ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΕΙΟ ΤΕΧΝΟΛΟΓΙΚΟ ΕΚΠΑΙΔΕΥΤΙΚΟ ΙΔΡΥΜΑ

ΘΕΣΣΑΛΟΝΙΚΗΣ

ΣΧΟΛΗ ΤΕΧΝΟΛΟΓΙΚΩΝ ΕΦΑΡΜΟΓΩΝ

ΤΜΗΜΑ ΠΟΛΙΤΙΚΩΝ ΕΡΓΩΝ ΥΠΟΔΟΜΗΣ

ΜΑΘΗΜΑ ΑΓΓΛΙΚΑ ΟΡΟΛΟΓΙΑ

ΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ ΜΕ ΤΙΤΛΟ:

‘BRIDGES’

ΟΔΥΣΣΕΑΣ ΚΟΨΙΔΑΣ

Φοιτητής Τμήματος Πολιτικών Έργων Υποδομής

ΣΙΝΔΟΣ ΙΑΝΟΥΑΡΙΟΣ 2013

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Introduction

Bridges represent one of the most important and amazing types of construction. the
first bridges were made of stone and logs and they could be lifted and hauled into
place. For wider bridges over rivers, intermediate supports, called piers, were
constructed in certain places in the stream. Then, beams of wood or stone were set
upon the piers to form a continuous bridge.

In the ancient times, a number of fine arch bridges were built in Mesopotamia, Egypt,
China. The Romans were the greatest bridge-builders. A number of Roman arch
bridges, supported by heavy piers, still exist today, like the bridge Fabricius (62BC.)
and Sant' Angelo bridge (136AD.). The Romans erected many timber bridges as well.

Wood, brick and stone were generally used in the construction of bridges until the
19th century. Many stone bridges in England are several hundred years old. The use
of iron in bridge construction was introduced in the 18th century. The first iron bridge
was built in 1779. Iron was widely used for the construction of large bridges later on,
and for a period of more than one hundred years.

The development of the transportation system with railroad and high-way

construction created a greater need for bridges. Spans had to be made much stronger
and more rigid for the trains and locomotives to cross them. Methods for the
production of steel economically were developed in the 19th century and this alloy
completely replaced iron in bridge construction.

Bridges are now made of steel and/or reinforced concrete or even of aluminium. They
also show a remarkable variety of designs. The main types are: girder bridges, resting
on supports at either and; arch bridges, borne on arches or arched vaults; suspension
bridges, with the framework hung from high masts and cantilever bridges. In addition,
there ara three main types of movable bridges: the simple draw-bridge, the swing
bridge, which moves horizontally, and the bascule bridge, which moves vertically on
the see - saw principle (e.g. Tower Bridge, London).

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Some kinds of bridges are: the pontoon bridge, the suspension bridge, the plate girder
bridge, the bow - string girder bridge, the cable - braced bridge (cable-stayed br.), the
arch(ed) bridge, the lattice bridge (steel bridge), the swing bridge, the bascule bridge
and the vertical lift bridge.

The bridge as a technology

Obviously a study of bridges must engage with the idea of technology. I use the term
‘technology’ in a way that indicates both an instrumental means, a technique, tool or
apparatus, a systems of sciences, and also a regime of practices, a complex world of
meanings, of social relationships. It suggests a culture which supports, even
encourages, attempts at systematic transformation and systematic applied knowledge.
It also indicates a specific type of enframing of the world, posits certain goals,
valorizes certain actions, shapes aesthetics, establishes a mythology and a poetics.
Technology is, as Robert Romanyshyn eloquently puts it, both symptom and dream.

Bridge as crossing

In the context of pilgrimage the Sanscrit word Tirtha means a crossing, both
geographical and symbolically. It indicates both a physical movement across an
obstacle such as a river and a spiritual – psychological movement between two
different orders of reality and experience. A bridge always creates a crossing, indeed
is a technology of crossing. For Sonny Rollins the bridge allowed a crossing from one
problematic emotional/creative situation to another far more satisfying one. Bridges
are sites where disparate tracks cross – transportation, communication, cultural and
social, environmental and aesthetic.

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The materials to build a bridge

We suggest you try to build with materials you find around you, close to your site.
Use materials that are found on the earth, those that require a minimum of processing
and transportation. Build with wood where it grows, wood is the only building
material we can generate (part of the cost of lumber should go to reforestation). Use
adobe or stabilized earth in dry climates, it is the earth's most abundant building
material. Rock, bamboo, plaster, brick.

Industrial society creates wastes. A challenge to the builder is to utilize this fallout, as
has been done by making bricks from newspapers, from garbage and from the sulphur
refined out of crude oil. Another challenge is salvaging used materials, building with
scavenged junk and scrap. Inventive builders have veneered plaster surfaces with
pieces of broken pieces of concrete and short scraps of 2x4.

Using natural materials means a lot of work. Buildings that are pieced together with
wood, dirt, rock, scrap, take time, but as the craftsman does it, he can choose to do it
well, and shape the building with his imagination and changing perceptions. Use of
local natural materials and hand labour results in a harmony of house and landscape.
the character and warmth of less processed materials seem to make them easiest to
live with over a period of time, a building is your skin extended.

Nature builds with what is available and local and can be studied not copied. A
nautilus secretes its shell. A swallow weaves its nest from mud, straw, horsehair and
feathers.

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Tunnels

In civil engineering the object of a tunnel is to provide a connection from one point to
another without disturbance of the surface, or to avoid an obstacle by going under it.
Mining is a form of tunnelling as a means of extracting mineral deposits below
ground where quarrying, open excavation or '' open - cast '' mining are not suitable.
As it must follow the ramifications of random mineral deposits, different methods and
a different vocabulary have developed.

The vital factor in all tunnel projects is the nature of the ground to be traversed,
ranging from hard uniform unfissured rocks to the softest possible mud and silts
heavily charged with water. Rocks can vary widely in age, strength, and composition.
They can be solid and undisturbed, or folded and faulted, fissured and false - bedded
and broken in all directions by crushing and parting planes. Fissures can contain
water, possibly under high pressures. Under mountains tremendous squeezing forces
may develop and high temperatures may be met with. Rocks can vary from igneous
rocks such as the granites, metamorphic rocks and schists, to lime-stones, sandstones
and shales and other sedimentary rocks. Of the clays, silts, sands and gravel, some are
old consolidated sentiments, some recent, very soft deposits. Glacial deposits are very
random and valuable in composition. The presence of water, especially in silts and
sands, can entirely alter the behavior and method of treatment.

In the ancient civilisations the possibility of large-scale tunnelling depended upon the
absence of water and on ground conditions within the capacity of existing tools. The
Greeks and then the Romans tunnelled extensively in building aqueducts. Hard rock

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was broken up by lighting fires against the face. Tunnelling has always been
important in siege warfare. The method of timber supports has a long history.

The first tunnel blasted with gunpowder was one 180yd long driven in the
construction of the Languedoc canal in 1680. The canal age in Great Britain started in
1757 and led to development of the bar method of timbering. The railway age
overtook the canal developers and the need for tunnels became widespread. In 1830
the railway entered Liverpool by tunnelling through the soft clay and wet sand.
Tunnel miners were available from former canal works and many Cornish miners,
then and later, turned to tunnelling, as their mines became gradually disused. These
tunnels were mostly lined with brickwork seven to more rings thick.

Marc Isambard Brunel designed the first tunnel shield (to protect the men tunnelling)
for his internationally famous Thames tunnel (1825 - 1843). This shield was a
rectangular iron box divided into compartments. The brickwork tunnel lining was a
rectangular iron box divided into compartments. The brickwork tunnel lining was
built under the tail of the shield, which was propelled by screw jacks.

The shield was an important advance in soft-groun tunnelling technique but it was not
followed up until in 1869, for the Tower of London subway, J.H. Greathead devised a
steel circular shield propelled by hydraulic rams for use with a tunnel lining of rings
of cast iron. This led to the outstanding development of shield tunnelling and later to
tube railway construction.

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For rock tunnelling the first important advances in technique were the development of
drills operated by compressed air and the introduction of dynamite, gelignite and
similar explosives. The famous alpine tunnels began with a double-track Mont Cenis
tunnel (8 mls 870yd), started in 1857 and completed in 1881.

With the development of the internal combustion engine the constructions of road
tunnels has become increasingly important. Here the problem of ventilation is acute
and much of the cost is in providing ventilation plant, shafts and duct space.

Architecture of Bridges and Greek Architectural Heritage

The architectural heritage of the modern world has abandoned all national frontiers:
today the creations of the most diverse countries are known everywhere and almost
intstantaneously. The abundance of contemporary documentation forces all purely
national traditions to the background.

The ''internationalism'' is nothing exceptional: how can one otherwise explain the
succession of styles as different as the gothic, in essence and origin French, the
baroque, all Italian, and neo-classicism, coming from the North? The source of each
style reflected perhaps a particular national temperament, but the extent of its

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infuence cannot be compared to its origin. We can say that modern art is American,
but it is more so in the imagination of the public, identifying the United States with
wealth and abundance, than in terms of architectural realities.

These past few years, Greek architects have tried to oppose a ''national'' tradition to
the influx of foreign influences, by demonstrating how factitious these influences are,
how unadaptable to the Greek world - which, on the contrary, is so maturely reflected
in the styles of the past (popular art). This by all means salutary reaction to the
cultural invasion of Europe, however, should not lead to the conviction that the styles
of the past - which, after all, are nothing but ''styles'' - definitely reflect the
temperament is embodied more or less successfully, in various styles and periods. The
gothic in Italy is not necessarilly, in various styles and periods. The gothic in Italy is
not necessarily repulsive, nor is the renaissance in France: we witness the adaptation
of a foreign tradition.

All modern architecture, in all countries, is poised between two traditions: on the one
hand, the civilization of our times, shared by the most different countries in the world.
On the other a properly local culture, often consisting of the most diverse styles,
which appear to have succeeded one another in history in the most disorderly fashion.
In each case, we note a rich accumulation of forms, habits and illusions, among which
one must select in order to create an art at once conforming to actual architectural
ideals ( rationalism, industrialisation, socialisation, sobriety), to the real needs of the
country.

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The bridge of Rio – Antirrio ‘Charilaos Trikoupis’

The Rio–Antirrio bridge, officially the Charilaos Trikoupis bridge after the statesman
who first envisaged it, is the world's longest multi-span cable-stayed bridge. It crosses
the Gulf of Corinth near Patras, linking the town of Rio on the Peloponnese to
Antirrio on mainland Greece.

Its official name is the Charilaos Trikoupis Bridge. Charilaos Trikoupis was a 19th-
century Greek prime minister; he suggested the idea of building a bridge between Rio
and Antirrio. The project was too expensive at the time, when Greece was trying to
get a late start in the Industrial Revolution.

The bridge was planned in the mid-1990s and was built by a French-Greek
consortium led by the French group Vinci, and which includes the Greek companies
Hellenic Technodomiki-TEV, J&P-Avax, Athena, Proodeftiki and Pantechniki. The
consortium operates the bridge under concession under its Γ.Ε.Φ.Υ.Ρ.Α. or
ΓαλλοΕλληνικός Φορέας Υπερθαλάσσιας ζεύξης Ρίου- Αντιρίου (G.E.F.Y.R.A.,
Greek for "bridge", French-Greek Carrier of Oversea Connection of Rio–Antirrio)
subsidiary. The lead architect was Berdj Mikaelian. Site preparation and dredging
began in July 1998, and construction of the massive supporting pylons in 2000. With
these complete in 2003, work began on the traffic decks and supporting cables. On
May 21, 2004, the main construction was completed; only equipment (sidewalks,
railings, etc.) and waterproofing remained to be installed. The total cost of the bridge
was about € 630,000,000, funded by Greek state funds, the consortium and loans by
the European Investment Bank. It was finished ahead of its original schedule, which
had foreseen completion between September and November 2004, and within budget.

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Due to the peculiar conditions of the straits, several unique engineering problems
needed to be considered. The water depth reaches 65 m, the seabed is mostly of loose
sediment, the seismic activity and possibility of tectonic movement is significant, and
the Gulf of Corinth is expanding at a rate of about 30 mm a year. For these reasons,
special construction techniques were applied. The piers are not buried into the seabed,
but rather rest on a bed of gravel which was meticulously leveled to an even surface (a
difficult endeavor at this depth). During an earthquake, the piers should be allowed to
move laterally on the seabed with the gravel bed absorbing the energy. The bridge
parts are connected to the pylons using jacks and dampers to absorb movement; too
rigid a connection would cause the bridge structure to fail in the event of an
earthquake. It was also important that the bridge not have too much lateral leeway so
as not to damage the piers. There is provision for the gradual expansion of the strait
over the bridge's lifetime.

On 28 January 2005, six months after the opening of the bridge, one of the cable links
of the bridge snapped from the top of the M1 pylon and came crashing down on the
deck. Traffic was immediately halted. The first investigation claimed that a fire had
broken out on the top of the M1 pylon, after a lightning strike in one of the cables.
The cable was immediately restored and the bridge re-opened.

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The bridge of Lefkada ‘Santa Maura’

Lefkada Island belongs to the insular cluster of the Ionian islands. It is 100 meters far
from Akarnania and it’s connected with the land with a floating bridge. The Lefkada’s
channel has width 50 meters and the capital of the island is Lefkada.Lefkada “Lefkon
Petra” (White Stone) according to Homer was known as Nirikos, the name of its
capital.

The bridge of Tempi

The bridge of Tempi is located on the National Road Larissa - Katerini. It has a total
length of 210 meters, width 14 meters and includes one bridge the Peneus River
(length 154 meters) and the other crossing over the railway line Larissa - Thessaloniki
(length 56 meters). The bridge is skewed to the river. The start of construction took
place in 1959 and completed in 1960.
Bridging the Peneus river consists of a central opening 73 meters and two apertures
on either side of 40.5 meters each. The deck of the bridge at a height of 18 meters
above the water level of the river. The body of the bridge has been constructed along
the entire length of prestressed concrete (concrete prekontrain). The section of the
overpass of the railway line consists of two openings (25.9 and 30.1 meters).

The foundation of the bridge presented many difficulties due to the great depth of the
river, the sandy subsoil composition and the presence of many large sources in the
positions of pedestals. Overall, the project required excavation 13.100 m3, 172 tons of
iron sheet piling, concrete 8.400 m3, 270 tons of steel reinforcement, prestressing
wires in 52. rock fills and 3.000 m3. The total cost of the bridge amounted to 13.6
million drachmas (with honors season). The project was designed and built by Greek
art. Technical study prepared by the civil engineer Gerard Nachnikian and
construction undertaken by the "Company Technical & Roadway Pavements."
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The bridge of Isthmus of Corinth

The Isthmus of Corinth is a narrow strip of land linking mainland Greece with the
Peloponnese and the canal that has been opened to him joining the Saronic Gulf of
Corinth. Has a width of about 6 km and the narrowest point is where is made the
Corinth Canal (1880-1893). The Isthmus of Corinth was a strategic point in the past
and for this reason was constructed wall since ancient times, which was maintained
until the Byzantine period (Examilion). Between the wall and the fence was the
diolkos, street through which transported goods and small ships to avoid
circumnavigation of the Peloponnese. The opening of the Isthmus of Corinth seems to
have had enough and occupied the ancient world. Julius Caesar rebuilt after the
foundation of Corinth, which 100 years ago was completely destroyed Mummios
designed the opening of the Isthmus of Corinth, who foiled the assassination.

Submersible bridge - Isthmian

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The new bridge of Halkida

The High Bridge Euripus (commonly referred to as New Chalkida bridge) is a cable-
stayed bridge over the Strait of Euripus in Evia, near Chalcis. It is part of the bypass
of Chalcis and joins the Boeotian coast near the cement factory with Euboean hill
batteries. It has a total length of 694.5 meters, width 12.5 meters usable headroom and
34.5 meters. The thickness of the deck is 45 cm, the thinnest in the world. The project
began in May 1985 and completed in 1993. The inauguration took place on July 9,
1993. The project cost reached 2.5 billion drachmas (with values of that era). The
bridge consists of accesses and the central part. The access bridges have length 4 x
35.875 meters (Boeotia) and 4 x 39 meters (Evia). The central portion of the bridge
length 395 meters is cable-in central opening 215 meters and side 2 x 90 meters. The
central portion is retained by cables every 6 meters. The foundation of the pillars was
at a depth of about 28 meters. Care has been taken to protect the project from ship
collision.

And the old bridge of Halkida

Life Cycle Cost Analysis

The purpose of a cost of living bridges is to determine the type and timing of repair
and rehabilitation actions on a bridge, economically and efficiently, during the
lifetime of the bridge. This analysis was undertaken (a) to evaluate the bridge as
public investment and (b) the comparison of different strategies for the repair of a
bridge course.

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The cost of a bridge for the managing authority is not exclusively spent on its
construction, the bridge since then requires constant maintenance and repairs in order
to achieve good structural condition and operation. Important role in the cost of living
bridges plays the "lifetime" of the bridge, i.e. the time for which the bridge can
provide with safety and economy services. The sequence of operations and
maintenance and repair and their effects, which determine the condition of the bridge
and the end of its service life called "life cycle" of the bridge. Within the life cycle,
the managing authority shall take decisions based on estimates of the costs and
benefits of these actions. Thus, the analysis of life cycle costs of bridges is a set of
economic principles and computational methods for calculating the initial and future
costs of a bridge and is aimed at finding an appropriate strategy to ensure the most
economical strategy which will provide a bridge satisfactory services.

The estimated cost for the analysis of both the managing authority and the users. But
regardless of who pays the cost can also be described as "normal", which refers to
periodic, planned maintenance of the bridge or "unexpected", which relate to specific
events which may affect the operation of the bridge.

The analysis of life cycle costs based on forecasts - forecasts compared to the results
of operations included in the life cycle. Corresponding estimates made for the cost of
operations. For this reason, the cost is no clear uncertainty.

Key role in the life of a bridge receives wear. Typical wear patterns included some
rudimentary maintenance of the bridge. However, without more extensive repairs,
only the minimum maintenance, the life of the bridge can be reduced significantly.
Apart from aging and wear of the bridge, the shelf life may be reduced because of the
inability to provide services from the bridge, due to increases in allowable loads
crossing the bridge, new regulations concerning the operation of the bridge,
socioeconomic impacts, etc.

Overall, the life cycle of a bridge depicted wearing both the bridge and the cash flows
related to the total cost of the bridge, both the management authority and the user.
Note that both the wear patterns and the level of detail in which the bridge is
considered important for the life cycle of bridges. The implementation cost can be
applied theoretically be applied to any level of detail, but the availability wear
patterns and other data determine the actual level possible implementation.

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