MET’S SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Kuruvilassery P.O., Mala, Thrissur, Kerala – 680 735

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Lab Manual

ME14 608 (P) Instrumentation Lab

B. Tech. Sixth Semester

Prepared by Verified by
 University of Calicut
University Syllabus
ME 14 608(P) Instrumentation Lab
Teaching scheme Credits: 2

3 hour practical per week

Objectives

To provide knowledge of uncertainties involved in any measurement.

To train the students in the calibration and use of different measuring instruments.

I. (a) Determination of uncertainties in computed quantities such as the following

(i) Volume of a rectangular block or cylinder computed from measurements oflength, width, height and
diameter

(ii) Water power computed from measurements of density, local acceleration dueto gravity, volumetric
flow rate and head

(iii) Shaft power computed from measurements of speed and torque

(iv) Electrical power computed from measurements of “number of rotations ofenergymeter disk”, time
taken and “energymeter constant”

(b) Selection of instruments for computing quantities with desired uncertainties

II. Determination of bias and random error of the following instruments by calibrating themusing proper
standards

(i) Load cells such as strain-gauge-load cells, strain-gauge-beam transducer etc.

(ii) Rotameter

(iii) Bourdon-tube pressure gauge

(iv) LVDT

(v) Thermocouples

(vi) Tachometers

(vii) Constant area flow meters

III. (a) Preparation of a psychrometric chart for the laboratory and determination ofpsychrometric
properties of atmospheric air - use of Sling psychrometer
(b) Analysis of exhaust gases and flue gases with the help of orsats apparatus,gas chromatograph,
paramagnetic oxygen analyser, smokemeter etc.

(c) Acoustic measurements: sound level meter-octave band filter- preparation of noisecontours

(d) Plotting of velocity profiles using pitot tubes and hot wire anemometers

IV. Study of, and making measurements with: Water meter, velometers, pH meter, slip
gauges,comparators, planimeter, pyrometers, RTDs, thermistors, CRO, multimeters, linearcapacitance
meters & LDR (light depended resistance)

V. Determination of static and dynamic characteristics of zero, first and second order

Instruments

Reference Books

1. E. O. Doebelin, Mechanical Measurements- Application and Design, McGraw Hill.

2. J.P. Holman, Experimental Methods for Engineers, McGraw Hill.

Internal Continuous Assessment (Maximum Marks-50)

60% - Practicals and Record (30 marks)

30% - Test /s (15 marks)

10% - Regularity in the class (5 marks)

Semester End Examination (Maximum Marks-50)

70% - Procedure, modelling steps, analysis, results, and inference (35 marks)

20% - Viva voce (10 marks)

10% - Fair record (5 marks)

 List of Experiments
Expt. No. Experiment Page

1 Study of Capacitance transducer for displacement

measurement

2 Study and determination of characteristics of LVDT

3 Study of Light dependent resistor

4 Calibration of load cell

5 Study of pressure transducer

6 Measurement of temperature using RTD

7 Measurement of temperature using thermometer,

thermocouple and RTD.

8 Measurement of flow rate using Rotameter

9 Measurement of flow rate using Rotameter and transducer

10 Plotting of velocity profiles using Pitot tube.

11 Study of hot wire anemometer.

 EXPERIMENT NO: 1
Aim:

Study of capacitance transducer for displacement measurement.

Apparatus required:

Digital displacement indicator, capacitor unit.

Theory:

A capacitor consists of two conductors (tubes) that are electrically isolated from one another by a
nonconductor (dielectric). When the two conductors are at different potentials (voltages), the system is
capable of storing an electric charge. The storage capability of a capacitor is measured in farads.The
principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based upon the equation for capacitance of a parallel
plate capacitor as shown below,

Where, C= Capacitance; F

A = Overlapping area of plates; m2,

d = Distance between two plates; m,

 = Permittivity (dielectric constant); F/m

In most of the cases the change in capacitance are caused by the physical variables, such as, displacement,
force or pressure. Variation in capacitance is also there when the dielectric medium between the plates
changes, as in the case of measurement of liquid or gas levels. Therefore, the capacitive transducers are
commonly used for measurement of linear displacement, by employing the following effects.

i) Change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates.

ii) Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates.

iii) Change in capacitance due to change in dielectric between the two plates

Procedure:
 1. Keep the movable capacitance transducer tube at 11 cm point on the steel rule and make zero
reading on the digital indicator.
2. Take five readings by moving the capacitor tube to 5 cm point on the steel rule (1 cm each).
3. Take five more readings in the reverse order and plot the hysteresis loop
4. Draw the graph of scale reading Vs indicated reading.
Tabular column:

Scale reading Indicated Reading

Sl No
(mm) (mm)

Sample Graph:

Result:

Inference:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 2
Aim:

Study and determination of the characteristics of LVDT (Linear variable differential transducer).

Apparatus required:

LVDT, digital displacement transducer and calibration jig with micrometer.

Theory:

Differential Transformers, based on a variable Inductance principle, are also used to measure
displacement. The most popular variable-inductance transducer for linear displacement measurement is
the Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT). LVDT is a widely used transducer for conversion
of Mechanical displacement into proportional electrical voltage. The displacement ranges from a few
microns to few tens of inches. LVDT is free from temperature effects and it provides an AC voltage
output proportional to the displacement. The LVDT illustrated in the fig. consists of three symmetrically
spaced coils wound onto an insulated bobbin. A magnetic core, which moves through the bobbin without
contact, provides a path for magnetic flux linkage between coils. The position of the magnetic core
controls the manual between the centre and primary coil and with the two outside or secondary coils.

When an AC carrier excitation is applied to the primary coil, voltages are induced inthe two secondary
coils that are wires in a series – opposing circuit. When the core is centered between the two secondary
coils, the voltage induces between the secondary coils are equal but out of phase by 1800. The voltage in
the two coils cancels and the output voltage will be zero. When the core is moves from the center
position, an imbalance in mutual inductance between the primary coil and the secondary coil occurs and
an output voltage develops. The output voltage is a linear function of the core position as long as the
motion of the core is within the operating range of the LVDT.
Procedure:
1. Connect LVDT cable to instrument.
 2. Switch on the instrument and find the null position by rotating the micrometer (display will read
00.00 at null position).
3. Give displacement with micrometer in both directions and observe the digital readings.
4. Plot the graph of micrometer reading v/s digital reading.

Tabulation:
Push side (+ve readings) Pull side (-ve readings)
Sl Micrometer Indicated Micrometer Indicated
No reading(mm) reading(mm) reading(mm) reading(mm)

Sample Graph:

Result:

Inference:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 3
Aim:

Study of LDR (Light dependent resistor)

Apparatus Required:

LDR transducer, digital indicator, light source and scale.

Theory:

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or a photo resistor is a device whose resistivity is a function of the
incident electromagnetic radiation. Hence, they are light sensitive devices.They are made up of
semiconductor materials having high resistance. A light dependent resistor works on the principle of
photo conductivity. Photo conductivity is an optical phenomenon in which the materials conductivity is
increased when light is absorbed by the material. When light falls i.e. when the photons fall on the device,
the electrons in the valence band of the semiconductor material are excited to the conduction band. These
photons in the incident light should have energy greater than the band gap of the semiconductor material
to make the electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction band. Hence when light having
enough energy strikes on the device, more and more electrons are excited to the conduction band which
results in large number of charge carriers. The result of this process is more and more current starts
flowing through the device when the circuit is closed and hence it is said that the resistance of the device
has been decreased.

Procedure:

1. Connect the lamp and LDR

2. Switch on the instrument
3. Move the tube till the indicated reading shows zero
4. Now the instrument is ready to measure various displacements.
5. Give displacement to the tube and observe the indicated readings.
6. Now take readings in the reverse order and plot the hysteresis loop.
7. Plot the graph of displacement v/s indicated reading.

Tabulation:

Scale reading in
Indicated reading
Sl No mm
in mm
(Displacement)
Sample Graph:

Result:

Inference:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 4
Aim:

Calibration of load cell

Apparatus Required:

Load cell, digital load indicator and necessary dead weights.

Theory:

When steel cylinder is subjected to a force, it tends to change in dimension. On this cylinder, if the strain
gauges are bonded, the strain gauge also is stretched or compressed, causing a change in its length and
diameter. This change in dimension of the strain gauge causes its resistance to change. This change in
resistance or output voltage of the strain gauge becomes a measure of applied force.

Procedure:

1. Switch on the instrument

2. Find the indicated reading under no load condition and make it zero by adjusting the knob if
necessary.
3. Place 1 Kg weight on the plat form and observe the indicated reading.
4. Repeat the same procedure for other dead weights.
5. Now take readings in the reverse order and plot the hysteresis loop.
6. Plot the graph of applied load v/s indicated reading.

Tabulation:

Indicated reading
Sl No Applied load (Kg)
(Kg)
Sample Graph:

Result:

Inference:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 5
Aim:

Study of pressure transducer

Apparatus Required:

Pressure transducer, LVDT, pressure indicator and pressure source (Foot pump).

Theory:

Bourdon tube pressure gauge basically consisted of a C-shaped hollow tube, whose one end is fixed and
connected to the pressure tapping, the other end free, as shown in figure. The cross section of the tube is
elliptical. When pressure is applied, the elliptical tube tries to acquire a circular cross section; as a result,
stress is developed and the tube tries to straighten up. Thus the free end of the tube moves up, depending
on magnitude of pressure. A deflecting and indicating mechanism is attached to the free end that rotates
the pointer.

Procedure:

1. Switch on the instrument.

2. Close the release valve.
3. Make sure that the indicated reading shows zero value.
4. Apply various pressures by the foot pump.
5. Observe the bourdon tube pressure, indicated reading and the Bourdon tube displacement.
6. Plot the graph of applied pressure v/s indicated readings.
Tabulation:

Indicated Bourdon tube Bourdon tube

Applied pressure
Sl No reading pressure displacement
(Kg/Cm2)
(Kg/Cm2) (Kg/Cm2) (102mm)

Sample Graph:

Result:

Inference:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 6
Aim:

Measuring of temperature using RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)

Apparatus Required:

RTD, digital temperature indicator, heat source and thermometer.

Theory:

RTD: The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This property is utilized for
measurement of temperature. The resistivity of metals showed a marked dependence on temperature as
platinum is used to this day as to primary element all high accuracy resistance thermometers.
All metals produce a positive change in resistance with temperature this of course is the main function of
RTD the system error is minimized when the nominal value of RTD is large. This implies a metal with
value of resistively of metal, role material we will have to use.
The requirements of a conductor to be used in RTD are:
1. The change in resistance of a material per unit change in temperature should be as large as possible.
2. The material should have a high value of resistivity so that the minimum volume of material is used for
the construction of RTD.
3. The resistance of material should have a continuous and stable relationship with temperature. Copper is
used occasionally as an RTD element.
Procedure:

1. Switch on the instrument

2. Find the water temperature using thermometer and make sure that the indicated reading also
shows the same reading.
3. Now switch on the water heater and take readings at various temperatures by using both
thermometer and digital temperature indicator.
4. Plot the graph of thermometer reading v/s indicated reading.

Tabulation:

Thermometer Indicated reading

Sl No
reading (0C) (0C)
Sample Graph:

Result:

Inference:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 7
Aim:

Measurement of temperature using thermometer, thermocouple and RTD.

Apparatus Required:

Thermocouple, RTD, digital temperature indicator, heat source and thermometer.

Theory:

Thermocouple: It is the simplest and commonly used methods of measuring process temperature. The
operation of Thermocouple is based on seebeck effect. See back discovered that when heat is supplied to
the junction of two dissimilar metals, an emf is generated which can be measured at the other junction.
The two dissimilar metals form an electric circuit and current flows as a result of the generated emf.

Construction of Thermocouple
A pair of two dissimilar metals that are in physical contact with each other form a Thermocouple. These
metals may be twisted, screwed, pinned, clamped or welded together. The most commonly used method
for fabricating is to weld metals together.
Thermocouples do not use bare conductors except in applications where atmosphere conditions permits
their use. These conditions obtained when temperature to be measured are low and atmosphere is non-
corrosive. Industrial Thermocouples employ protective sheathing surrounding the junction and a portion
of the extension leads.
Type of the sensor: “J” type
Material used: chromium Alumel

Procedure:

1. Switch on the instrument

2. Find the water temperature using thermometer and make sure that the indicated readings of RTD
and thermocouple show the same reading.
 3. Now switch on the water heater and take readings at various temperatures by using thermometer,
RTD and thermocouple.
4. Plot the graphs of (1) Thermocouple reading v/s RTD (2) Thermocouple v/s Thermometer and (3)
Thermometer v/s RTD.

Tabulation:

Sl Thermometer Indicated reading (0C)

No reading (0C) Thermocouple RTD

Sample Graph:

Result:

Inference:
 EXPERIMENT NO: 8
Aim:

Measuring of temperature using optical pyrometer and thermometer.

Apparatus Required:

Optical pyrometer, heat source and thermometer.

Theory:

Infrared thermometers work based on black body radiation, According to which any material with a
temperature above absolute zero has molecules moving within it. The higher the temperature, the faster
the molecules move. The molecules emit infrared radiation as they move, and emit more radiation,
including visible light, as they get hotter. This is why a heated metal emits a red or white glow. Infrared
thermometers detect and measure this radiation.

Infrared thermometers employ a lens to focus infrared light from an object onto a detector known as a
thermopile. The function of the thermopile is to absorb infrared radiation and convert it to heat. The
thermopile gets hotter as it absorbs more and more infrared energy. The excess heat is converted into
electricity, which is transmitted to a detector which determines the temperature of the object.

Procedure:

1. Switch on the instrument

2. Switch on the heat source
3. Take readings at various temperatures by using thermometer and pyrometer
4. Plot the graph of thermometer reading v/s pyrometer reading.

Sample Graph:
Result:

Inference:

EXPERIMENT NO: 9
Aim:

Study of water flow using Rota meter

Apparatus Required:

Rota meter, water tank, water pump with total set up and stop watch.

Theory:

The rotameter is the most popular flow meter. It consists essentially of a plummet or float which is free to
move up or down in a vertical slightly tapered tube having its small end down. The fluid enters the lower
end of the tube and causes the float to rise until the annular area between the tube and the float is such that
the pressure drop across this construction is just sufficient to support the float. Typically, the tapered tube
is of glass and caries etched upon it a nearly linear scale on which the position of the float may be usually
noted as an indication of the flow.

Rotameter have proved satisfactory both for gasses and for liquids at high and low pressures. Rotameter
required straight runs of pipe before or after the point of installation. Pressure losses are substantially
constant over the whole flow rang. In experimental work, for greatest precision, a rotameter should be
calibrated with the fluid which is to be entered.

Procedure:

1. Fill the water at least 75% of the reservoir water tank.

2. Switch on the instrument and water pump.
 3. Control the water flow valve and take reading for the flow rate by using the Rota meter.
4. Estimate the time required to fill a fixed volume of output water.
5. The rotameter reading indicates the rotameter flow rate (Qrot.) in (L/min); while the volume
selected divided by the time measured indicates the actual flow rate (Qact.) in (L/min).
6. Repeat the procedure for various flow rates and compare the results.
7. Plot the graph of Rota meter reading v/s actual discharge.

Tabulation:

Rotameter reading Qact= (A*h*1000*60)/t

Sl No Time (s) h (m)
(LPM) (LPM)

Calculation:

The actual volume flow rate is found from dividing the selected volume of water by the time required to
accumulate that volume,

Where,

V: is the volume of the water output accumulated in the storage tank.

t: is the time it takes to fill the selected volume.

A: is the cross-section area of the storage tank.

h: is the height of water in the storage tank.

Sample Graph:
Result:

Inference

EXPERIMENT NO: 10
Aim:

Measurement of water flow by using Rota meter and transducer.

Apparatus Required:

Flow indicator with sensor, water pump with total set up and water tank.

Theory:

The rotameter offers the advantage of a wide range of flow rates that can be directly measured. It is a
variable-area meter with a float moving freely in a tapered tube. For each flow rate, the float is lifted to
some point at which the upward and downward forces acting on it are in equilibrium. As a fluid moves
upward through the tube, the float acts as an obstruction and creates a pressure drop. This pressure drop
and the buoyancy of the float produce an upward force on the float which is balanced by the gravitational
force. The pressure force is dependent on the flow rate and the annular area between the float and the
tube. As the float rises, the annular area increases, thereby requiring a larger flow rate to maintain the
float position.

Turbine flow meter: A turbine-type vaned rotor is placed in the path of the fluid flow. The rotational
motion of the rotor is proportional to the rate of flow and is sensed by a reluctance-type pickup coil. A
permanent magnet is encased in one or all of the rotor vanes. Each time the vane passes the pole of the
coil, the change in the permeability of the magnetic circuit produces a voltage pulse at the output
terminal. The pulse rate is counted by a frequency meter or any other suitable type of counter. The count
rate is calibrated against the flow rate and is usually linear over a range of flow rates.

Procedure:

1. Connect the sensor to the indicator.

 2. Fill the water at least 75% of the reservoir water tank.
3. Switch on the instrument and water pump.
4. Control the water flow valve and take readings of various flow rates by using the Rota meter and
the sensor.
5. Plot the graph of Rota meter reading v/s indicated reading.

Tabulation:

Rotameter reading Indicated

Sl No
(LPM) reading (LPM)

Sample Graph:

Result:

Inference
 EXPERIMENT NO: 11
Aim:

Plotting of velocity profiles using Pitot tube.

Apparatus Required:

Pitot tube apparatus, water pump with total set up and water tank.

Theory:

Pitot tube is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel.

Principle: If the velocity at any point decreases, the pressure at that point increases due to the
conservation of the kinetic energy into pressure energy. In simplest form, the Pitot tube consists of a tube,
bent at right angles.

Point 2 is just at the inlet of the Pitot-tube Point 1 is far away from the tube

Let p1 = pressure at section 1

p2 = pressure at section 2

v1 = velocity at section 1

H = depth of tube in the liquid

h = rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface

 v2 = velocity at section 2 = 0

Applying Bernoulli’s equations at sections 1 and 2, we get

Procedure:

1. Lower the prandtl tube until it touches the lower wall of the pipe and notes the pointer reading on
the scale (G1). Then raise it until it touches the upper wall of the pipe and note the reading (G2).
2. Open the inlet valve fully, keeping the outlet valve closed and remove air bubbles if any from the
manometer tube.
3. Open the outlet valve and allow the flow to take place for some time.
4. Measure the discharge (Q) through the pipeline.
5. Note the manometer readings (h1 and h2) and the pointer reading (G) at different positions of the
Prandtl tube along the pipe diameter.
6. Draw the velocity profile.

Observation:

Diameter of the Pitot static tube = d= 8 mm

Diameter of the pipe= D= 25 mm

Pointer reading corresponding to the lower wall of the pipe= G1=

Pointer reading corresponding to the upper wall of the pipe= G2=

Tabulation:

Pointer reading Manometer readings Velocity

Sl No G V
h1 h2 Diff. (hm)
(cm) (cm/s)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
Sample Graph:

Result:

Inference