DON’T FORGET!

September 20th: 

Backgrounds Quiz – part 2 due
Mini‐project part 1 due

Ensure your clicker is registered!

NOTE: September 19th is course Add/Drop day
EOSC 114 Earthquakes
with Dr Lucy Porritt

“Labrynth – Earthquake ft. Tinie
Tempah
 Earthquakes

•Lecture 1 – Why and how the Earth moves

Lecture 2 - Plate tectonics and plate boundaries

•Lecture 3 - Seismology, earthquake magnitude/intensity

•Lecture 4 – Earthquake hazards and mitigation

•Lecture 5 – Earthquake forecasting and survival

 Todays Learning Goals
1. Relate the Earth’s layering to plate tectonics and earthquakes

2. Describe the global distribution of earthquakes 

3. Link brittle and ductile deformation to where earthquakes happen

4. Distinguish between the three main types of faults (normal, reverse, strike‐slip) 
and identify the stresses that cause each

5. Compare/contrast the 3 types of plate tectonic boundaries (divergent, 
convergent, and transform) 

6. Explain plate boundary / fault associations
 Forces acting on the plates
• Basal Drag:
• friction between rigid lithosphere and the more  ductile 
asthenosphere drags the plate along
Gravity pulls
plates apart
• Slab Pull:
• cold descending plate is denser than
the hot mantle
• gravity pulls dense plate down

• Ridge “Push”:
• heating at the rift raises the ridge crest
• gravity pulls the elevated plates down
and apart
Terms are different for plate boundaries vs. types of faults!
Rocky Mountains
Large‐scale reverse faults, called thrust faults!
 Faults
Force Fault type Plate Boundary
Compression Reverse and Thrust Faults Convergent

shortening

Compression: Hanging wall is thrust up over the footwall
Plate shortens and thickens – it is compressed
 Up
Small‐scale reverse fault

Compression: Hanging wall is thrust up over the footwall
 Faults
Force (Stress) Fault type Plate Boundary
Tension Normal Fault Divergent

extension

Tension: Hanging wall is dragged down over the footwall
Plate extends and thins – it is stretched
 Up

Tension: Hanging wall is dragged down over the footwall
Crust is extended or stretched
 Faults
Force (Stress) Fault type Plate Boundary
Shear Strike‐Slip Fault Transform
(horizontal slip)

Shear: Nearly vertical 
fault plane – motion 
horizontal
No extension or 
shortening
 1906 San Francisco Earthquake

USGS
 Many slips on fault over centuries…
North
Pacific
American
Plate
Plate

San Andreas Fault, CA USGS
 Clicker Question?
Up What type of fault is this?
A) Normal
B) Reverse
C) Strike-Slip
D) Fashion
 Clicker Question?
What type of fault is this?
A) Normal
B) Reverse/Thrust
C) Strike-Slip
D) Dietary
 Clicker Question?
What type of fault is this?

A) Normal
B) Thrust or Reverse
C) Strike‐Slip
D) A or C
E) B or C
 Question?
What information do you need to  help you 
work it out?

?
?
?
?
 Clicker Question?
What type of strain or deformation did rock 
undergo?

A) Brittle
B) Ductile
C) Both
 Need more help?

Fault Animations
http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science
/terc/content/visualizations/es1103/es1103page
01.cfm

www.iris.edu
http://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/search#type=1
Good to take a quick look through – nice visuals.
Illapel, Chile, 2015 ‐ 8.3 Convergent (Subduction)

Southern Mexico, 2017 – 8.1  Convergent (Subduction)
 Basic Rules (1)

• Plates are in continuous motion – force (stress) is applied 
slowly but continuously
• Rocks gradually deform (strain)
• Faulting is a brittle failure can only occur in the lithosphere
• The asthenosphere and mantle are too hot and ductile to for 
brittle faulting to occur
 Basic Rules (2)
Convergent boundaries are the STRONGEST
• Cool rock and in compression
• More time deforming before brittle failure
• Largest maximum earthquake size! (8.5‐9.7)

Transform boundaries are in the middle
• Generally  warm‐to‐cool rock and in shear
• Moderate time deforming before brittle failure
• Maximum earthquake size! (8.0‐8.5)

Divergent boundaries are the WEAKEST
• Hot rock and in tension
• Least time deforming before brittle failure
• Smallest maximum earthquake size! (6.5‐7.0)
 General Plate Boundaries
1. Divergent      2. Convergent    3. ‘Transform’
Basic Rules
 General Plate Boundaries
1. Divergent
a. Oceanic               Oceanic plate spreading
b. Continental               Continental plate spreading
 Divergent Plate Boundaries

‐ lithosphere created
‐ 2 plates spread apart across a rift
‐ rift = spreading centre  (a long volcano)

• Two plates spread apart across a rift zone
• Rift zone = a long, linear volcano

• New oceanic lithosphere created
• oceanic crust from partially melted asthenosphere
• lower mantle portion from cooled asthenosphere
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
 Divergent Plate Boundary Earthquakes

Force/Fault?          Tension so ‘normal’ faults

Depth range?
Very shallow!   It’s hot, so thin lithosphere
or the thickness
< 30 km(?) but most in the upper 5 km
of the lithosphere

x x x x x x x
x
xx x x x xx x
x x x xx
Crust 7 km x x x
x
x ? Lithosphere  ~30 km?
?
asthenosphere
?
 Divergent Plate Boundary Earthquakes
Force/ Fault? Tension/Normal

Depth range?        Very shallow!   It’s hot, so thin lithosphere.
< 30 km (and most in the upper 5 km)
‐ lithosphere created
Maximum ‘Size’? Not very big. The lithosphere is hot & weak.
‐ 2 plates spread apart across a rift
Maximum ~ M6‐M7 (rare)
‐ rift = spreading centre  (a long volcano)
Frequency of  Frequent (weak rock, lots of little quakes)
larger quakes?  

Locations? Mid‐ocean ridges: e.g., Mid‐Atlantic Ridge

Risk? Very low for a mid‐ocean, undersea ridge…
Continental crust can rift too….

Rising asthenosphere
Normal Faulting starts to really melt here

Continental thinning and rifting ‐ extension
Continental crust can rift too….
 Continental crust can rift too….

• Examples of continental rifting?
• East African Rift
Continental Rifting in Africa

Eurasian
Arabian Plate
Plate

African
Plate

Mt. Kilimanjaro

Topography
 General Plate Boundaries
2. Convergent
a. Subduction
• Oceanic                    Oceanic plates
• Oceanic                    Continental plates
b. Collision
• Continental                         Continental plates

Sonja Dehler
 Convergent Plate Boundaries

a) Oceanic Plate ‐ Continental Plt. convergence
b) Oceanic Plate ‐ Oceanic Plate convergence
c) Continental Plate  ‐ Continental Plate convergence

compression

Sonja Dehler
 Clicker Question??

Why is it always the oceanic plate that 
is subducted?

Continental crust cannot be subducted because it:

A) Is much less dense than mantle rock

B)    Is too old and cold compared to the mantle rock

C)  Is pushed up by volcanism
 Convergent Plate Boundaries

Subduction: 
• Only oceanic plates subduct
• Continental crust is too buoyant
• If two oceanic plates converge, the oldest subducts
• Older, more time to cool, more dense

Subduction
 Convergent Plate Boundary Earthquakes

Where do the subduction zone earthquakes occur?

What locations? What depths?

The location matters…the further away or deeper the rupture,

the less damage

Subduction
 North American
Plate

Japan

Eurasian
Plate

Pacific Plate
Philippine
Plate
 Eurasian
Pacific Plate
Plate

Japan

Eurasian asthenosphere
Philippine
Plate Plate
Earthquake locations 1) On the plate interface
in subduction zones 2) In the overriding plate
3) Within the downgoing
lithosphere (plate)
coastline trench

surface
Eurasian Plate - Japan

100 km

200 km

300 km Big ‘interface’ or megathrust

earthquakes are typically
400 km offshore.

500 km The other 2 types can be

600 km much closer to population
centres.
 Convergent Plate Boundary Earthquakes
Depth range and locations of earthquakes?
• in the lithosphere (as always)
1. on the interface between the two plates
2. broadly dispersed within the overriding plate (compressed and bent)
3. within the downgoing plate
• bending and compression in the upper 100 km
• many causes from 100-750 km (bending, tension, metamorphism)
• no earthquakes deeper than ~750 km (too ductile)

Subduction
 Subduction Plate Boundary Earthquakes
Force/ Fault? Compression / thrust or reverse

Depth range?        Three zones! But 0 to ~650 km

Biggest! The lithosphere is cold and strong.
Maximum ‘Size’? Maximum ~ Mw 8.5‐Mw 9.7 

Frequency of  Very infrequent for the big ones….RP centuries
larger quakes?  
3 zones
Locations? 1) plate interface (megathrust 25‐40 km depth)
2) overriding plate (up to ~50 km depth)
3) Downgoing slab (up to 650 km depth)

Risk? Depends! Population density, vulnerability, 
distance from hypocentre
 Convergent Plate Boundaries

a) Oceanic Plate ‐ Continental Plate convergence

b) Oceanic Plate ‐ Oceanic Plate convergence
c) Continental Plate – Continental Plate convergence
 Continent – Continent Collision

• Collision occurs, plates fuse:

• major deformation (mountain building)
• thickening of crust (up to 70 km)
• Cool – brittle – compression – very large earthquakes
• Not much volcanism
• e.g. The Himalaya
Continent – Continent Collision Earthquakes
Force?  Compression

Depth range?      Most in the upper 50km, but definitely <200km       

Width of zone?    Very broad, well back into the overriding plate

Frequency? Can be infrequent (long return periods)

Maximum ‘Size’?  High. Potential for major‐great earthquakes

Risk?                    High. High hazard and
often populated.
 General Plate Boundaries

3. Transform
a. Oceanic               Oceanic plates
b. Oceanic               Continental plates
c. Continental              Continental plates

The lithosphere at these 
boundaries is neither created 
nor destroyed
 Transform Plate Boundaries
Adjacent plates grind past each other
• Shear stresses 
The boundary ‘transforms’ motion – allows offsets.
Divergent Boundary

Transform Boundary

Divergent Boundary
 Transform Plate Boundaries
Adjacent plates grind past each other
• strike‐slip fault motion
No creation or destruction of lithosphere
‘Transforms’ motion. Allows offsets.
Little volcanism

Can be:
• Oceanic-Oceanic
• Oceanic-Continental
• Cont.-Cont.
 Transform Plate Boundary Earthquakes
Force?  Shear

Depth range?      Most in the upper 50km, but some to 100km       

Width of zone?     Often narrow, but fault zone can be complex

Maximum ‘Size’?  High. Potential for major earthquakes (<M8)

Frequency? Can be infrequent (long return periods)

Risk?  Depends on location.