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Distance Characteristic
Donald D. Fentie
Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.
© 2016 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permission from IEEE must be obtained
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This paper was presented at the 69th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers and can
be accessed at: https://doi.org/10.1109/CPRE.2016.7914922.
For the complete history of this paper, refer to the next page.
Revised edition released April 2017
1
I. INTRODUCTION m ∙ Zr Operating Restraining
Mho distance elements continue to be popular for
transmission protection worldwide. In the past, as relay R
X 3 dZ1
δ1
3 δ = 90°
dZ2 Zr
Zr δ2 2
dZ
Z1 dZ3
2 δ3
(b) Z2
Z 1 Z3
R –2 –1 1 2
–2 –1 1 2
dZ ⋅ Z *= (
dZ ⋅ Z ⋅ cos (θ dZ − θ Z ) + j ⋅ sin (θ dZ − θ Z ) ) (7) Equations (16) and (17) show the circle-mapping technique
in terms of voltage:
Taking the real part of (7) yields the cosine comparator (8),
the result of which is positive if the impedance plots inside the Re ( Z r ⋅ I − V ) ⋅ V * =0 (16)
mho circle.
Re V ⋅ V *
Re dZ ⋅ Z * = dZ ⋅ Z ⋅ cos (θ dZ − θ Z ) > 0 (8) Zr = (17)
Re 1∠θ Zr ⋅ I ⋅ V *
Substituting (1) into (8) gives (9):
Renaming Zr as Zmapped in (15) yields (18):
Re ( Z r − Z ) ⋅ Z * > 0 (9)
Re Z ⋅ Z *
Equation (9) is often expressed in terms of voltage, as shown Z mapped = (18)
Re 1∠θ Zr ⋅ Z *
in (10), by multiplying each term by current, where V is the
measured voltage at the relay and I is the fault loop current, as Zmapped is the magnitude of the point of intersection between
described in Section III, Subsection A [1]. the dotted circle and the bolted fault locus, as shown in Fig. 5.
Re ( Z r ⋅ I − V ) ⋅ V * > 0 (10) This impedance is analogous to the per unit quantity r that is
mapped on the M-line [1]. In Fig. 5(a), Zmapped is positive and
The mho element in Fig. 4 is represented in terms of voltage less than the reach point Zr, so the element operates. In Fig. 5(b),
on the complex plane. Zmapped exceeds the reach point Zr, so the element restrains.
I∙X δ X
Impedance
50 3
mapped to
dV
line angle
Zr
40
I ∙ Zr 2 dZ
30
(a)
V
20 Zmapped 1
Z
10
R
I∙R –2 –1 1 2
–20 –10 10 20 30 Zmapped Zr
0 1 2 3
Fig. 4 Mho element in terms of voltage.
(
Re Z r ∠θ Zr − Z ⋅ Z =
0 ) *
(12)
Re Z r ∠θ Zr ⋅ Z * − Re Z ⋅ Z * =
0 (13) R
–2 –1 1 2
Re Z ⋅ Z *
Zr = (14) Zr Zmapped
Re 1∠θ Zr ⋅ Z * 0 1 2 3 4
Zr can also be mapped as a negative number in (14) by Fig. 5 Mapping a measured impedance to the line angle and corresponding
removing the absolute value sign, as shown in (15). number line for (a) A fault within reach point, (b) An external fault.
4
Equation (18) benefits us by reducing the number of Extensive research of polarization has resulted in the
comparator calculations to just one per relay-processing examination of several solutions [1] [2] [6] [7]. Cross-
interval, regardless of the number of mho zones. The output of polarization uses the unfaulted phases during a fault. For
the equation Zmapped is a scalar quantity that we can compare example, a BC mho element might use a shifted voltage vector
with the scalar mho reach points of all other zones. This method of VA for polarization instead of VBC. Also, an AG mho element
is more computationally efficient than performing (9) for each might use a shifted voltage vector of VBC for polarization
mho element. instead of VA. Positive-sequence voltage is another polarization
type that produces excellent results by using all three phases.
III. POLARIZATION The polarization techniques previously discussed are
unreliable for three-phase faults close to the relay because the
A. Polarization Choices
voltage on each phase is zero. One solution to this problem is
The term Zr ∙ I − V in (16) is defined as the operating quantity to use a memory filter in the polarization algorithm so that the
dV that can change by 180 degrees, depending on fault location, voltage decays slowly over many cycles [2]. This technique
as shown in Fig. 6. We then compare the operating quantity dV provides a way of dealing with a bolted three-phase fault at the
to the polarizing quantity, which is defined as the measured relay location for a period of time, depending on the memory
voltage V in (16). decay.
The polarizing quantities for self-polarizing and positive-
I∙X
sequence memory polarizing are shown in Table 1 for the six
50 fault loops.
V
45 TABLE 1
OPERATING AND POLARIZING QUANTITIES
40
Relay Self- Positive-Sequence Loop Current
35 dV Element Polarizing Memory Polarizing
30 Quantity Quantity
(a) I ∙ Zr
25 AG VA VA1mem IA + k0 ∙ IRES
20 BG VB VB1mem IB + k0 ∙ IRES
15 CG VC VC1mem IC + k0 ∙ IRES
10 AB VAB VAB1mem IA − IB
5
BC VBC VBC1mem IB − IC
I∙R CA VCA VCA1mem IC − IA
–15 –10 –5 5 10 15 20
We can replace the self-polarizing voltage V in (17) with the
positive-sequence memory voltage V1mem, as shown in (19). The
I∙X
numerator of (19) still contains the term V that was derived
60 from the operate quantity dV.
dV
50 I ∙ Zr Re V ⋅ V1mem*
Zr = (19)
40 Re 1∠θ Zr ⋅ I ⋅ V1mem*
(b) V
30 During a fault, the self-polarizing voltage at the relay
20
decreases on the faulted phases while the memory voltage
slowly decays from prefault levels. This causes the memory-
10 polarized mho circle to become larger than the self-polarized
I∙R circle because the angle comparison is now between Vp (V1mem)
–30 –20 –10 10 20 30 40 and dV, as shown in Fig. 7(b). The impedance equivalent of Vp
is the polarizing impedance Zp, as shown in Fig. 7(a). Even
Fig. 6 Operating quantity dV direction is determined by fault location for an without memory, positive-sequence voltage polarization causes
(a) External fault, (b) Internal fault.
the mho to expand. An exception is in the case of a close-in,
The angle of the polarizing term should remain relatively three-phase fault because the voltage is zero on all three phase.
constant during a fault. We call the mho element in Section II The memory voltage decays over time, causing the dynamic
the self-polarized element because the relay uses the voltage of circle to shrink. The steady-state resting point of the dynamic
the faulted phase(s) for polarization. This polarization circle depends upon several system parameters and the fault
jeopardizes the security and dependability of the element during type, as discussed in Section III, Subsection B. One benefit of
close-in faults because the voltage is too small to be accurately the dynamic expansion is the initial increase in resistive
measured. Modern relays use other forms of polarization that coverage provided by this expansion, without changing the
perform reliably for all fault types and locations. reach point.
5
X X
3 3
Zr Zr
2 dZ 2 dZ
Zp
1 Z 1 Z
Zp
R R
–2 –1 1 2 3 –1 1 2
ZS1
X X
3 3
Zr
Zr
2 2 dZ
1 1 Z
Zp
R R
–2 –1 1 2 –2 –1 1 2
b(mem)
0.5 ∙ ZS1
–1
Fig. 12 Vector bmem representation of expansion and steady state. Fig. 13 Phase-to-phase fault dynamic mho characteristic (steady state).
40 Zr
VC
IC 2 dZ
IB VA
–40 –20 20 40 60
1 Z
VB
–40
Zp
R
–2 0.8 ∙ ZS1 1 2
Fig. 17 BCG fault vectors for voltage and current.
–1
60
VC1mem 40
–40 –20 20 40 60
VB1mem –40
–60
Fig. 18 BCG fault relay vectors; dashed lines represent expanded memory
voltage vectors, and solid lines represent steady state.
9
60
VC X
40
4
VA
IA Zr
(a)
–40 2
VB
–60 Zp ZL1 + ZR1
VA1mem
X
–40 –20 20 40 60
3
–40 Zr
VB1mem
–60 2
(b)
Zp 0.8 ∙ (ZL1 + ZR1)
Fig. 21 AG fault relay vectors; dashed lines represent expanded memory
voltage vectors (not visible in this figure because the vectors are too short),
and solid lines represent steady state.
dZ
5) Reverse Fault R
We can simulate a reverse fault by shifting the fault current –2 –1 Z 1 2
phasors by 180 degrees; the voltage change is negligible for a
close-in fault on either side of the current transformers (CTs).
Fig. 22 Close-in reverse phase-to-ground fault dynamic mho characteristic
For a close-in reverse fault in Fig. 1(a), the relay measures fault with arc resistance added: (a) Maximum expansion, (b) Steady state. Note that
current supplied by the remote source ER. The relay source the dynamic mho (dashed circle) determines operation. The self-polarized
impedance is now in front of the relay, with respect to the fault mho (solid circle) is shown as a reference.
location, and equal to ZL1 + ZR1. Several impedance vectors change direction for a reverse
The source impedance begins in the first quadrant on the fault, causing the dynamic mho to shrink. Vectors Z and Zp
impedance plane and ends at the origin for an inductive system, reverse directions for faults behind the relay; Zr is constant in
as shown in Fig. 22. This represents the impedance from the the relay defined by the reach setting, and it continues to point
remote source to the relay location. Adding a small amount of in the forward direction. The polarizing impedance Zp points
fault resistance separates the vectors and allows them to be seen from the location of the source to the measured impedance Z.
more clearly. Because the dynamic mho is defined between the tail of Zp and
the tip of dZ, the dynamic circle becomes smaller than the self-
polarized mho under this condition.
A smaller operating characteristic during reverse faults
alleviates some directional security concerns regarding the mho
expansion. In Fig. 22(b), the distance between the origin and
the tail of Vector Zp initially equals | ZL1 + ZR1 |. At steady state,
Zp shrinks to 80 percent of its original value, Fig. 22(b), using
the parameters in Table 3. Over time, the decay in the
polarizing quantity is analogous to the forward AG event
described under “Phase-to-Ground Fault” in Section III,
Subsection B. We can apply similar logic to other reverse fault
types.
10
C. Load Flow
In a two-machine lossless system, such as in Fig. 1(a), with Im(V)
no fault, we can represent the power sent over the transmission
line by the power-flow equation shown in (24). 40
P1,2 =
ES ⋅ ER sin δ S , R( ) (24)
X total
(c)
where 20
VA VA1mem
δ S , R arg ( ES ) − arg ( ER )
= (25)
Xtotal is the total reactance between sources ES and ER. Power
flows from the source with the leading voltage angle, and this Re(V)
creates a positive-sequence voltage drop across the source 20 40 60
impedance; therefore, the positive-sequence memory voltage at
the relay is unequal to the source voltage at fault inception. The
Fig. 23 Voltage vectors during a three-phase fault with prefault current
memory voltage phase angle may shift, changing the position (positive power flow) on a homogeneous system with no fault resistance;
of the polarizing impedance Zp. compare (a) ES with VA, (b) ES with VA1mem, (c) VA with VA1mem.
The voltage drop across the source impedance is relatively
If we define Ifault as the fault loop current, we calculate the
small during prefault conditions when compared to a bolted
two impedance vectors as shown in (26) and (27).
fault. We simulate this in Fig. 23, which shows a three-phase
fault placed on a homogeneous system with positive power V1mem
Zp = (26)
flow and no fault resistance. VA1mem represents the prefault I fault
(memory) voltage, and VA is the measured fault voltage on
A-phase. VA
Z= (27)
I fault
If we extend the logic of (26) and (27) to all forward faults,
Im(V)
Vectors Zp and Z are separated by angle θ, as shown in Fig. 24.
40 For example, during an AG fault, θ represents the phase shift
ES
between VA and VA1mem. Over time, θ decreases as the memory
voltage decays.
(a)
20
dVA X
VA
3
Zr
dZ
Re(V)
20 40 60 2
θ
Z
1
Im(V) Zp
40 R
–2 2
ES
ES − Ipf ∙ ZS1
–1
(b)
VA1mem
20
Fig. 24 Positive load flow reducing resistive fault coverage by shifting the
dynamic mho to the left.
Re(V)
20 40 60
11
Vector VA1mem, and therefore Zp, increasingly lags the B. Testing Considerations
measured fault voltage VA for forward power flow as the Section III shows that the dynamic circle does not shrink
prefault current increases. This causes Zp to shift the dynamic back to the self-mho circle except in the case of a three-phase
mho circle to the left for forward load flow; reverse load flow fault. This may be confusing to a relay tester using a common
has the opposite effect. Four impedance graphs in Fig. 25 test procedure because the mho element appears to operate as if
illustrate this effect for different levels of load flow. the dynamic circle did not exist.
The dynamic mho element does not usually interfere with
testing because of the test voltages that are typically used.
X X
Table 4 lists several test voltages and currents used to test a
3 3
Zr Zr phase-to-ground mho circle by simulating an AG fault.
2 dZ 2 dZ
TABLE 4
(a) (b)
Z Z EXAMPLE TEST QUANTITIES
1 1
Zp Zp
R R Test Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4
–2 1 2 –2 1 2 Quantity
VA V (sec) 27∠0° 27∠0° 27∠20° 27∠−20°
VB V (sec) 67∠−120° 67∠−120° 67∠−120° 67∠−120°
X X
VC V (sec) 67∠120° 67∠120° 67∠120° 67∠120°
3 3
Zr Zr V1 V (sec) 53.67∠0° 53.67∠0° 53.21∠3.3° 53.21∠−3.3°
2 dZ 2 dZ
IA A (sec) 3∠−20° 1.6∠−60° 2.64∠−20° 3.19∠−20°
(c) (d)
Z Z
1 1 Note: IB = IC = 0 A.
Zp Zp
R R
–2 1 2 –2 1 2
The voltage angles in Tests 1 and 2 for VA, VB, and VC are,
respectively, 0, −120, and 120 degrees. This means that voltage
VA is in phase with V1mem; therefore, the impedance vector Z is
in phase with Zp.
Fig. 25 Dynamic mho during fault conditions with varying sending source
angle: (a) −40°, (b) −20°, (c) 0°, (d) 20°.
For an AG fault,
VA
Distance-element overreach for high-resistance faults during Z= (28)
heavy forward/reverse load conditions is a concern when I A + k0 ⋅ I R
applying distance elements. The adaptability of the positive- V1mem
sequence memory-polarized distance element minimizes Zp = (29)
I A + k0 ⋅ I R
overreaching concerns [11].
where IR represents the residual current, or sum of the phase
IV. TESTING current (IA + IB + IC). Vectors Z and Zp overlap because they are
in phase; therefore, the angle difference between Zp and dZ is
A. Justification for Testing
90 degrees when the measured impedance is on the self-
Dynamic mho expansion varies based on manufacturer polarized mho circle.
implementation of the elements. In one implementation, the The graphical results shown in Fig. 26 for Tests 1 and 2
time constant of the memory polarization is four cycles [2]. show that, in testing this way, the dynamic mho circle asserts at
We advise testing the dynamic mho when assessing the the same time as the self-polarized mho circle. With proper test
performance of the element on lines with series capacitors. The voltages, the user does not see the effects of the dynamic mho
dynamic mho expansion is necessary to detect forward faults circle.
that are directly in front of a line-end capacitor with bus-side
potential transformers (PTs) (see Section V, Subsection B).
Often, this type of testing employs a real-time simulator, where
the relay is included in the playback loop.
In practice, the static or self-polarized mho is tested
extensively at steady state; for most applications, the reach
point is the most important aspect of the element. We
recommend testing mho elements by using values from a
constant-source impedance model.
12
X
X
6
6
Zr Zr
4
dZ 4
dZ
(a)
2 (a)
Zp 2
Zp
Z R Z R
–6 –4 4
–6 –4 2 4
–2
–2
X X
6 dZ 6
Zr Zr
Z
4 4
Zp
dZ
(b)
2 2
(b) Z
R R
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6 –6 –4 –2 2 4
Zp
–2
–4
Fig. 27 Uncommon test values for an AG fault; dynamic mho shifts
(a) Test 3: Inside the static mho, (b) Test 4: Outside the static mho.
–6
This same element behavior also applies to the phase
elements. From Table 2, we obtain the following:
Fig. 26 Common test values for an AG fault; the dynamic mho does not
interfere with testing when the angle of VA and V1mem are equal: (a) Test 1, VBC1mem =− j ⋅ VA1mem ⋅ 3
(b) Test 2.
VBC is calculated as
Test 3, shown in Fig. 27(a), shows an example of where
V1mem lags VA and the dynamic mho circle moves inside the VBC =VB − VC =− j ⋅ VA1 ⋅ 3
static mho. In this scenario, the element does not operate until Both vectors are in phase using common test voltages;
the impedance enters the dynamic mho circle. Test 4, shown in therefore, Vectors Z and Zp are also in phase, and the dynamic
Fig. 27(b), shows the opposite scenario, where V1mem leads VA, mho circle does not affect testing. For a BC fault, we obtain the
causing a test impedance from the first quadrant to enter the following:
dynamic mho circle first and operate before reaching the static
mho. VBC
Z= (30)
I B − IC
VBC1mem
Zp = (31)
I B − IC
C. Verification
Often, we can draw the dynamic and static mho elements on
the same graph, but the dynamic mho element determines relay
operation. By performing a steady-state test, we can prove the
existence of the dynamic mho circle. We use the values shown
in Table 5 to test a relay with positive-sequence memory
voltage. Settings are shown in Table 6.
13
2 | IA | = 4.93 A ES ER
B. Expansion and Security Relay R2 initially restrains for the three-phase reverse fault
Mho elements are inherently directional, as shown in Fig. 8 but may eventually operate as the dynamic mho shrinks back to
and Fig. 22. Forward faults expand the dynamic element back the self-polarized mho. A properly set directional element that
towards the source, and reverse faults shrink the element in the supervises the mho element prevents relay operation even if the
first quadrant. impedance plots inside the dynamic mho circle. The
As with the use of other elements, there are some instances progression of the dynamic characteristic is shown in
where using the mho element poses a security concern. An Fig. 32(a). If the fault is not three-phase, the dynamic mho will
example would be for ground-distance element overreach not completely shrink to the self-polarized mho, as described in
during phase-to-phase-to-ground faults [1]. We can largely Section III. In most cases, the reach point Zr exceeds the series
mitigate these security concerns by supervising the mho capacitor reactance Xc; however, if the opposite is true, then R2
characteristic with directional and fault-identification logic [4]. will operate during mho expansion and restrain during steady
In such a special case as a series capacitor application, we state, as shown in Fig. 32(b).
strongly recommend transient simulations to ensure proper
dynamic operation. The capacitive impedance in these X
scenarios can place more emphasis on dynamic expansion for
proper relay operation. For example, in Fig. 30 we apply a 4
dZ 80%
X
(b) 60%
3 Z
40%
Zr
20%
2 Zr
0%
0.2
1 dZ
R
–0.4 –0.2 0.2 0.4
R
–2 –1 1 2 Fig. 32 Impedance diagram for Relay R2 in response to a reverse three-
Z phase fault on the opposite side of the series capacitor: (a) Case I: | Zr | > | Xc |,
Zp (b) Case II: | Zr | < | Xc |.
VII. REFERENCES
[1] E. O. Schweitzer, III and J. Roberts, “Distance Relay Element Design,”
Proceedings of the 46th Annual Conference for Protective Relay
Engineers, College Station, TX, April 1993.
[2] E. O. Schweitzer, III, “New Developments in Distance Relay Polarization
and Fault Type Selection,” presented at the 16th Annual Western
Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 1989.
[3] F. Calero, “Distance Elements: Linking Theory With Testing,” 62nd
Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, Austin, TX,
April 2009, pp. 333–352.
[4] D. Costello, “Determining the Faulted Phase,” 63rd Annual Conference
for Protective Relay Engineers, College Station, TX, April 2010,
pp. 1–20.
[5] H. Altuve Ferrer and E. O. Schweitzer, III, “Modern Solutions for
Protection, Control, and Monitoring of Electric Power Systems,”
Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc., Pullman, WA, 2010.
[6] S. Zocholl, “Three-Phase Circuit Analysis and the Mysterious k0 Factor,”
22nd Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA,
October 1995.
[7] L. M. Wedepohl, “Polarized Mho Distance Relay,” Proceedings of IEE,
Volume 112, No. 3, March 1965.
[8] H. Altuve, J. Mooney, G. Alexander, “Advances in Series-Compensated
Line Protection,” 35th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference,
Spokane, WA, October 2008.
[9] J. Zydanowicz, “Application of the Idea of Steady-State Impedance and
Admittance to the Construction of Diagrams Intended for the Analysis of
the Operation of Distance and Directional Relays and Protective
Schemes,” Conférence Internationale des Grands Reseaux Électriques à
Haute Tension, Paris, France, June 1960.
[10] L. P. Cavero, “Analysis of Complex Distance-Relay Characteristics
Taking Load Into Account,” IEE Conf. Publ. 185, 1980, pp. 192–194.
[11] J. Roberts, A. Guzman, and E. O. Schweitzer III, “Z=V/I Does Not Make
a Distance Relay,” presented at the 20th Annual Western Protective Relay
Conference, Spokane, WA, October 1993.