Concepts represented by a Greek letter

Αα (alpha)

 α represents:
 the first angle in a triangle, opposite the side A
 one root of a quadratic equation, where β represents the other
 the ratio of collector current to emitter current in a bipolar
junction transistor (BJT) in electronics
 the statistical significance of a result
 the false positive rate in statistics ("Type I" error)
 the reciprocal of the sacrifice ratio
 the fine structure constant in physics
 the angle of attack of an aircraft
 an alpha particle (He2+)
 angular acceleration in physics
 the linear thermal expansion coefficient
 the thermal diffusivity
 the alpha carbon is the first carbon after the carbon that attaches to a functional
group in organic chemistry
 the α-carbon is the backbone carbon next to the carbonyl carbon in amino acids
 right ascension in astrometry
 The brightest star in a constellation.
 Iron Ferrite and numerous phases within materials science.
 the return in excess of the compensation for the risk borne in investment

Ββ (beta)

 Β represents the beta function

 β represents:
 the thermodynamic beta, equal to (kBT)-1, where kB is Boltzmann's constant
and T is the absolute temperature.
 the second angle in a triangle, opposite the side B
 one root of a quadratic equation, where α represents the other
  the ratio of collector current to base current in a bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
in electronics (current gain)
 the false negative rate in statistics ("Type II" error)
 the beta coefficient, the non-diversifiable risk, of an asset in mathematical
finance
 the sideslip angle of an airplane
 the first-order effects of variations in Coriolis force with latitude in planetary
dynamics
 a beta particle (e-)
 sound intensity
 velocity divided by the speed of light in special relativity
 the beta brain wave in brain or cognitive sciences
 ecliptic latitude in astrometry
 The ratio of plasma pressure to magnetic pressure in plasma physics

Γγ (gamma)

 Γ represents:
 the reflection coefficient of a transmission or telecommunication line.
 the confinement factor of an optical mode in a waveguide
 the gamma function, a generalization of the factorial
 the upper incomplete gamma function
 the modular group, the group of fractional linear transformations
 the gamma distribution, a continuous probability distribution defined using
the gamma function
 second-order sensitivity to price in mathematical finance
 the Christoffel symbols of the second kind
 the neighbourhood of a vertex in a graph
 γ represents:
 the partial safety factors applied to loads and materials in structural engineering
 the specific weight of substances
 the lower incomplete gamma function
 the third angle in a triangle, opposite the side C
  the Euler–Mascheroni constant in mathematics
 gamma rays and the photon
 the heat capacity ratio in thermodynamics
 the Lorentz factor in special relativity
 the damping constant (kg/s)

Δδ (delta)

 Δ represents:
 a finite difference
 a difference operator
 a symmetric difference
 the Laplace operator
 the angle that subtends the arc of a circular curve in surveying
 the determinant of an inverse matrix[1]
 the maximum degree of any vertex in a given graph
 the difference or change in a given variable, e.g. ∆v means a difference or
change in velocity
 sensitivity to price in mathematical finance
 distance to Earth, measured in astronomical units
 heat in a chemical formula
 the discriminant in the quadratic formula which determines the nature of the
roots
 the degrees of freedom in a non-pooled statistical hypothesis test of two
population means
 δ represents:
 percent error
 a variation in the calculus of variations
 the Kronecker delta function
 the Feigenbaum constant
 the force of interest in mathematical finance
 the Dirac delta function
 the receptor which enkephalins have the highest affinity for in pharmacology [2]
  the Skorokhod integral in Malliavin calculus, a subfield of stochastic analysis
 the minimum degree of any vertex in a given graph
 a partial charge. δ− represents a negative partial charge, and δ+ represents a
positive partial charge chemistry (See also: Solvation)
 the Chemical shift of an atomic nucleus
 declination in astrometry
 the Turner function in computational material science
 depreciation in macroeconomics
 noncentrality measure in statistics

Εε (epsilon)

 ε represents:
 a small positive quantity; see limit
 a random error in regression analysis
 in set theory, the limit ordinal of the sequence
 in computer science, the empty string
 the Levi-Civita symbol
 in electromagnetics, dielectric permittivity
 emissivity
 strain in continuum mechanics
 permittivity
 the Earth's axial tilt in astrometry
 elasticity in economics
 expected value in probability theory and statistics
 electromotive force
 in chemistry, the molar extinction coefficient of a chromophore.
 set membership symbol ∈ is based on ε

Ϝϝ (digamma)

 Ϝ is sometimes used to represent the digamma function, though the Latin letter F
(which is nearly identical) is usually substituted.
Ζζ (zeta)

 ζ represents:
 the Riemann zeta function and other zeta functions in mathematics
 the coefficient of viscous friction in polymer dynamics
 the damping ratio
 relative vertical vorticity in fluid dynamics

Ηη (eta)

 η represents:
 the intrinsic impedance of medium (usually free space)
 the partial regression coefficient in statistics
 elasticities in economics
 the absolute vertical vorticity (relative vertical vorticity + Coriolis effect) in fluid
dynamics
 an index of refraction
 a type of meson
 viscosity
 efficiency (statistics)
 efficiency (physics and engineering)

 the Minkowski metric tensor in relativity
 noise in communication system models

Θθ (theta)

 Θ represents:
 an asymptotically tight bound related to big O notation.
 sensitivity to the passage of time in mathematical finance
 Θ (set theory), a certain ordinal number
 θ represents:
 a plane angle in geometry
  the angle to the x axis in the xy-plane in spherical or cylindrical
coordinates (mathematics)
 the angle to the z axis in spherical coordinates (physics)
 potential temperature in thermodynamics
 the mean time between failure in reliability engineering
 soil water contents in soil science
 Debye temperature
 theta functions
 sometimes also ϑ ("script theta"), cursive form of theta, often used in handwriting
 the first Chebyshev function in number theory

Ιι (iota)

 ι represents:
 the index generator function in APL (in the form ⍳)
 the orbital inclination with respect to the line of sight, used when
describing gravitational wave sources.

Κκ (kappa)

 κ represents:
 the Von Kármán constant
 the kappa curve
 the condition number of a matrix in numerical analysis
 the connectivity of a graph in graph theory
 curvature
 dielectric constant
 thermal conductivity (usually a lowercase Latin k)
 thermal diffusivity
 a spring constant (usually a lowercase Latin k)
 the heat capacity ratio in thermodynamics (usually γ)
 the receptor which dynorphins have the highest affinity for in pharmacology
Λ λ (lambda)

 Λ represents:
 the von Mangoldt function in number theory
 the set of logical axioms in the axiomatic method of logical deduction in first-
order logic
 the cosmological constant
 a type of baryon
 a diagonal matrix of eigenvalues in linear algebra
 the permeance of a material in electromagnetism
 λ represents:
 one wavelength of electromagnetic radiation
 the decay constant in radioactivity
 function expressions in the lambda calculus
 a general eigenvalue in linear algebra
 the expected number of occurrences in a Poisson distribution in probability
 the arrival rate in queueing theory
 the average lifetime or rate parameter in an exponential distribution (commonly
used across statistics, physics, and engineering)
 the failure rate in reliability engineering
 the mean or average value (probability and statistics)
 the latent heat of fusion
 the lagrange multiplier in the mathematical optimization method, known as
the shadow price in economics
 the Lebesgue measure denotes the volume or measure of a Lebesgue
measurable set
 longitude in geodesy
 linear density
 ecliptic longitude in astrometry
 the Liouville function in number theory
 the Carmichael function in number theory
 a unit of measure of volume equal to one microlitre (1 μL) or one cubic millimetre
(1 mm³)
 the empty string in formal grammar
Μμ (mu)

 μ represents:
 the Möbius function in number theory
 the ring representation of a representation module
 the population mean or expected value in probability and statistics
 a measure in measure theory
 micro-, an SI prefix denoting 10−6 (one millionth)
 the coefficient of friction in physics
 the service rate in queueing theory
 the dynamic viscosity in physics
 magnetic permeability in electromagnetics
 a muon
 reduced mass
 chemical potential in condensed matter physics
 the receptor which endorphins have the highest affinity for in pharmacology[2]
 the ion mobility in plasma physics

Νν (nu)

 ν represents:
 frequency in physics in hertz (Hz)
 Degrees of freedom in statistics
 Poisson's ratio in material science
 a neutrino
 kinematic viscosity of liquids
 stoichiometric coefficient in chemistry
 dimension of nullspace in mathematics

Ξ ξ (xi)

 Ξ represents:
  the original Riemann Xi function, i.e. Riemann's lower case ξ, as denoted
by Edmund Landau and currently
 the grand canonical ensemble found in statistical mechanics
 a type of baryon
 ξ represents:
 the original Riemann Xi function
 the modified definition of Riemann xi function, as denoted by Edmund Landau
and currently
 a random variable
 the extent of a chemical reaction
 coherence length
 the damping ratio
 universal set

Οο (omicron)

 Ο represents:
 big O notation (may be represented by an uppercase Latin O)
 o represents:
 small o notation (may be represented by a lowercase Latin o)

Π π (pi)

 Π represents:
 the product operator in mathematics
 a plane
 π represents:
 Archimedes' constant, the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter
 the prime-counting function
 profit in microeconomics and game theory
 inflation in macroeconomics, expressed as a constant with respect to time
 the state distribution of a Markov chain
 a type of covalent bond in chemistry (pi bond)
  a pion (pi meson) in particle physics
 in electronics, a special type of small signal model is referred to as a hybrid-pi
model
 in relational algebra for databases, represents project
 ϖ (a graphic variant, see pomega) represents:
 angular frequency of a wave, in fluid dynamics (angular frequency is usually
represented by but this may be confused with vorticity in a fluid dynamics
context)
 longitude of pericenter, in celestial mechanics
 comoving distance, in cosmology

Ρρ (rho)

 Ρ represents:
 one of the Gegenbauer functions in analytic number theory.

 ρ represents:
 one of the Gegenbauer functions in analytic number theory.
 the Dickman-de Bruijn function
 the radius in a polar, cylindrical, or spherical coordinate system
 the correlation coefficient in statistics
 the sensitivity to interest rate in mathematical finance
 density (mass or charge per unit volume)
 resistivity
 the shape and reshape operators in APL (in the form ⍴)
 the utilization in queueing theory
 the rank of a matrix

Σσ (sigma)

 Σ represents:
 the summation operator
 the covariance matrix
  the set of terminal symbols in a formal grammar
 σ represents:
 Stefan–Boltzmann constant in blackbody radiation
 the divisor function in number theory
 the real part of the complex variable s = σ + i t in analytic number theory
 the sign of a permutation in the theory of finite groups
 the population standard deviation, a measure
of spread in probability and statistics
 a type of covalent bond in chemistry (sigma bond)
 the selection operator in relational algebra
 stress in mechanics
 electrical conductivity
 area density
 nuclear cross section
 uncertainty
 utilization in operations management
 surface charge density for microparticles

Ττ (tau)

 τ (lower-case) represents:
 an interval of time
 a mean lifetime
 torque, the rotational force in mechanics
 the elementary tau lepton in particle physics
 the lifetime of a spontaneous emission process
 the time constant of any device, such as an RC circuit
 proper time in relativity
 Kendall tau rank correlation coefficient, a measure of rank correlation in statistics
 the golden ratio 1.618... (although φ (phi) is more common)
 Ramanujan's tau function in number theory
 in astronomy, a measure of opacity, or how much sunlight cannot penetrate the
atmosphere
  the intertwining operator in representation theory
 the tau in biochemistry, a protein associated to microtubules
 Shear stress in continuum mechanics
 the number of divisors of highly composite numbers
(sequence A000005 in OEIS)
 the prefix of many stars, via the Bayer stellar designation system
 an internal system step in transition systems
 a type variable in type theories, such as the simply typed lambda calculus
 path tortuosity in reservoir engineering
 in Topology, a given topology
 a proposed name for the mathematical constant of the ratio of
a circle's circumference to its radius, with value 2π (6.283...).

Υυ (upsilon)

 Υ represents:
 an elementary particle

 υ represents:
 frequency in physics textbooks

Φφ (phi)

 Φ represents:
 the work function in physics; the energy required by a photon to remove an
electron from the surface of a metal
 magnetic flux
 the cumulative distribution function of the normal distribution in statistics
 phenyl functional group
 the reciprocal of the golden ratio (represented by φ, below), also represented as
1/φ
 the value of the integration of information in a system (based on Integrated
Information Theory)
  note: a symbol for the empty set, , resembles Φ but is not Φ
 φ represents:
 the golden ratio 1.618... in mathematics, art, and architecture
 Euler's totient function in number theory
 a holomorphic map on an analytic space
 the argument of a complex number in mathematics
 the value of a plane angle in physics and mathematics
 the angle to the z axis in spherical coordinates (mathematics)
 the angle to the x axis in the xy-plane in spherical or cylindrical
coordinates (physics)
 latitude in geodesy
 a scalar field
 radiant flux
 electric potential
 the probability density function of the normal distribution in statistics
 a feature of a syntactic node giving that node characteristics such
as gender, number and person in syntax

Χχ (chi)

 χ represents:
 the chi distribution in statistics (χ is the more frequently encountered chi-
squared distribution)
 the chromatic number of a graph in graph theory
 the Euler characteristic in algebraic topology
 electronegativity in the periodic table
 the Rabi frequency
 the spinor of a fundamental particle
 the Fourier transform of a linear response function
 a character in mathematics; especially a Dirichlet character in number theory
 the Sigma vectors in the unscented transform used in the unscented Kalman
filter
 sometimes the mole fraction
  a characteristic or indicator function in mathematics

Ψψ (psi)

 Ψ represents:
 water potential
 a quaternary combinator in combinatory logic
 ψ represents:
 the wave function in the Schrödinger equation of quantum mechanics
 the stream function in fluid dynamics
 yaw angle in vehicle dynamics
 the angle between the x-axis and the tangent to the curve in the intrinsic
coordinates system
 the reciprocal Fibonacci constant
 the second Chebyshev function in number theory
 the polygamma function in mathematics

Ω ω (omega)

 Ω represents:
 the Omega constant
 an asymptotic lower bound related to big O notation
 in probability theory and statistical mechanics, the set of possible distinct system
states
 the SI unit measure of electric resistance, the ohm
 the rotation rate of an object, particularly a planet, in dynamics
 a solid angle
 a baryon
 the arithmetic function counting a number's prime factors
 the right ascension of the ascending node in celestial mechanics
 the density parameter in cosmology
 ω represents:
 the first infinite ordinal
  the differentiability class (i.e. ) for functions that are infintely differentiable
because they are complex analytic
 the set of natural numbers in set theory (although or N is more common in
other areas of mathematics)
 an asymptotically dominant quantity related to big O notation
 in probability theory, a possible outcome of an experiment
 angular velocity / radian frequency
 a complex cube root of unity — the other is ω² — (used to describe various ways
of calculating the discrete Fourier transform)
 vertical velocity in pressure-based coordinate systems (commonly used in
atmospheric dynamics)
 a meson
 the arithmetic function counting a number's distinct prime factors
 a differential form (esp. on an analytic space)
 the argument of periapsis in celestial mechanics
 the symbol ϖ, a graphic variant of π, is sometimes construed as omega with a
bar over it; see π

The Greek Alphabet

Name Uppercase Lowercase Common Uses
Uppercase Lowercase
Generic Angular Measurement
Angular Acceleration
Mean Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity
Alpha   Coefficient of Linear Expansion
Fine Structure Constant
Alpha Radiation (Helium Nuclei Emission)
Generic Angular Measurement
Speed Parameter
Beta   Sound Level
Coefficient of Volume Expansion
Beta Radiation (Electron Emission)
Generic Angular Measurement
Lorentz Factor
Gamma   Torque Specific Heat Ratio
Gamma Radiation (High Energy
Electromagnetic Emission)
Delta   Change in Partial Charge
Epsilon   Permittivity of Free Space Constant 0
 Zeta  
Eta   Viscosity
Theta   Angular Position
Iota  
Dielectric Constant
Kappa   Wave Number
Torsion Constant
Wavelength
Lambda   Linear Charge Density
Mean Free Path
Coefficient of Friction
Magnetic Moment
Mu   Linear Density
Micro- (SI Prefix, 10-6)
Permeability of Free Space Constant 0
Nu   Frequency
Xi  
Omicron  
Ratio of Circumfrence to Diameter in a
Pi   Osmotic Pressure
Circle
Density
Rho   Resistivity
Conductivity
Surface Charge Density
Sigma   Summation of
Population Standard Deviation
Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
Torque
Tau   Time Constant
Tension
Upsilon  
Magnetic Flux Magnetic Flux
Phi   Electric Flux Phase Angle/Difference
Chi   Statistical Test 2
Psi   Electric Flux Deviation Angle
Ohm (Unit of Electrical
Angular Speed
Omega   Resistance)
Angular Frequency
Precession Rate

LAWS OF PHYSICS

The basic laws of physics fall into two categories: classical physics that deals with the observable world
(classical mechanics), and atomic physics that deals with the interactions between elementary and sub
atomic particles (quantum mechanics). The basic laws of both are listed here in alphabetical order. Some
laws apply only to one or the other category; some belong to both. A few of the laws listed may have little
impact on petrophysics and some may have been left off the list for any number of reasons.

Ampere's Law

The line integral of the magnetic flux around a closed curve is proportional to the algebraic sum of
electric currents flowing through that closed curve; or, in differential form curl B = J.
This was later modified to add a second term when it was incorporated into Maxwell's equations.

Archimedes' Principle

A body that is submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal in magnitude to the weight of the
fluid that is displaced, and directed upward along a line through the center of gravity of the displaced
fluid.

Avogadro's Hypothesis (1811)

Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of
molecules. It is, in fact, only true for ideal gases.

Bernoulli's Equation

In an irrotational fluid, the sum of the static pressure, the weight of the fluid per unit mass times the
height, and half the density times the velocity squared is constant throughout the fluid.

Biot-Savart Law

A law which describes the contributions to a magnetic field by an electric current. It is analogous
toCoulomb's law.

Boyle's Law (1662); Mariotte's law (1676)

The product of the pressure and the volume of an ideal gas at constant temperature is a constant.

Bragg's Law (1912)

When a beam of X-rays strikes a crystal surface in which the layers of atoms or ions are regularly
separated, the maximum intensity of the reflected ray occurs when the complement of the angle of
incidence, theta, the wavelength of the X-rays, lambda, and the distance between layers of atoms or
ions, d, are related by the equation 2 d sin theta = n lambda,

Brownian Motion (1827)

The continuous random motion of solid microscopic particles when suspended in a fluid medium
due to the consequence of ongoing bombardment by atoms and molecules.
Casimir Effect

A quantum mechanical effect, where two very large plates placed close to each other will experience
an attractive force, in the absence of other forces. The cause is virtual particle-antiparticle pair
creation in the vicinity of the plates. Also, the speed of light will be increased in the region between
the two plates, in the direction perpendicular to them.

Causality Principle

The principle that cause must always preceed effect. More formally, if an event A ("the cause")
somehow influences an event B ("the effect") which occurs later in time, then event B cannot in turn
have an influence on event A. That is, event B must occur at a later time t than event A, and further,
all frames must agree upon this ordering.

Centrifugal Pseudoforce

A pseudoforce on an object when it is moving in uniform circular motion. The "force" is directed
outward from the center of motion.

Charles' Law (1787)

The volume of an ideal gas at constant pressure is proportional to the thermodynamic temperature of
that gas.

Cherenkov Radiation

Radiation emitted by a massive particle which is moving faster than light in the medium through
which it is traveling. No particle can travel faster than light in vacuum, but the speed of light in other
media, such as water, glass, etc., are considerably lower. Cherenkov radiation is the electromagnetic
analogue of the sonic boom, though Cherenkov radiation is a shockwave set up in the
electromagnetic field.

Complementarity Principle

The principle that a given system cannot exhibit both wave-like behavior and particle-like behavior at
the same time. That is, certain experiments will reveal the wave-like nature of a system, and certain
experiments will reveal the particle-like nature of a system, but no experiment will reveal both
simultaneously.

Compton Effect (1923)

An effect that demonstrates that photons (the quantum of electromagnetic radiation) have
momentum. A photon fired at a stationary particle, such as an electron, will impart momentum to the
electron and, since its energy has been decreased, will experience a corresponding decrease in
 frequency.

Conservation Laws

Conservation of mass-energy

The total mass-energy of a closed system remains constant.

Conservation of electric charge

The total electric charge of a closed system remains constant.

Conservation of linear momentum

The total linear momentum of a closed system remains constant.

Conservation of angular momentum

The total angular momentum of a closed system remains constant.

There are several other laws that deal with particle physics, such as conservation of baryon number,
of strangeness, etc., which are conserved in some fundamental interactions (such as the
electromagnetic interaction) but not others (such as the weak interaction).

Constancy Principle

One of the postulates of A. Einstein's special theory of relativity, which puts forth that the speed of
light in vacuum is measured as the same speed to all observers, regardless of their relative motion.

Continuity Equation

An equation which states that a fluid flowing through a pipe flows at a rate which is inversely
proportional to the cross-sectional area of the pipe. It is in essence a restatement of the conservation
of mass during constant flow.

Copernican Principle (1624)

The idea, suggested by Copernicus, that the Sun, not the Earth, is at the center of the Universe. We
now know that neither idea is correct.

Coriolis Pseudoforce (1835)

A pseudoforce which arises because of motion relative to a frame of reference which is itself rotating
relative to a second, inertial frame. The magnitude of the Coriolis "force" is dependent on the speed
of the object relative to the noninertial frame, and the direction of the "force" is orthogonal to the
 object's velocity.

Correspondence Principle

The principle that when a new, more general theory is put forth, it must reduce to the more
specialized (and usually simpler) theory under normal circumstances. There are correspondence
principles for general relativity to special relativity and special relativity to Newtonian mechanics, but
the most widely known correspondence principle is that of quantum mechanics to classical
mechanics.

Coulomb's Law

The primary law for electrostatics, analogous to Newton's law of universal gravitation. It states that
the force between two point charges is proportional to the algebraic product of their respective
charges as well as proportional to the inverse square of the distance between them.

Curie's Law

The susceptibility of an isotropic paramagnetic substance is related to its thermodynamic

temperatureT by the equation KHI = C / T.

Curie-Weiss Law

A more general form of Curie's Law, which states that the susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance
is related to its thermodynamic temperature T by the equation KHI = C/T - W, where W is the Weiss
constant.

Dalton's Law of partial pressures

The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of its
components; that is, the sum of the pressures that each component would exert if it were present
alone and occupied the same volume as the mixture.

Doppler Effect

Waves emitted by a moving object as received by an observer will be blueshifted (compressed) if

approaching, redshifted (elongated) if receding. It occurs both in sound as well as electromagnetic
phenomena.

Dulong-Petit Law (1819)

The molar heat capacity is approximately equal to the three times the ideal gas constant:
Einstein Field Equation

The cornerstone of Einstein's general theory of relativity, relating the gravitational tensor G to the
stress-energy tensor T by the simple equation G = 8 pi T.

Einstein's Mass-Energy Equation

The energy E of a particle is equal to its mass M times the square of the speed of light c, giving rise
to the best known physics equation in the Universe: E = M c2.

Equivalence Principle

The basic postulate of A. Einstein's general theory of relativity, which posits that an acceleration is
fundamentally indistinguishable from a gravitational field.

Faraday's Law

The line integral of the electric field around a closed curve is proportional to the instantaneous time
rate of change of the magnetic flux through a surface bounded by that closed curve; in differential
form curl E = -dB/dt, where here d/dt represents partial differentiation.

Faraday's Laws of electrolysis

Faraday's first law of electrolysis

The amount of chemical change during electrolysis is proportional to the charge passed.

Faraday's second law of electrolysis

The charge Q required to deposit or liberate a mass m is proportional to the charge z of the ion, the
mass, and inversely proportional to the relative ionic mass M; mathematically Q = F m z /M,

Faraday's first law of electromagnetic induction

An electromotive force is induced in a conductor when the magnetic field surrounding it changes.

Faraday's second law of electromagnetic induction

The magnitude of the electromotive force is proportional to the rate of change of the field.

Faraday's third law of electromagnetic induction

The sense of the induced electromotive force depends on the direction of the rate of the change of
 the field.

Fermat's Principle

The principle states that the path taken by a ray of light between any two points in a system is always
the path that takes the least time.

Gauss' Law

The electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the algebraic sum of electric charges
contained within that closed surface; in differential form div E = rho, where rho is the charge density.

Gauss' Law for magnetic fields

The magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero; no magnetic charges exist; in differential form
div B = 0.

Hall Effect

When charged particles flow through a tube which has both an electric field and a magnetic field
(perpendicular to the electric field) present in it, only certain velocities of the charged particles are
preferred, and will make it un-deviated through the tube; the rest will be deflected into the sides.

Hooke's Law

The stress applied to any solid is proportional to the strain it produces within the elastic limit for that
solid. The constant of that proportionality is the Young modulus of elasticity for that substance.

Huygens' Principle

The mechanical propagation of a wave (specifically, of light) is equivalent to assuming that every
point on the wavefront acts as point source of wave emission

Ideal Gas Law

An equation which sums up the ideal gas laws in one simple equation P V = n R T,

Joule-Thomson Effect; Joule-Kelvin Effect

The change in temperature that occurs when a gas expands into a region of lower pressure.

Joule's Laws

Joule's first law

The heat Q produced when a current I flows through a resistance R for a specified time t is given
by Q = I2 R t .

Kirchhoff's Rules

loop rule

The sum of the potential differences encountered in a round trip around any closed loop in a circuit
is zero.

point rule

The sum of the currents toward a branch point is equal to the sum of the currents away from the
same branch point.

Kohlrausch's Law

If a salt is dissolved in water, the conductivity of the solution is the sum of two values -- one
depending on the positive ions and the other on the negative ions

Lambert's Laws

Lambert's first law

The illuminance on a surface illuminated by light falling on it perpendicularly from a point source is
proportional to the inverse square of the distance between the surface and the source.

Lambert's second law

If the rays meet the surface at an angle, then the illuminance is proportional to the cosine of the angle
with the normal.

Lambert's third law

The luminous intensity of light decreases exponentially with distance as it travels through an
absorbing medium.

Laplace Equation

For steady-state heat conduction in one dimension, the temperature distribution is the solution to
Laplace's equation, which states that the second derivative of temperature with respect to
displacement is zero.

Lenz's Law (1835)

 An induced electric current always flows in such a direction that it opposes the change producing it.

Mach Number

The ratio of the speed of an object in a given medium to the speed of sound in that medium.

Mach's Principle (1870)

The inertia of any particular particle or particles of matter is attributable to the interaction between
that piece of matter and the rest of the Universe. Thus, a body in isolation would have no inertia.

Maxwell's Equations (1864)

Gauss' law

The electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the algebraic sum of electric charges
contained within that closed surface; in differential form div E =rho, where rho is the charge density.

Gauss' law for magnetic fields

The magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero; no magnetic charges exist. In differential
form div B = 0.

Faraday's law

The line integral of the electric field around a closed curve is proportional to the instantaneous time
rate of change of the magnetic flux through a surface bounded by that closed curve; in differential
form curl E = -dB/dt,..

Ampere's law, modified form

The line integral of the magnetic field around a closed curve is proportional to the sum of two terms:
first, the algebraic sum of electric currents flowing through that closed curve; and second, the
instantaneous time rate of change of the electric flux through a surface bounded by that closed
curve; in differential form curl H = J + dD/dt,.

In addition to describing electromagnetism, his equations also predict that waves can propagate
through the electromagnetic field, and would always propagate at the the speed of light in vacuum.

Murphy's Law (1942)

If anything can go wrong, it will.

Newton's Law of universal gravitation

 Two bodies attract each other with equal and opposite forces; the magnitude of this force is
proportional to the product of the two masses and is also proportional to the inverse square of the
distance between the centers of mass of the two bodies; F = (G m M/r2) e, where m and M are the
masses of the two bodies, r is the distance between. the two, and e is a unit vector directed from the
test mass to the second.

Newton's Laws of motion

Newton's first law of motion

A body continues in its state of constant velocity (which may be zero) unless it is acted upon by an
external force.

Newton's second law of motion

For an unbalanced force acting on a body, the acceleration produced is proportional to the force
impressed; the constant of proportionality is the inertial mass of the body.

Newton's third law of motion

In a system where no external forces are present, every action force is always opposed by an equal
and opposite reaction force.

Occam's Razor (1340)

If two theories predict phenomena to the same accuracy, then the one which is simpler is the better
one. Moreover, additional aspects of a theory which do not lend it more powerful predicting ability
are unnecessary and should be stripped away.

Ohm's Law (1827)

The ratio of the potential difference between the ends of a conductor to the current flowing through it
is constant; the constant of proportionality is called the resistance, and is different for different
materials.

Pascal's Principle

Pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible static fluid is transmitted undiminished to all parts
of the fluid.

Peter Principle

In a hierarchy, every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence.

Planck Equation

The quantum mechanical equation relating the energy of a photon E to its frequency nu: E = h nu.
Reflection Law, Snell's Law

For a wavefront intersecting a reflecting surface, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection, in the same plane defined by the ray of incidence and the normal.

Refraction Law

For a wavefront traveling through a boundary between two media, the first with a refractive index
ofn1, and the other with one of n2, the angle of incidence theta is related to the angle of
refraction phiby n1 sin theta = n2 sin phi.

Relativity Principle

The principle, employed by Einstein's relativity theories, that the laws of physics are the same, at
least qualitatively, in all frames. That is, there is no frame that is better (or qualitatively any different)
from any other. This principle, along with the constancy principle, constitute the founding principles
of special relativity.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law

The radiated power P (rate of emission of electromagnetic energy) of a hot body is proportional to the
radiating surface area, A, and the fourth power of the thermodynamic temperature, T. The constant of
proportionality is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Mathematically P = e sigma A T4,.where the
efficiency rating e is called the emissivity of the object.

Superposition Principle

The general idea that, when a number of influences are acting on a system, the total influence on that
system is merely the sum of the individual influences; that is, influences governed by the
superposition principle add linearly.

Thermodynamic Laws

First law of thermodynamics

The change in internal energy of a system is the sum of the heat transferred to or from the system
and the work done on or by the system.

Second law of thermodynamics

The entropy -- a measure of the unavailability of a system's energy to do useful work -- of a closed
system tends to increase with time.

Third law of thermodynamics

For changes involving only perfect crystalline solids at absolute zero, the change of the total entropy
 is zero.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

If two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then all three bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

Uncertainty Principle (1927)

A principle, central to quantum mechanics, which states that two complementary parameters (such
as position and momentum, energy and time, or angular momentum and angular displacement)
cannot both be known to infinite accuracy; the more you know about one, the less you know about
the other.

van der Waals force

Forces responsible for the non-ideal behavior of gases, and for the lattice energy of molecular
crystals. There are three causes: dipole-dipole interaction; dipole-induced dipole moments; and
dispersion forces arising because of small instantaneous dipoles in atoms.

Wave-Particle Duality

The principle of quantum mechanics which implies that light (and, indeed, all other subatomic
particles) sometimes act like a wave, and sometime act like a particle, depending on the experiment
you are performing. For instance, low frequency electromagnetic radiation tends to act more like a
wave than a particle; high frequency electromagnetic radiation tends to act more like a particle than a
wave.

Wiedemann-Franz Law

The ratio of the thermal conductivity of any pure metal to its electrical conductivity is approximately
constant for any given temperature. This law holds fairly well except at low temperatures.