) Commercial 0.90 ii) Asphaltic concrete 0.85 iii) Garden 0.50 iv) Single House 0.30 v) Forested 0.05 = 0.2 vi) Farmland, pasture 0.05 - 0.3 2. Khosla’s formula T ee ee 37 Cc 3. Justin's formula R = 0.9345 S uasies where R= Mean annual runoff in inches. S = Slope of the catchment area (maximum difference of level divided by the square root of the area). T = Annual temperature in °F (mean). C = Constant. P = Average annual rainfall in inches.28 Water Resources for Irrigation Khosla’s formula is applicable to the Punjab and the Northern areas of the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent. A rational form of Khosla’s formula is based on the concept that the only losses are by evaporation and transpiration and that the water that infiltrates ultimately finds its way into the stream. ‘Therefore when evaporation and transpiration losses are deducted from precipitation, first runoff is obtained. Evaporation is affected by temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity, hours of sunlight etc., and transpiration by the type and density of vegetation in the area. According to Khosla, the most important of these factors is mean temperature, and therefore the temperature alone comes into the formula. er ePsetl where R,, = monthly runoff in inches P,, = monthly precipitation in inches Ly, = monthly losses in inches Tao 82 i and 1, 2 USSe whee Te 408 T,, stands for mean monthly temperature in degrees PE sory. less than 40 °F the loss may be assumed as follows: a 40 30 20 10 0 °F ae 0.8 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 inches ‘The formula for annual rainfall P, and annual runoff R,, with mean annual temperature T,, will be R, = P,-XT, Where X is a constant for the given catchment. The value of X for a number of catchment in the USA obtained by comparing the above formula against observed data was found to be nearly 0.50. ‘The value of X can be determined easily from observed records or even one year of rainfall, runoff and temperature. 2.10.2 Determination of runoff by infiltration index Runoff over a long period can be determined if the infiltration rate of the given area is known. As the rainfall occurs on the ground surface, part of it infiltrates into the ground and the rest forms the runoff, Initial infiltration is heavy but gradually reduces to a minimum constant value. It depends upon the moisture present in the soil and the soil’sBasic hydrology 29 physical condition. However for all practical purposes an average constant value of infiltration index is determined to calculate the runoff, when rainfall begins, a certain period elapses before runoff occurs. This part of the rainfall which does not produce any runoff is termed initial loss. After the initial loss is accounted for, there will be surface runoff if the rainfall continues in excess of infiltration. ‘The infiltration curve is shown in figure 2.5 below and its equation is given by Horton as. RAINFALL & INFILTRATION (inftrs.). TIME (hr) Fig. 2.5 Infiltration & runoff ignoring evaporation & retention Py =) eat Eomtaee t ‘ F = J f = 7 fer (fo — fe) o** dts 0 0 E Where f = infiltration rate at any time t (in/hr) f. = infiltration capacity after long time (in/hr) fo infiltration capacity initial at t = 0 (ihr) t time from beginning of rainfall (min) k= constant for a particular soil and surface (min) F = cumulative infiltration after time t Phillip suggested the equation 12 prgebte aan) 2EDINA Hn 30 Water Resources for Irrigation Table 2.9 Value of k, fo and fe for different soil types (Wilson) Soil Type fo in/hr fe in/hr k(miny" (mm/nr) (mm/hr) i Standard agricultural 11.02 (280) 0.24 — 8.66 1.6 (bare) soil (6 — 220) Standard agriculture 35.43 (900) |0.79 — 11.42 (turfed) soit (20 - 290) 12.79 (325) 0.08 — 0.98 (2 - 20) 8.27 (210) 0.08 — 0.98 (2 — 25) Fine Sandy 26.38 (670) 0.39 - 1.18 14 Clay (turfed) (10 — 30) Intergration of the above equation with respect to time gives cumula- tive infiltration F at time t as F = bt’? +at, where a and b are to be determined experimentally using infiltrometer (Fig 2.6) 5 Ft aA. INNER RING bas Fig. 2.6 Infiltrometer 2.10.3 © Index Difficulties with theoretical approach to infiltration has led to the use of infiltration indexes, and the simplest of these is the ® index. ‘This is defined as an average rate of loss so that the volume of rainfall in excess of this rate will be equal to the volume of surface runoff. © index can be determined for catchment for which a rainfall storm and resulting runoff are measured quantities. In figure 27 a histogram is plotted on a time base. The shaded area represents runoff in inches or mm over the catchment area. The unshadedBasic hydrology 31 area below the dashed line represents all the losses consisting of: i) surface detention ii) evaporation and iii) infiltration RAINFALL INTENSITY (in/hrs.) STORM LOSSES. TIME (hrs.) Fig 2.7 © index ‘The infiltration is the largest of the three and neglecting i) and ii), because this is an approximate method (since variation of f has also been ignored), the unshaded area therefore represents infiltra- tion only. Example 2.1 For a catchment area the rain storm shown in the figure 2.8 produced a total depth of 4.5 inches and a surface runoff was measured as 2.0 inches. It is desired to find ® index for the catchment. Solution @ line can be drawn graphically such that the area below the & line in the figure will yield infiltration of (4.5 — 2.0) = 2.5 inches. Alternately let @ index be w. The area under ® line would be w x (time) ie. ~ bw = 25 in w = 0.5 iwhr Since this value of « exceeds the rainfall in the first hour therefore infiltration in the first hour can not be 0.5 in/hr and therefore we have to write the equation again as- Basic hydrology 31 area below the dashed line represents all the losses consisting of: i) surface detention ii) evaporation and iii) infiltration RAINFALL INTENSITY (in/hrs.) ‘STORM LOSSES TIME (hrs.) Fig 2.7 © index The infiltration is the largest of the three and neglecting i) and ii), because this is an approximate method (since variation of f has also been ignored), the unshaded area therefore represents infiltra- tion only. Example 2.1 For acatchment area the rain storm shown in the figure 2.8 produced a total depth of 4.5 inches and a surface runoff was measured as 2.0 inches. It is desired to find ® index for the catchment. Solution ® line can be drawn graphically such that the area below the ® line in the figure will yield infiltration of (4.5 — 2.0) = 2.5 inches. Alternately let © index be w. The area under © line would be w x (time) ie. © bw = 25 in w = 0.5 in/hr Since this value of ® exceeds the rainfall in the first hour therefore infiltration in the first hour can not be 0.5 in/hr and therefore we have to write the equation again as82 Water Resources for Irrigation 0.25 x 1+ w,x4 = 25 in w = 0.55 in/hr RAIN FALL (in/hrs.) ° 1 2 3 4 5 TIME (hrs.) Fig 2.8 Histogram for example 2.1 The value 0.55 for ® exceeds the rainfall that occurs in the last hour (0.54 in), therefore make another trial 0.25 x1+0.5x1+w,x38 = 2.5 in ws = 0.58 in/hr the correct value for ® index = 0.58 in/hr Once the ® index is known, the runoff for any rainfall storm may be calculated, or this value of ® can be adopted for similar catchment and runoff can be evaluated. 2.10.4 The unit hydrograph method ‘The unit hydrograph is defined by Sherman as the hydrograph of surface runoff (not including ground water runoff) on a given basin due to effective rain falling for a unit of time. The unit of time to be used depends upon the area of the drainage basin but in all cases it should be less than the time elapsing from the occurrence of the rain to the peak of the flow. It may be a day or less for medium size areas. Ibis a valuable and efficient tool for analysing run off and computing peak discharge and flood volume when the only other data available is depth and distribution of rainfall.