Standards and Quality Practices in Manufacturing Construction maintenance

and Services

1. Quality Basics (b) In order to measure quality, accurate

2. Quality Thinkers standard measurements must be
3. Tools in quality control established.
4. Acceptable sampling (c) Reasonable deviation from the pre-
5. NDT/NDE determined standards must be
6. Standards determined.
7. TQM (d) Satisfactory level of quality must be
8. Six Sigma achieved with a minimum cost.
9. Maintenance and rehability  Control refers to the use of all the ways and
10. Construction, service and manufacturing means whereby quality standards could be
11. Line balancing maintained. Control precisely aims at bringing
the product up to predetermined standards by
Quality control (QC) minimizing deviations from established and
 Quality control (QC) is a procedure or set of present standards.
procedures intended to ensure that a
manufactured product or performed service Quality:
adheres to a defined set of quality criteria or (1) Degree of fitness for use of customers
meets the requirements of the client or (2) Meeting the customers requirement/needs/
customer.
Meaning and Importance:
 Present era is the ‘Era of Quality’. In this age
Market survey/field research will be used as a
of cut throat competition and large scale
tool to know the needs of customers by
production, only that manufacturer can survive
agencies or service providers.
who supplies better quality goods and renders
(3) Whether the product conforms to specified
service to-the consumers
standard
 Quality is a relative term and is never absolute (4) Cost effectiveness:
depending upon the use of the product and (5) Product should be reliable (i.e. reliability)
circumstances under which it is used.
 It involves many steps to be undertaken viz:
(6)
(a) Product must possess a minimum level
(7) Aesthetics = good looking or appearance
of quality so that it could be easily sold in
(8) Perceived Quality: Branding
the market.

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 Appraisal cost - After the production to check the
quality by the producer
Internal failure cost: Within the premises of
(9)
company

Quality Characteristics:
(1) Technological: strength, hardness
(2) Time-oriented: reliability, maintainability,
availability The cost of quality: It is a methodology which

(3) Psychological: status tells an organisation about the extent to which its

(4) Contractual: warranty, guarantee, etc. resources are being used for activities that prevent

(5) Ethical: honesty, courtesy, etc. poor quality, that appraise the products quality and
that result from internal and external failure.

Cost of Quality and Quality Dimension: Prevention cost: Cost incurred to prevent quality

Quality Dimensions: problems. It includes costs of planning and design,

Quality of Design: most crucial and imp stage implementation and maintenance of a quality.
Q. A. Cost of prevention (1) Cost of production
inspection
B. Cost of appraisal (2) Cost of quality
planning

Market Survey: C. Cost of internal (3) Cost of rework and

VOC CTQ (Critical to Quality Characteristics) failure repair

Voice of customer D. Cost of external (4) Cost of processing

Quality of conformance = stage of implementation failure complaints from

customer
A–2
B–1
C–3
Quality of performance: After delivery stage D–4
(I) Before Industrial Revolution:
Skill low
Small scale industries
Cost of quality: Technology was low
DOL (division of labour) was low
(II) After Industrial Revolution:
Technology increased
Prevention cost - During the production Mass production
Inspection based quality control

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 (III) Continuous improvement: aims to prevent defects by focusing on the
Process based approach process used to make the product. While
Preventive quality control aims to identify and correct the
defect in the finished product.
Quality Policy:
(i) Quality policy can be defined as the overall Quality Audit:
intentions and direction of an organization 1st party (internal audit)
w.r.t. quality and it has to be formally 2nd party audit — at supplier location
expressed by the top management of the 3rd party audit — by independent body
company. Quality audit is a systematic and independent
(ii) Quality policy should be consistent with the examination to compare some aspect of quality
overall policy of the organization. performance with a standard and check that
(iii) Quality policy will lead to establishing of the whether the quality practices are being under
quality objectives. taken as per the documented or specified
(iv) Quality objectives can be defined as standard procedure.
something aimed for, related to quality.
(v) Quality objectives are derived from the quality Internal Audit (1st party audit)
policy. It is performed by the employees of the
(vi) Quality policy is for all of the organization organization itself who don’t have vested interests
where as quality objectives are specific to the in the audit results of the area selected for audit.
specific department. 2nd party audit: These are performed by the
S – Specific customer organization at the supplier location.
M – Measurable 3rd party audit: These are performed by an
A – Achievable independent party or certification body.
R – Realistic Customers are of two types
T – Time Oriented (1) External customers
Quality Assurance Quality Control (2) Internal customers
Process based — product based External customers: These are not the members
Preventive — corrective of the production company and they buy the end
Quality audit — inspection products.
Proactive — reactive Internal customers: These are members of the
The goal of quality assurance is to improve production company itself and they need the
processes so that the defect does not arise project for in house processing.
while the product being developed.
On the other hand, the goal of quality control Q. Which of the following terns correctly
is to identify defects after a product has describes the examination of process with the
already been developed. Quality assurance standard procedure?

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 (i) Quality control (3) Fungenbaum
(ii) Quality assurance (4) Taguchi
(iii) Quality audit (5) Crosby
(iv) Quality management (6) Denning
Kaizen Approach
(i) Continuous improvement (1) Ishikawa:
(ii) Process based — Quality control tools—(next chapter)
(iii) Small change in daily operations — Quality circle
(iv) Involvement of everyone — Problem solving purpose
(v) Recognize the crucial role of top — People from different levels
management — Communication will develop under
(vi) Employee’s sense of belongingness hierarchy
(vii) Moral of employees (more) — Increase in problem solving ability
(viii) It involves identifying bench marks of — Knowledge transfer
excellence practices and thereby — Increase in morale and motivation, also
comparing own performance with the sense of belongingness.
benchmark to continuously improve. (2) Juran:
(ix) It is also based on the realizations that (i) Top down approach
mass inspection of the output does not (ii) Technical approach
add value to the product. (iii) Quality trilogy: — Quality planning
Poka Yoke – “Mistake proofing” — Quality control
— In built quality control — Quality
— It means mistake proofing improvement
— It’s purpose is to eliminate deflects by (3) Faigenbaum:
preventing human error from taking place. — Pioneer of total quality management
Thus it has 100º inbuilt quality control — Quality is everyone’s job
mechanism and the company has to spend (4) Taguchi:
less time and resources on training of its
L  y  y0 
2

employees.
Bench Marking: It is a quality improvement tool to y0 = target value

improve the performance of an organization by

comparing with the best practices and learning
from them to improve own performance by setting
the best performances as benchmark.
Various quality thinker’s approach:
(1) Ishikawa
(2) Juran

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— Taguchi loss for is used to measure the (6) Deming:
financial loss to the society due to poor (i) 14 principles for transformation of
quality. management
— He suggested that each product has a target (ii) 7 deadly diseases
value and as the product moves away from (iii) Deming’s PDCA cycle
the target value, there is a loss incurred by — Deming said:
the society. (i) Avoid too much emphasis on short term
— As one deviates from the target value, this profit.
loss increases and it is proportional to the (ii) Avoid excessive medical cost,
square of the distance from the target value. warrantee cost, etc.
— Thus every attempt should be made to meet (iii) Consider total cost, not just initial cost
the target value rather than being with in 7. Quality control tools:
upper specifications limit (USL) and lower (i) Fishbone Diagram: (Ishikawa
specification limit (LSL). Diagram/Cause and Effect Diagram.
— Taguchi calls common cause variations as
noise factor and the aim should be to reduce
the effect of noise on the product quality.
Thus Taguchi Robust design is a concept
used to make the system less sensitive to
variations.
Q. Assuming the following Taguchi loss for and Brainsforming
specifications, determine the estimated loss if Team approach
the quality characteristics under study takes a Why-why analysis
value 6.3 cm. — It is used to identify, explore and display
Taguci loss function = 8500 (x – T)2 the possible causes of a particular
Specification in (cm) = 6.00 0.25 problem. It is done through
(a) 765 (b) 2500 brainstorming, teamwork, collective
(c) 21 (d) 1350 knowledge and it builds supports for the
(5) Crosby: solution of the problem.
— Quality is free: Quality and cost are not in — The problem or effect is represented
competition to each other. It means it is not through the head of the fish. The major
true that if quality increases cost will also causes will be represented through the
increase. Further we can say that quality is major bones of the fish and further sub-
free because there is a time lag between the divisions of the major bone into minor
investment in improvement of the process bones will represent the minor causes.
and reduction in the cost of quality.
— Zero defect:

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 — By doing why-why analysis we can — It is a structured form for collecting data
generate understanding of deeper dejectedly at the same location. Thus we can
layers of causes. find the frequency or pattern of problems or
8. Scatter Diagram: defects for further analysis.
6. Histogram: it is a graphical display of data
using bars of different height. It can be used
to identify the frequency of the occurrence of
a defect and find a pattern in it. The unusual
values if any will indicate the presence of
certain specific factors causing the problem.
7. Control chart:

It is used to establish correlation b/w two

process variable.
The correlation may be linear, parabolic etc.
3. Pareto chart:
“Vital few from trivial many”
— Pareto chart is based on the pareto principle
Demings PDCA Cycle:
which states that approximately 80% of the
P — Plan
problems are caused by approx 20% of the
D — Do — Implement
factors.
C — Check — Monitor of prours result
— Thus if we identify the vital few factor, then
A — Act —
majority of the problems can be solved.
— The pareto chart ranks data in descending
order from left to right.
4. Flow chart:
— Flow chart is a pictorial representation of the
sequence of steps in a process. These can
be used to document a process and find out Demings PDCA Cycle: Continuous improvement
the sources of problem as well as solution to P — Plan
those problem. D — Do — implement
5. Check sheet: C — Check — monitor of process result
A — Act —
Plan stage: Define the problem, find the causes,
constraints and solutions:
Do stage: Implement the solution

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Check stage: Monitor the results and compare
them with the previous data
Act stage: Documents the results and make
recommendations for the problem to be addressed
in the next PDCA cycle.
Control Charts

— Control charts are used to differentiate b/w

common causes and special causes. The
variations due to common causes are always
present and they can’t be avoided. There
take place due to inherent nature of the
process. There are not considered as defects
and the variations are small in magnitude.
— On the other hand the variations due to
special causes are due to the presence of
some assignable factors.
These are of larger magnitudes and hence
steps should be taken to remove thus. There
are considered as defects. R-chart: R — Range
Types of control charts: R = Xmax – Xmin and n = total no. of sample

X chart: Will be given

Let n = sample size
— Variables are characteristics that are
N = number of samples
measureable where as attributes are
characteristics which are expressed in terms
of conformity/Non-conformity, defective/Non-
defective.
— Defects are quality characteristics that don’t
meet the desired specifications while a
defective unit may have one or more no of

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 defects such that unit is unable to meet the
standard.
— X chart shows the centering of the process
or the trend whereas R chart shows the
dispersion in the sample. It is a measure of
the spread of the sample.

Q. For a control chart of variables the sample

size is 4 and the total no of the samples are
20.

What will be the 3 control limits for X and R

charts. Assume the population std deviation =
0.08.
D4 = 2.28
D3 = 0
Given n = 4, n = 20,  = 0.08
x -chart:
Chart:

P chart follows binomial distribution, while c-

chart follows Poisson’s distribution.
LCL = 20 – 3 × 0.04 = 19.88
C-chart:
R-chart:
It is used to control the number of defects in a
sample.
— C-chart is diff from p-chart in the sense that
C-chart differentiates between two defective,
whereas p-chart treats defectives equally
whether they contain one defect or more.
P-chart: Np chart is used to control the no of
(Fraction Defective or proportion defective) defectives whereas p-chart is used for
fraction defectives.

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 – In the present case it means that the
proportion of defectives are same in the
sample and the lot.
– Acceptance sampling is a technique in which
C = average of number of defect
based on the inspection of a small sample
Q. During an experiment it is found that on an
the decision regarding accepting or rejecting
avg 1 out of 10 items produced by a machine
a lot is taken. It is assumed that the sample
is defective. While inspecting the quality
represents the whole of lot. It means that the
inspector selects a sample of 100 items and
characteristics of the lot are same as that of
finds that 15 of them are defective. What will
the sample.
be the decision of the inspector about,
– It is further assumed that the sample is
whether the process is within control or not?
chosen in a random or unbiased manner.
– 100% inspection of the lot is not preferred
because
(i) It consumes time & resources
(ii) It may decrease the productivity of the
organization
(iii) There may be an element of human error
(iv) Items may get damage due to handling
Single sampling:
Decision regarding the accepting or rejecting a lot
Q. A control chart is established with limits of + 2 is taken on the basis of inspection of only one
standard errors. For use in monitoring sample no of samples = d
samples of size n = 20. If d  C — accept the lot
Assume the process to be in control. What is d > C — reject the lot
the likelihood of a sample mean falling Double sampling:
outside the control limit? n1 = 1st sample, n2 = 2nd sample
(a) 97.7% c1 = Lower acceptance number and c2 =
(b) 95.5% Upper acceptance number
(c) 4.5% If number of defective = d
(d) 2.3% If d  c1 — accept the lot
+2 stand error = 2. d > c2 — reject the lot
If c1 < d < c2  take 2 sample
nd
Acceptance Sampling
Sample–representative, randomly selected If (n1 + n2) —
(unbiased) d’ > c2 — reject
Lot – Good & sample – bad = producer’s risk d’ > c2 — accept
Lot – Bad & sample – good = consumer’s risk

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Q. In a single sampling plan ‘N’ = 200, n = 10, c
= 2} the actual defectives found by inspection
is 3, then the decision will be
(a) accept the lot
(b) reject the lot
(c) take 2nd sample
(d) None of these
Q. In a double sampling plan n = 500, n1 = 10, Objectives of standardization:
n2 = 8 c1 = 1 and c2 = 4. If the no of (1) Measure, compare & as criteria.
st
defectives in the 1 sample are 3, then the (2) For inter changeability in mass production.
decision will be (3) Can be used for accurate & consistent
(a) accept the lot communication.
(b) reject the lot (4) Can be used for protection of environment,
nd
(c) take a 2 sample health & safety.
(d) None of these (5) Can be used for trust of consumers &
Producer’s Risk (): It is the probability that a lot confidence of investors.
which has acceptable quality level will be rejected (6) It can be used as a marketing strategy.
i.e. it is the probability of a good lot being rejected. (7) It enhances the productivity of organisation
Consumer Risk (): It is the probability that a lot and saves time & resources.
containing defectives more than LTPD will be Indian standards:
acceptance i.e. it is the probability of a bad lot ISI Marks: It is given for Industrial products. It
being accepted. certifies that the product conforms to the standard
LTPD: Lot tolerance percent defective. set by Bureau of Indian standard (BIS).
LTPD: It is the %age of defective items above Agmark: It’s given for agricultural products & it is
which the consumers will not accept the lot. given by directrate of Marketing & inspection
AQL: It is the %age of defective at which the under ministry of agriculture.
consumers will accept the lot. FPO Mark: Fruit Product Order
Operating characteristics curve: It is a curve It is given for all processed fruit product. It certifies
between probability of accepteance and the lot that the product was manufactured in a hygienic
quality in terms of fraction defectives. As the environment.
praction defective in the lot increases the It is given by Ministry of food processing industries
probability of acceptance will decrease. under food safety & standards Act 2006.
BSES: Bharat State Emission Standard
There are set to regulate the output of air
pollutants from IC engines. The standards & time
lines for implementation are set by central
pollution control Board (CPCB) under MOEFCC

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(Ministry of Environment & Forest and Climate ISO 9000 series: QMS
Change) It is a generic management standard. It means
Bharat stage IV emission norms has been that the same standard can be applied to any
implaceed since 2010 & BS VI norms would be organization irrespective of whether the
adopted by 2020. organication is large or small, it is from
Hall mark: It is given for purity of gold. manufacturing sector or service sector etc.
India Organic: It is a certification mark for It is only concerned about the way an organic
organically formed product as per National does it is not concerned about the result of that
standards for organic products 2000. work.
Darjiling Tea: It is a Geographical Indication Mark These quality system are based on the principles
for tea produced in Darjiling. of total quality management.
BIS: Bureau of Indian standard comes under IS 14000 series: For EMS = EM Management
ministry of consumer affairs food & public System
Distribution, GOI. It is a statutory body established It helps organization to minimize the –ve effect on
under an act of parliament i.e. bureau of Indian environment and compliance with the relevant
standard Act, 1986. rules and reghlations.
ISO: International Organication for It does not seek that the organization should follow
Standardisation: Headquarter: Geneva, Member: a particular level of performance regarding
162 pollution etc. but requires an awareness of the
ISO has three types of members. process that –ve affect the environment.
(1) Membership Bodies: Each country here is OHSAS 18000 Occupational Health & Safety
represented by one standards body from Assessment Series.
country. There members approve the OHSMS: Occupation Health & safety
changes that take place in the standards. management system.
Burea of Indian standards represents Indian It promotes a safe & healthy working environment
in this. by identifying and controlling health and safety
(2) Correspondant Members: There are risks and reducing the potential for accidents.
countries that do not have their own MBNQA: Malcolm Baldridge National Quality
standards body and hence they don’t Award:
participate in the changes introduced in the It is an annual award given to companies of USA
standards. However they are informed about which excel in total quality management. It is given
the same. by the president of USA.
(3) Subscribe Members: There are countries It is given only to organisations & not to
with small economics. They pay reduced individuals.
membership fees and can follow the Rajiv Gandhi Quality Award:
development of standards. It is given only to Indian Companies.
Various sandards: It is instituted by BIS.

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Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
NDT: It is performed in a manner which does not
effect the future usefulness of the object or
material. It is used to check the quality of structural
mechanical components so that they can perform
their functions in a safe, reliable and cost effective
mannar.
It can be used for in service inspection to detect
cracks or other defects caused by corrosion,
stress, fatigue etc.
Penetrant Testing (PT/LPT/DPT): LPT: Liquid
Penetrant Test, DPT Dye Pepenetrant Test
Penetrant is applied to a pre cleaned surface.
Penetrant will be pulled into the surface breaking
defect by capillary action.
A developer is then applied after wiping out the
penetrant from the surface.
The developer will produce a visible indication at
the location of defects.
Advantage:
It requires minimum investment, large surface
areas, can be inspected rapidly.
Parts with complex geometries can be inspected.
Disadvantage: It can detect only surface breaking
defects.
Can’t be used for porous materials.
Radiography Testing (RT):
The test object is placed between the radiation
source and the object.
The thickness & density of the material that the X-
rays penetrate affects the amount of radiation
reaching the detector.
The variation in radiation produces an image on
the detector which shows the internal features of
the test object.
Advantage:
It can be used for all types of materials.
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It can detect both surface to sub-surface defects.
Disadvantage:
Relatively costly equipments.
Skilled operator is required.
There may be hazards associated with the
radiations.
Ultrasonic Testing (UT):
High freq. sound waves are sent into the materials
by the use of a transducer.
The amount of energy transmitted & received find
the time taken can be used to determine the
presence of flaws.
Advantage:
Non-Hazardous
Can be used for both surface & sub-surface
defects.
It can be used to determine the changes in
thickness.
Disadvantage:
Skilled operator is reqd.
The surface must be accessible to the probe.
4. Magnetic Particle Testing: (MPT)
Magnetic field is established in a ferromagnetic
material and the magnetic field lines flow through
the material.
The place of discontinuity or cracks can’t support
such flow of magnetic field and hence it comes
leakage of the magnetic flux at the locations of
discontinuity. The iron particles spread over the
sample, will be attracted to such areas of flux
leakage and thus it produces visible indications.
Advantage:
It can be used for both surface & sub-surface
cracks, large area of complex shapes can be
inspected rapidly.
Equipment cost can be relatively less.
Disadvantage: It can be used only for It aims to minimize variation in the manufacturing
ferromagnetic materials. process by indentifying & removing the causes of
5. Eddy current Testing: defects.
Alternating current is passed through a coil thus Six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of
producing a magnetic field. If a conducting the total products manufactured are defect free.
materials is placed near the coil, then changing It makes continuous manufactured are defect free.
the magnetic field induces eddy currents in the It makes continuous efforts to a stable &
conducting material. predictable process result.
There eddy currents produce their own magnetic For sustained quality performance involvement of
field, which may be measured to analyse for the everyone is required but the support of top
presence of any defects. management is recognized as crucial.
Adv.: it can be used to detect both surface and It is diff. from approaches of quality improvement
sub-surface defects. in the sense that it focuses on achieving
Disadvantage: can be used only for conducting measureable and quantifiable results.
materials. DMAIC for improving existing process.
Q. Which of the following is not an adv. of MPT DMADV for designing new process.
1. Fast and simple to perform D  define
2. Can defect discontinuities M  Measure
3. Most reliable for finding surface orders A  Analyse
in all types of materials. I  Improve
4. Works well through a very thin coat of
C  control
paint.
D-Define: Define the voice of customer, their
Dues: Which of the following is a function of
requirements & the project goals.
developer (in penetrant testing)?
M-Measure: Measure the key aspect of the
a. Providing a contrast background for
process and collect the relevant data.
visible dye indications.
A-analyse: Investigate the data to establish came
b. It shows discontinuities by causing
& effect relationship.
indication to spread.
I-Improve: Bared on the analysis implement the
c. It provides capillary to help in bleeding
improvements.
out of the penetrant.
C-control: control the process parameters by
Shift from technical aspect to human element.
monitoring & checking for sustained
Target of six sigma approach is 3.4DPMO 6th
improvements.
sigma is a set of technique for process
Design: Design and improved alternative on the
improvement.
basis of analysis of various alternatives.
It was introduced by bill smith in 1986 while
Varify: Varify the design by implementing the
working in Motorola.
design the hand it over to the process owner.

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 (3) Reactive Maintenance: It is done after the
equipment has already failed. There type of
maintenance reduces the productivity of the
plan.
Reliability

Executive Leadership: It includes CEO & other

members of top management. They are
responsible for setting a vision, empowering
others and allowing resources to be used.
Champions: They act as mentors. They approve
any changes to scope of the project.
Master black belts: They act as in house
coaches. They assist champions and guide black
belts & green belts.
Black Belts: Act as project team leader, assign
team members their roles & responsibility and they
 Reliability is defined as a probability that
are held accountable for the results.
a product performs as per the specified
Green Belts: They lead small scale improvement
std over a period of time without failing.
projects within respective areas. They work under
 When the components in a system are
the guidance of Black Belt.
connects in series, then the reliability of
Yellow Belts: They are basically support staff to
the system will be lower than the
green & black belt. They lead any project on their
reliability of the individual components.
own.
 It happens because in terms of
probability, these are mutually
dependent events. Thus as the no. of
components in series increases the

Maintenance can be defined as the combination of reliability of the system as whole will

all technical & administrative action indended to decrease.

retain an item or restore the item to a state in  To increase the reliability of the system,

which it can function as per the requirement. back up can be given to the critical

(1) Preventive Maintenance: It is done as per a components.

pre-planned schedule on a regular basis. Q. What will be the probability of a system

(2) Predictive Maintenance: It is used for failure for a two component parallel system if

critical equipments in of a plan based on the the individual component reliabilities are 0.95

resultant of condition monitoring before any & 0.96 respectively.

breakdown or failure takes place. (i) 0.088

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 (ii) 0.050
(iii) 0.002
(iv) 0.010
Ans. Rs. 0.95 + ( 1-0.95) × 0.96
0.95 + 0.05 × 0.96
0.95 + 0.048
Rs. 0.998 Availability:

Probability of failure = 1 – 0.998 = 0.002 It is the probability that a system is available when

Ques. On the fig show below what will be the requested for use.

reliability of the system. MTTR: Avg Time required to repair a failed

component.
Total productive Maintenance (TPM)
To increase productivity; predictive & preventive
maintenance should be used and reactive
maintenance should be avoided. It is an integrated
approach and it desires the involvement of various
department and employees. The equipment
should be designed in a way that the need for
maintenance is minimized.
FMEA (Failure Mode Effects Analysis ):
Life Cycle cost : It is a systematic approach where in for each

It in the total cost of ownership of a product. It component the failure modes and their resulting
included acquisition cost, installation cost, space effects on the rest of the system is malyied and

parts cost, operating cost & operating cost & records, so that preventive steps can be taken.

maintenance cost. Manufacturing:

In some organization it is a proactive to parches Raw materials into final product

equipments on the basis of lowest coated price.  Technology transfer
However the selection of equipment should be  Direct & Indirect employment
based on life cycle cost.  Supply chain management
Maintainability:  Multiplier effect
It is the probability that a failed device will be  Shipping & packaging
restored to its normal working condition in a given Lean Manufacturing:
period after carrying out the necessary maintain Its purpose is to eliminate avoidable waste within a
ace activities. manufacturing system.
1. Pull based: Manufacturing should be based
on the demand.

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2. Create flow: It should be ensured that product However TQC as a goal continuously inspires the
moves from production state to shipping oxganization to reduce the no of defects.
stage without much interruption.
3. Seek Perfection: On the basis of continuous
improvement.
4. Identify value: Designing products to meet The distinguishing features of the services is that
customer needs. the service is created & delivered at the same
5. Value steam Mapping: Minimize those steps time. Hence in service inspection is difficult.
which don’t add value to the product. Service inherently consists of human elements.
Supply Chain Management: Supply chain Service is an experienced felt by the customers.
management is crucial to improve the efficiency in There are 5 dimensions of quality in services.
manufacturing. Service Quality Dimensions
KANBAN: It is a scheduling system for lean 1. Tangibles: Appearance of physical
manufacturing and just in time manufacturing. It is environment, surroundings in which the
an inventory control system to effectively manage service is provided. E.g. lighting, decorations
the supply chain and thereby improve the etc.
manufacturing efficiency. 2. Responsivencess: Willingness to help the
customers in a time bound manner.
3 Empathy: Individual attention & earing
attitude towards to make them feel special.
4. Reliability: The ability to deliver the promised
service accurately & dependably.
5. Assurance: Knowledge & courtesy of the staff
and their ability to convey trust & confidence.
Timely delivery Gap Model
Use of recycled products 1. Gap between customer expectations and the
Aesthetical (Interior decoration, architectural) perception of the management:
Space utilization Inadequate master research
Total Quality Control (TQC) Lack of communication between the various
In traditional quality control it is assumed that levels of the organization.
quality control is within the acceptable limit. Thus 2. Between management perception & service
allowing a certain amount of defects as acceptable quality specification
but in case of TQC, no defective items are allowed The perception of infeasibility
anywhere. Inadequate commitment to the quality
In const sector the goal of zero defects can never 3. Between service quality specification &
be permanently obtained because of the many no. service delivery.
of sub contractor and variability in the workforce.

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Cause: Poor training of workers, their in capability Another constraint in the balancing problem is
or unwillingness. zoning constraint. It may be either positive zoning
4. Service quality delivery and external constraint or negative zoning constraints. Positive
communication: It may be due to the fact that zoning constraint compels the designer to
the company is promosing to made to attract accommodate specified work-elements to be
the customers or there may be difference in grouped together at one station.
the service quality of different branches. In a negative zoning constraint few operations are
5. Gap between expected service & separated from each other.
experienced service; Definition and Terminology in Assembly Line
This is became the customer may misinterrupt the 1. Work Element (i): The job is divided into its
service quality. component tasks so that the work may be
Q. The advertisement of an automobile claims spread along the line.
that the does not need any service or Thus the work element number (i) is 1  i  N .
maintenance for 1st 1 lac km. which of the 2. Work Stations (w): It is location on the
following quality characteristics are described assembly line where a combination of few
by this advertisement? work elements are performed.
(a) Reliability w 1
(b) Tangibles 3. Total Work Content: This is the algebraic
(c) Features sum of time of all the work elements on the
(d) Court say line.
Line Balancing/Assembly line N

Assembly line is a sequence of progressive

Twc =  TiN
i1
assembly stations linked by some material 4. Station Time (T si): It is the sum of all the
handling devices. Assembly line is a special case
work elements (i) on work station (s).
of product layout in which the operations pertain to
n2
assembly of different parts at few stations. Tsi =  TiN
n1
Objective in Line Balancing Problem:
In an assembly line, the problem is to design the 5. Cycle time (T c): Cycle time is the rate of

work station. Each work station is designed to production. This is the time between two
complete few processing and assembly tasks. The successive assemblies coming out of a line.
objective in the design is to assign process and Tc  max {Tsi}
tasks to individual stations so 6. Delay or Idle Time at Station (Tds): This is
Constraints in Line Balancing: the difference between the cycle time of the
The ope rations in any line follow same line and station time.
precedence relation. For example, operation of Tds = Tc – Tsi
super-finishing cannot start unless earlier
7. Balance Delay or Balancing Less (d): This
operations of turning, etc., are over.
is a measure of line-inefficiency.

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 N
nTc   TiN
nTc  Twc i1
Balance Delay  d  
nTc nTc

8. Line Efficiency (LE): It is expressed as the

ratio of the total station time to the cycle time,
multiplied by the number of station(n):
n
 Tsi
i1
LE =  100%
 n   Tc 

where, Tsi = Station time at station i,

n = Total number of
stations, and
Tc = Total cycle time.

9. Smoothness Index (SI) : Smoothness index

is a measure of relative smoothness of a line.
n
  Tsi max  Tsi 
2
SI =
i1

where,  Tsi max = Maximum station time.

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