DESIGNING FOR

PERFORMANCE AND VALUE

W I T H E N G I N E E R I N G
T H E R M O P L A S T I C S

P L A S T I C S
E N G I N E E R I N G
D S M
 Our Mission is to
satisfy customers
with engineering resins
and specialty compounds
supported by leading-edge
technologies and
services resulting in
cost-effective solutions.
 Click on a topic in the table of contents to link directly to that page

DSM DSM Engineering Plastics Contents

Founded in 1902, DSM is a highly With a global organization of over Introduction 2

integrated international chemicals 1,000 dedicated employees DSM
and materials company. With annual has a strong position in the Nature of thermoplastic
sales of more than $7 billion and a Engineering Plastics field. materials 3
work force in excess of 23,000 peo- Dimensional stability 5
ple the company operates more than The company operates in all three
200 sites around the world. DSM’s major regions of the world: The
General design guidelines 9
activities are grouped into three clus- Americas, Europe, and Asia. In
ters: performance materials, poly- Engineering Plastics, DSM is one of
Assembly techniques 15
mers and industrial chemicals, and the fastest growing competitors with
Snap-fits 16
life sciences. The company’s princi- a strong emphasis on providing cost
effective solutions for complex needs. Welding 18
pal products are plastics, synthetic
Adhesive bonding 21
rubbers, fiber intermediates, and fine
The focus of DSM Engineering Mechanical fastening 24
chemicals for pharmaceuticals.
Plastics is on the production and
Mold design 28

P L A S T I C S
DSM has a strong technological base compounding of:
- Nylons (6, 6/6, 4/6) Mold construction 28
and good market positions. For sev-
eral products, including caprolactam, - Polyesters (PBT, PET) Runners 32
melamine, EPDM Rubber, and anti- - Polyester Elastomer (TPE-E) Gate design 33
infectives, DSM is a global market - Polycarbonate. Ejection systems 35
leader. The company has an estab- Mold cooling 36
In addition, we also produce a wide Tool steel 38

E N G I N E E R I N G
lished and growing position in perfor-
mance materials and life sciences. assortment of compounds and Surface finish 39
blends, including: Hotrunners 42
DSM continuously develops new - Conductive Thermoplastics
products and processes through a - Lubricated Thermoplastics DSM thermoplastics
research and development activity - Reinforced Polypropylenes. product range 44
focused on innovation and cost effec-
tive solutions. We have developed DSM Engineering Plastics is taking a DSM product portfolio 45
and patented numerous breakthrough long and distinguished history in the

materials for use in industry including
Stanyl® 46 nylon, the first high tem-
perature nylon, and Dyneema®, the
world’s strongest fiber.
With its products and services DSM
makes a meaningful contribution to
society providing directly and indi-
rectly for human needs such as food,
clothing, housing, health care, trans-
portation, and recreation.
D S M
compounding market and enhancing Contact information back cover
it with an integrated position as a
polymer producer. This results in a
fast, flexible, and customer focused
business which provides the market
with a portfolio of materials that are
well suited to meet the needs of a
wide variety of industries.
Commitment to the development of
new applications for Engineering
Plastics drives our research and
development efforts. The company
is a leader in the use of CAE
(Computer Aided Engineering) to
model and analyze potential oppor-
tunities. Ongoing assistance from
the Customer Service department
and the QS 9000 recognized manu-
facturing organization insures cus-
tomer satisfaction.

1
 Introduction
Designing in thermoplastics requires
a good understanding of the behav-
ior of materials processing, mold
design and assembly techniques.
DSM is a supplier of a broad range
of thermoplastics with a portfolio that
includes:
- Akulon® nylons
- Stanyl® 46 nylon
- Arnitel® copolyester elastomers
- Xantar® polycarbonate
- Arnite® thermoplastic polyester
- Electrafil® conductive thermoplastics
- Plaslube® lubricated thermoplastics
- Nylatron® lubricated thermoplastics
- Fiberfil® reinforced & filled
thermoplastics
Figure 1.1 Design considerations.
Tolerances
Aesthetic
Requirements
Processing
2
DSM is able to add value for our cus- The last section discusses mold
tomers by assisting in design and design. Again, the emphasis is on
processing. Our experience with our the interaction between mold design
products can eliminate problems that and thermoplastic, general principles
could otherwise slow the product about mold design and issues like
development process, and add hotrunners and tool-steel.
insight to help accomplish design
and performance objectives. For further assistance please contact
our technical support help desk at
The first section of this brochure 800-333-4237, extension 7785, or
addresses general design guide- your local sales engineer.
lines; an explanation about the char-
acteristics of thermoplastics and the
impact of the material properties on
the part design. The second section
is concerned with assembly tech-
niques; what techniques are avail-
able and what is the effect of the
technique on the design.
Material
Properties Mold
Construction
PRODUCT DESIGN Functional
Requirements
Economic
Factors
Table of Contents
Nature of thermoplastic materials

The process of developing thermo- Table 1.1 Different properties due to different molecular structures.
plastic parts requires a full under-
amorphous thermoplastics
standing of typical material proper-
ties under various conditions. This dimensional stability + notch sensitive –
chapter will discuss material charac- creep resistance + chemical resistance –
teristics in relation to their physical low shrinkage +
structure. transparency +
semi-crystalline thermoplastics
Thermoplastics can be categorized
by their molecular structure as either chemical resistance + warpage –
amorphous or semi-crystalline plas- fatigue resistance + –
tics. Amorphous polymers have a wear resistance +

P L A S T I C S
structure that shows no regularity. flow properties +
Semi-crystalline plastics, in their corrosion resistance +
solid state, show local regular crys-
talline structures dispersed in an
Figure 1.2 Semi-crystalline and amorphous polymer structures.
amorphous phase.

E N G I N E E R I N G
These crystalline structures are
formed when semi-crystalline plas-
tics cool down from melt to solid
state. The polymer chains are partly
able to create a compacted structure
with a relatively high density.

The degree of crystallization depends

on the length of the polymer chains,

D S M
the viscosity, the melt temperature
and the mold temperature.

Examples of DSM semi-crystalline

materials are Akulon PA6 and PA66,
Stanyl PA46, Arnite PBT, and Fiberfil
polypropylene. Examples of DSM
amorphous polymers include Xantar
PC and Stapron® C PC/ABS blends.

Table of Contents
3
 Molecular structure may cause Figure 1.3 Different loss of elasticity.
remarkable differences in properties.
The shear modulus curve illustrates
the temperature limits of a thermo-
plastic.

Typical properties are reviewed in

Table 1.1. Various properties are time
or temperature dependent. The
shear modulus, for instance,
decreases at elevated temperatures.
Figure 1.3 shows that the shape of
the curve is different for amorphous
and semi-crystalline thermoplastics.
Glass transition temperature (Tg) and
melt temperature (Tm) are indicated.

Figure 1.4 shows time dependent

creep moduli. Resistance against
creep is often higher for amorphous
polymers.

Due to higher densification of semi-

Figure 1.4 Differences in creep modulus.
crystalline plastics, a considerably
higher shrinkage should be allowed
(see Figure 1.2).

4 Table of Contents

Dimensional stability
Shrinkage. During injection mold-
ing the polymer melt is injected into
the mold. Once the mold is complete-
ly filled the dimensions of the molding
are the same as the dimensions of the
mold cavity at its service temperature
(see Figure 1.5-B). While cooling
down the polymer starts to shrink (see
Figure 1.5-C). During the holding
stage of the injection molding cycle,
shrinkage is compensated by post-fill-
ing/packing. Both the design of the
part as well as the runner/gate should
allow for sufficient filling and packing.
The process of shrinkage continues
even after the part has been ejected.
Shrinkage should be measured long
enough after injection molding to
take into account post-shrinkage
(see Figure 1.5-D).
Figure 1.5 Dimensional stability through time.
Part dimensions
Thermal expansion. An important Figure 1.6 Relation between the shrink-
age of glass fiber reinforced plastics
condition for the dimensions of a part and the orientation of the glass fibers
is the use of temperature. Thermo- (in thickness direction).
plastics show a relatively high thermal
expansion (10-4/ °C) compared to met-
als (10-5/ °C). Thermal expansion can-
not be ignored for large parts which
are used at elevated temperatures
(see Figure 1.5-F).
Isotropic versus anisotropic
shrinkage. Both unfilled and miner-
P L A S T I C S
al-reinforced thermoplastics are large-
ly isotropic with respect to shrinkage;
shrinkage in flow direction is about
equal to the shrinkage across flow.
The glass fiber reinforced grades, on
the other hand, show anisotropic
E N G I N E E R I N G
properties. Due to fiber orientation in
the direction of the melt flow, shrink-
age values in flow direction often are
substantially smaller than across flow
direction (Figure 1.6).
Sum of Dimensional Deviations
D S M
A
Mold dimension at 23°C
B
Thermal expansions of metal
due to mold temperature
C
Part mold shrinkage
D
Post shrinkage through volume relaxation
E
Water absorption (polyamide)
F
Thermal expansion due to use temperature
Table of Contents
5
 Moisture absorption in Figure 1.7 Effect of time and humidity on moisture absorption.
polyamides. Akulon and Stanyl
parts, like all polyamide moldings,
show dimensional changes (increase)
after molding due to moisture absorp-
tion (see Figure 1.7). Moisture absorp-
tion is a time dependent, reversible
process which continues until an equi-
librium is reached. This equilibrium
depends on temperature, relative
humidity of the environment and the
wall thickness of the molding.

A change in moisture content will

result in different product dimensions.
The designer should anticipate varying
humidity conditions during use of the
product (see Figure 1.5-E). The mois-
ture absorption of reinforced grades
differs from those of the unfilled
grades.

The moisture content not only affects

Figure 1.8 Dimensional effect of moisture absorption.
the dimensions but also various impor-
tant properties. Yield stress, modulus Akulon® PA6
of elasticity and hardness decrease
PA6 + 30% GF
with increasing moisture absorption,
while toughness shows a considerable PA66
increase. PA66 + 30% GF

Stanyl® PA46
Although polyamide moldings are
already comparatively tough in the PA46 + 30% GF
dry state, the high toughness, which
Arnite® PET + 35% GF
is characteristic of Akulon and Stanyl,
PBT
is not reached until the material has
absorbed 0.5-1 moisture. Unreinforced PBT + 20% GF
Stanyl already shows a dry as mold-
Xantar® PC
ed impact resistance twice as high
as other polyamides, so conditioning PC + 20% GF

is less critical. Stapron® C ABS/PC

Fiberfil® PP UF & GF
Shrinkage values. Many factors
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
may influence shrinkage. It is not pos- Both Directions
Shrinkage of DSM Polymers (%)
sible to predict exact shrinkage values In Flow Direction
for a specific polymer grade. Therefore, Across Flow Direction
the maximum and minimum values for
the various DSM thermoplastics are
given in Figure 1.8.

6 Table of Contents
Example of dimensional stabil- Figure 1.9 Dimensional stability of Akulon PA6/PA66/ Stanyl PA4/6.
ity. Examples of the dimensional sta-
Akulon PA6
bility of unfilled and reinforced Akulon

% Dimensional Increase
and Stanyl are shown in Figure 1.9. 2

For polyamide grades in general, the

swelling of the thickness is substan- 1
tial, especially when compared to the A

swelling in the two other directions.

0
This should be taken into account
C
when designing parts with thick walls.

% Shrinkage
-1
Dimensional deviations/toler- B

P L A S T I C S
ances. All factors discussed influ-
ence the final dimensions of the part. -2

The maximum dimensional deviation

of the part is the sum of the individual
Akulon PA66
contributing factors (see Figure 1.5). 2
% Dimensional Increase

E N G I N E E R I N G
Tolerances and product costs. 1
Establishing the correct tolerances
A
with respect to the product function is
0
of economic importance. The design-
er should be aware that dimensions C
with tight tolerances have a big influ-
% Shrinkage

-1
ence on the costs of both product
and mold. B

-2

D S M
Stanyl PA46
2
% Dimensional Increase

A
1

A % swelling at equilibrium moisture content at 23°C

(73°F) and 50% RH 0
C
B % shrinkage (dry)
C % shrinkage - % dimensional increase (Important
value for the calculation of mold cavity dimensions) -1
% Shrinkage

B
mineral reinforced (PA6 30%, PA66 40%)
glass fiber reinforced (PA6 30%, PA66 35% & PA46 30%) -2

unreinforced

1) wall thickness in this example 4 mm (0.16 in)

direction perpendicular to wall thickness 1)
of flow direction of flow

Table of Contents 7
 Even slightly over specifying toler-
ances may adversely influence tool
costs, injection molding conditions
and cycle time. It is recommended to
indicate only critical dimensions with
tolerances on a drawing.
Depending on the application, a divi-
sion into three tolerance classes can
be made:
- normal; price index 100
- accurate; technical injection mold-
ing; price index 170
- precise; precision injection mold-
ing; price index 300.
The most important characteristics of
the tolerance classes are given in
Table 1.2.
Mold design, mold cavity dimensions,
product shape, injection-molding con-
ditions and material properties deter-
mine the tolerances that can be
obtained.
Table 1.3 gives a summary of the fac-
tors that play a major role in establish-
ing dimensional accuracy.

Table 1.2 Characteristics of the tolerance classes.

Normal Accurate Precise

Standard tool making techniques Accurately dimensions mold cavities High-precision molds

Multiple cavity molds Multiple cavity molds occasionally Only single-cavity molds

Conditions adapted for Molding conditions more critical Molding conditions carefully
low-cost manufacturing controlled

Scrap can be reused Reuse of injection-molding scrap Processing scrap not allowed
possible to a limited extent

Random inspection Statistical quality control Statistical process control

Table 1.3 Factors affecting parts tolerance.

Part Design Material Properties Processing Mold Design

Product use Shrinkage (isotropic or anisotropic) Machine capacity Mold cavity tolerances

Wall thickness(es) Dimensional stability Injection pressure/speed Number of cavities

Draft Viscosity Holding pressure/time Runner system

Symmetry Reinforcements Melt and mold temperature Ejector system

Surface finish Clamping force Cooling system

Dimensions; length Reproducibility Design/Layout

Table of Contents
8
General design guidelines
The characteristic behavior of different
polymers has to be taken into account.
A number of general design principles
will be discussed in this chapter.
Wall thickness. The shrinkage
behavior of thermoplastics depends
on cooling of the thermoplastic from
processing temperatures to ambient
temperature. It is important to achieve
proper cooling, and thus predictable
shrinkage, over the part.
While observing functional require-
ments, keep wall thicknesses as thin
and uniform as possible. In this way
even filling of the mold and anticipat-
ed shrinkage throughout the molding
can be obtained in the best way.
Internal stresses can be reduced.
Figure 2.1 Wall thickness transition.
Figure 2.2 Sharp corners.
Wall thickness should be minimized to
shorten the molding cycle, obtain low
part weight and optimize material
usage. The minimum wall thickness
that can be used in injection molding
depends on size and geometry of the
molding and on the flow behavior of
the material. Where varying wall thick-
nesses are unavoidable for reasons of
design, there should be a gradual
transition as indicated in Figure 2.1.
Generally, the maximum wall thick-
ness used should not exceed 4 mm
(0.16 in). Thicker walls increase mate-
rial consumption, lengthen cycle time
considerably, and cause high internal
stresses, sink marks and voids (see
Figure 2.3a and b).
Table of Contents
Corners. An important principle is
to avoid sharp internal corners. Due to
the difference in area/volume-ratio of
the polymer at the outside and the
inside of the corner, the cooling at the
outside is better than the cooling at
the inside. As a result the material at
the inside shows more shrinkage and
so the corner tends to deflect (see
Figure 2.2). In addition, a sharp inter-
nal corner introduces stress concen-
tration.
P L A S T I C S
A rounded corner has:
- uniform cooling
- little warpage
- less flow resistance
- easier filling
- lower stress concentration
E N G I N E E R I N G
- less notch sensitivity.
D S M
9
 Ribs and profiled structures.
If the load on a structural part requires
sections exceeding 4 mm (0.16 in)
thickness, reinforcement by means of
ribs or box sections is advisable in
order to obtain the required strength
at an acceptable wall thickness.
Figure 2.3a Sink marks due to large
wall thickness.
Figure 2.3b Voids due to large wall
thickness.
10
Ribs and box sections (Figure 2.4 and
2.5) increase stiffness, thus improving
the load bearing capability of the
molding. These reinforcing methods
permit a decrease in wall thickness
but impart the same strength to the
section as a greater wall thickness.
Figure 2.4 Example of wall thickness reduction.
Figure 2.5 Example of a profile structure.
Table of Contents
The use of ribs substantially reduces
internal stresses that normally occur
during shrinkage in thick sections.
From an economical point of view, the
use of ribs results in savings of mater-
ial and shorter molding cycles.
Ribs are preferably designed parallel
to the melt flow and should be thin-
ner than the wall to be reinforced.
The thickness of a rib must not
exceed half the thickness of the wall
as indicated in Figure 2.6.
Ribs with a thickness larger than half
the wall thickness will cause clearly
visible sink marks on the surface of
the wall opposite the ribs. In addition,
Figure 2.6 Example of rib structure.
Figure 2.8 Influence of rib design on flow behavior of the melt.
thick ribs may act as flow leaders Examples of how to avoid large wall
causing preferential flows during thicknesses at the rib connections
injection. This results in weld lines are shown in Figure 2.7.
and air entrapment as shown in
Figure 2.8.
Due to the same phenomena the ori-
entation of glass fibers will be affect-
Figure 2.9 Influence of gating on glass
ed. The flow patterns are clearly visi- fiber orientation and shrinkage of the
product.
ble and spoil the appearance of the
molding.
P L A S T I C S
E N G I N E E R I N G
Figure 2.7 Rib structures.
D S M
Table of Contents 11
 Glass fiber reinforced thermo- Figure 2.11 Warpage due to unfavorable gate location.
plastics. The degree of glass fiber
orientation depends on several fac-
tors such as:

- the wall thickness of the molding

- the position and type of gating
- the gate size
- the injection speed.

In general, there will be a higher glass

fiber orientation in thinner wall sec-
tions, e.g. less than 2 mm (0.08 in)
and as injection speed increases. A
high injection speed is required to
obtain a smooth surface.

The direction of orientation is influ-

enced by gate type and location and,
of course, by the shape of the prod-
uct (see Figure 2.9).

Warpage. An incorrectly dimen-

sioned or located gate may also
result in undesirable flow patterns in
the mold cavity. This can lead to
moldings with visible weld line (see
Figure 2.10) or deformation by warp-
ing or bending (see Figure 2.11).

Figure 2.10 Influence of gate location on flow behavior of the melt.

12 Table of Contents
Another factor related to the gate Figure 2.12 Design of a timing belt pulley.
location is the pressure build-up in
the cavity. If the pressure build-up is
not uniform, partial over-packing may
cause warpage. Uniform mold cool-
ing is especially important. A differ-
ence in temperature between mold
halves or inadequate temperature
control will give uneven cooling and
thus warpage.

In order to avoid or minimize warpage

P L A S T I C S
the following guidelines should be
considered:

Product
- design for structural integrity
- use adequate radii

E N G I N E E R I N G
- design with uniform wall thicknesses
- allow for sufficient draft angle.
See also Figures 2.12, 2.13, and 2.14.

Mold
- optimize gate location
- select the best gating system
- ensure that gate and runners are

D S M
adequately dimensioned
- design effective cooling lay out
- use sufficient ejection surface.

Figure 2.13 Example of a design study of a multiconnector.

Table of Contents 13
 Figure 2.14 Alternative B may result in mold construction cost savings of 60 %
compared with design A.

Figure 2.15 Example of a design study for an electric motor shield based on
polyester to replace on aluminum shield.

14 Table of Contents
Assembly techniques

Molded or machined components of Figure 3.1 Assembly techniques for Akulon and Arnite.

DSM thermoplastics can be assem-

bled using various joining techniques. Permanent assembles Detachable assembles
Reliable and efficient joints in engi-
neering applications need to be Snap fits Snap fits
specifically designed on a case by Welding Screwing
case basis. Note that joints always _ vibration welding _ self-tapping screws
create weaker spots in a product _ ultrasonic welding _ inserts: molded-in inserts or
therefore, it is best to design a joint in _ hot plate inserts installed by
a non-critical area.
Adhesive bonding ultrasonic insertion

Optimal joints can be obtained when

P L A S T I C S
some quantitative criteria have been
defined, e.g. mechanical strength.
Relevant tests should be developed.
Process optimization and control is of
primary importance for application
engineering. Standard solutions do

E N G I N E E R I N G
not exist.

The choice of a technique depends

on the following considerations:

- functional requirements of
assembly
- material of the components
(thermoplastic, thermoset, metal)

D S M
- dimensions of components
- disassembly/recycling
- production volume
- costs.

For disassembly during product

service life, detachable joints are
advised like snap fits and screws.
Note that screwing may be time
consuming and a variety of screw
threads and heads exist.

For recycling purposes it may be

inconvenient to remove incompatible
parts like metal inserts and screws.
Pre-determined breaking points might
be incorporated in areas that experi-
ence low stress levels under service
load. Figure 3.1 gives a summary of
conventional assembly techniques.

Table of Contents 15
 Figure 3.2 Snap-fit cantilever beam type.
Snap-fits

The snap-fit method is an assembly

technique that fully utilizes the
mechanical properties of plastics.
Thermoplastic parts can be fitted
rapidly and economically to other
components made of metal, glass,
plastics, etc. A snap-fit offers two
advantages in disassembly. If the
assembly is accessible it can be easi-
ly disassembled. If it is not accessi-
ble, it acts as a pre-determined break-
ing point.

Snap-fits can be found in a wide vari- Figure 3.3 Snap-fit cylindrical type.
ety of shapes. Two examples of typi-
cal snap-fit geometries are the can-
tilever beam type (see Figure 3.2) and
the cylindrical type (see Figure 3.3).

Designing a snap-fit is rather complex

due to a combination of factors:

- the functional requirements

of the product
- the requirements for the assembly
- the mechanical properties of the
thermoplastic
- the design of the mold and
notably part ejection.

Figure 3.4 Factors for calculating the cantilever beam for a snap-fit.

16 Table of Contents
Example: the cantilever beam.
A simple type of snap-fit, the cantilever
beam, is demonstrated in Figure 3.4
which shows the major geometrical
parameters of this type of snap-fit.
If a snap-fit fails during assembly, the
maximum deflection of the cantilever
beam most likely exceeded the deflec-
tion limit of the thermoplastic used. The
equation in Figure 3.5 gives the relation
between the cantilever beam geometry
A common factor causing failure of a
snap-fit is the inside radius (r) or lack
thereof. An inside radius which is too
small will induce stress-concentra-
tions. These sections with high stress-
es are often weak because the deflec-
tion limit is reached sooner.
The mating force required to assem-
ble and the separation force required
to disassemble the snap-fit is deter-
mined by a different set of parame-
and the friction between the snap-fit
and the mating material are relevant
properties.
In most cases the number of snap-fits
can be changed. Bending loads on
the cantilever beam after assembly
should be avoided due to possible
creep. The designer should be aware
that both the possibility of breakage
and the required force to (dis)assem-
ble can be handled more or less inde-

and the deflection limit.
The four parameters that can be
changed by the designer are:
P L A S T I C S
ters. In addition to the previously pendently.
discussed parameters, the support
angle (θ1) and the guide angle (θ2)
as well as the stiffness of the material

- the height of the snap-fit lip (h) is

E N G I N E E R I N G
Figure 3.5 Permissible deflection for snap-fits.
directly related to the performance
of the lip. Changing the height
might reduce the ability of the
snap-fit to ensure a proper con-
nection. GF

- the thickness of the beam (t) is

uniform over the length of the GF

beam in this example. A more GF

D S M
effective method is to use a
tapered beam. The deflection of GF
the beam will reduce and the
stresses are more evenly spread GF
over the length of the beam.
- increasing the length of beam (L)
is the best way to reduce strain as
it (L) is represented squared in the
equation.
- deflection limits (ε) of DSM ther-
moplastics are indicated in Figure
3.5. Since the snap-fit is only a
small part of a product, it is better
to design snap-fit dimensions
based on a thermoplastic chosen
than to choose the thermoplastic
to make a specific snap-fit work.

Table of Contents 17
 The calculations used in the example
are a simplification. In general, the
stiffness of the part the snap-fit is
connected to is important. The formu-
las mentioned only roughly describe
the behavior of both the part geome-
try and the material. On the other
hand, the approach can be used as a
first indication if a snap-fit design and
material choice are feasible. Examples
of the cantilever beam are shown in
Figure 3.6.
Welding
Welding of thermoplastic parts is
based on interdiffusion of molecular
chains. This requires elevated temper-
Figure 3.6 Example of proper snap-fit design.
Alternative B results in mold construction cost savings compared with design A.
18
ature, pressure and time to achieve
good mechanical bond. In addition,
this helps to clean the weld surfaces.
There exist a variety of welding tech-
niques. Most popular are vibration/
spin, ultrasonic and hot plate welding.
Vibration/spin welding. Vibration
welding is a resonant process at
100-400 Hz and a linear amplitude of
0.5-2.5 mm (0.02-0.10 in). The weld
surface is heated by solid coulombic
surface friction. After melting, viscous
forces take over and the melted
region starts to flow. When vibration
stops, the welds cools down and
solidifies. Typical cycle time is 10 sec-
onds; weld pressure 0.5-5 MPa (73-
725 psi). Product size is not limited; in
Table of Contents
general products larger than 200 mm
(8 in) are joined with this technique.
During welding a special mold is
required for fixturing the components.
Spin welding is a similar process, but
it is restricted to cylindrical parts with
a maximum diameter of 250 mm
(10 in). Surface friction at rotational
speeds of 30,000-60,000 rpm is used
to create the weld.
To prevent part deformations during
welding it is common practice to
design a flange at the weld surface.
Proper welds will always show flash.
For aesthetic purposes the part can
be designed to hide the weld. Due to
the weld a loss in the overall length of
0.2-0.4 mm (0.01-0.02 in) should be
taken into account. Correct alignment
of the components is important.
Figure 3.7 shows some typical weld
designs, which are self-centering. The
stiffness of the tapered sections
should be high enough to avoid defor-
mation during welding.
Figure 3.7 Typical weld designs for spin welding.

.
.

P L A S T I C S
E N G I N E E R I N G
Figure 3.8 Typical weld designs for ultrasonic welding.

D S M
. .

. .

.
.
.
.

Table of Contents 19
 Ultrasonic welding. Ultrasonic
welding is a fast and effective welding
technique for parts with a weld joint
smaller than 200 mm (8 in) in length.
The welding equipment consists of an
ultrasonic generator running at a fre-
quency of 20-40 kHz and an amplitude
of 10-50 mm, a booster for amplifica-
tion and a horn to transfer energy to
the component.
The combination of the booster and
horn is unique for each design. Specific
attention of the supplier is required.
When using glass fiber reinforced ther-
moplastics the horn needs a special
surface treatment to prevent abrasion.
The weld zone is melted instanta-
neously by internal friction. Typical
cycle time is 1 second; welding pres-
sure 1-10 MPa (145-1450 psi). The
mechanical strength of an ultrasonic
weld may reach a value of 70 to 80%
of the original strength of the material,
Figure 3.9 Indication of hot-plate temperature for DSM materials.
20
however the actual strength is very
much dependent on the specific
geometry and materials being welded.
Drying before welding is not always
necessary to obtain high quality. DSM
drying guidelines for injection molding
can be followed. If the effect of mois-
ture is unclear, it is advisable to test its
influence on welding strength.
Components may be conditioned for
testing by submerging overnight in
water in advance of welding.
Melting takes place at the weakest
spot of the part. Therefore, it is often
advised to use a line contact at the
welding surface. Two standard shapes
depicted in Figure 3.8A, 3.8B and 3.8C
are used frequently for amorphous
thermoplastics: the energy director
principle and the shear joint. In gener-
al, a shear joint is advised for semi-
crystalline thermoplastics because of
their short melting range. Note that the
˚C ˚F
Table of Contents
weld can be hidden either on the
inside or on the outside corner to
improve appearance. The efficiency of
energy transfer to the weld surface
depends largely on the type of ther-
moplastic. Stiff parts with low mechan-
ical damping properties can be easily
welded. The distance between horn
and weld surface may be larger than
6 mm (0.24 in) (distant welding).
Polyolefins should always be welded
under near field conditions (less than
6 mm (0.24 in)), because of their
semi-crystalline structure and their rel-
atively low elastic modulus.
Internal sharp corners cause stress
concentrations. The use of fillet radii
is strongly advised when using ultra-
sonic assembly. Proper welds always
give flash.
Hot plate welding. Hot plate weld-
ing uses thermal energy to melt the
welding zone through heat conduction.
It is a time consuming process; typical
cycle time 60 seconds.
Welding pressure is relatively low, 0.1-
0.5 MPa (15-73 psi). Part size is unlim-
ited. The recommended plate tempera-
ture depends largely on the specific
thermoplastic. Amorphous plastics
require a temperature of 80-160°C
(175-320°F) above the glass transition
temperature (Tg). Semi-crystalline
materials are best welded at 40-100°C
(100-210°F) above melting temperature
(Tm). A PTFE coating is used to pre-
vent parts from sticking.
Recommended hot-plate temperatures
for DSM polymers are listed in the
table found in Figure 3.9. The plate
direction should be between 60° and
90°. Proper welds will give flash. To
improve appearance the flash may be
trapped as indicated in Figure 3.9. A
loss in the overall length should be
accounted for, due to the weld.

Adhesive bonding
The significant criteria for adhesive
bonding are surface wetting and cur-
ing of the adhesive to join compo-
nents of various materials, e.g. ther-
moplastics and metals. Important vari-
ables for the application of adhesive
and distribution on a substrate are
surface contact angle, adhesive vis-
cosity and chemical resistance of
substrate to adhesive.
In general, adhesion is based on vari-
ous mechanisms as shown in Figure
3.10. Interdiffusion is limited by crys-
tallites, therefore, it tends to be more
complicated to accomplish good
adhesion on semi-crystalline com-
pared to amorphous thermoplastics.
Adhesion on nonpolar thermoplastics,
e.g. polyolefins, will improve consider-
ably when the surface is pretreated
using corona, UV-plasma or flame.
Poor adhesion takes place when the
adhesive layer does not stick properly
to the substrate. Pretreatment, e.g.
sanding, may be helpful.
Specific advantages of adhesives are:
- application on various substrates
like thermoplastics, thermosets,
elastomers and metals
- homogeneous distribution of
mechanical loads
- differences in thermal expansion
of components may be compen-
sated in thick adhesive layers
- good aesthetics - no special
requirements to hide the bond.
Potential limitations are:
- long term behavior
- reproducibility/process control
- curing time
- disassembly.
Figure 3.10 Impression of different adhesive mechanisms.
Adhesives. A wide variety of adhe-
sives are commercially available. The
performance on some DSM thermo-
plastics and the influence of pretreat-
ment is shown in Table 3.1. The val-
ues indicated are based on lap shear
strength (in MPa).
Epoxy. Various epoxy adhesives are
available with different characteristics
and properties. Based on curing
mechanism a division can be made
as follows:
- 2 component hot or cold curing
- 1 component hot curing
- UV-curing.
Standard epoxy adhesives are brittle
and show a low peel strength. To
improve toughness modified epoxy
adhesives have been developed. The
use temperature varies between - 40
and 80°C (-40-180°F) for cold curing
systems. Hot curing epoxies can nor-
mally be used up to 150°C (300°F).
In general, large deviations in lap
shear bonding strength show up
depending on the particular combina-
tion of adhesive and material.
Table of Contents
P L A S T I C S
With some plastics, pretreatment can
give considerable improvements. The
adhesion of epoxies is susceptible to
E N G I N E E R I N G
oils and grease.
Polyurethane. Polyurethane adhe-
sives are relatively inexpensive and
show good adhesion. Varieties exist
from elastomeric to rigid. According to
the curing mechanism several types
are distinguished:
D S M
- 1 component thermosetting
- 2 component catallized
- reactive hot melts.
Polyurethane adhesives are tough and
show a high peel strength. They can
be used at temperatures between
-80 and 100°C (-110-210°F).
Adhesion on engineering plastics is
good. Degreasing is often sufficient to
obtain the required bonding strength.
Polyurethanes are not suitable for use
with polyolefins.
21
 Acrylic. Acrylics are flexible and
tough. Fast curing takes place at
room temperature. Care should be
taken joining amorphous thermoplas-
tics as environmental stress cracking
may occur. Several systems are
available:
- 1 component UV-curing used for
transparent plastics
- 2 component premix
- 2 component no-mix.
Good adhesion is obtained on amor- A very high lap shear bonding
phous thermoplastics. Pretreatment strength can be obtained with most
may improve the lap shear bonding engineering thermoplastics. Unfilled
strength considerably. polyesters and polyolefins show mod-
erate results. Effective primers are
Cyanoacrylic. Cyanoacrylics are available to improve the bonding
fast curing systems but rather brittle, strength of polyolefins.
which results in low peel strength and
impact properties in the joint area of
the component. Rubber modified
cyanoacrylics have been developed
to improve toughness.

Use temperature is between -55 and

120°C (-70-250°F). Acrylics show
excellent peel strength and are tough.

Table 3.1 Performance of DSM thermoplastics and the influence of pretreatment.

Epoxy Polyurethane Acrylic Cyanoacrylic

2 comp 1 comp

Akulon
PA 6 uf/gf 3/10 6 7 10* 10*
PA 66 uf 4 8 3 10 5
gf 4 8 4 - 10

Arnite
PBT uf 1 6 3 - 1
gf 2 9 4 - 5
PET uf 2/6 /10 5/7 /8 2\
gf 4/10 /10 7/10* 1/10* 8*

FIberfil
PP gf 1/7 /2 1/6 4 /5

Xantar
PC uf/gf 10* - 7* 5 7

* depending on specific combination plastic/adhesive indication value of lap shear strength in MPa; 10 indicates > 10 MPa.

22 Table of Contents
Design for adhesive bonding.
The load on the assembly can be
applied in several ways as indicated
in Figure 3.11. Thin layers are advised
in case of lap shear. Peel and split
loads are best taken up by a thick
layer of adhesive.
Figure 3.11 Lapshear, peel, split, tension and compression.
General design guidelines are:
- design for lap shear loads
- maximize the bonding surface
for instance, use a scarfed or a
dovetail joint
- avoid stress concentrations at
thick-thin sections
- take care of sufficient venting on
substrate.
Recommended joint designs are
given in Figure 3.12. Hermetic seals
required for containers and bottles are
accomplished with the designs shown
in Figure 3.12A and B. Joint C is more
universal.

P L A S T I C S
E N G I N E E R I N G
Figure 3.12 Joint designs for adhesive-bonded assemblies.

D S M
.

Table of Contents 23
 To ensure successful joining with
adhesives it is important to know the
functional requirements of the assem-
bly and possibilities/limitations of the
adhesive in combination with the sub-
strate. The following checklist might
prove useful:
- product: design joints specific for
adhesives
- mechanical load: lap shear, peel,
split or tensile
- life of joint: use temperature,
environment, relative humidity
- thermoplastic substrate: mechani-
cal properties, wetting, moisture
absorption
- adhesive: temperature and chemi-
cal resistance
- pretreatment: cleaning, etching,
sanding, oxidation, primer
- safety: MSDS (Material Safety
Data Sheet) chart.
ences in thermal expansion, stresses Inserts as shown in Figure 3.13, espe-
could be built up at the metal/plastic cially developed for ultrasonic inser-
interface. It is also essential that the tion, are commercially available in var-
inserts be clean and free of any ious types and sizes.
process lubricants.
Recommendations about hole diame-
Ultrasonic insertion. The insert is ters (see Figure 3.13 A1 and B1) and
pressed in a hole in the plastic. The insertion conditions are available from
ultrasonic energy melts the plastic manufacturers of inserts and ultrason-
around the insert. Once the insert is ic equipment.
pressed in the plastic freezes off
evenly around the insert. Molded-in
inserts may cause failures because
the metal part might induce sink-
marks, internal stresses and warpage.
Figure 3.13 Inserts for ultrasonic insertion.

The moisture content of polyamides

does not show a remarkable influence
on the bonding strength. It is advis-
able to do some bonding tests with
conditioned parts prior to production.

Mechanical fastening

Inserts. Insertion is a way to create

a connection that can be assembled
and disassembled repeatedly without
problems. A metal part is inserted in
the thermoplastic. The most common-
ly used insertion techniques, molded-
in and ultrasonic, will be discussed in
more detail.

Molded-in inserts. The insert is put

into the mold (cavity) during the injec-
tion molding cycle. It is important to
heat the inserts to near the mold tem-
perature before molding. Due to differ-

24 Table of Contents
Ultrasonic insertion gives a shorter Figure 3.14 Molded-in inserts undercut with grooves and knurls.
molding cycle than molded-in inser-
tion. However, it also represents an
additional manufacturing process.
Care should always be taken to
ensure the insert is solidly embedded
in the substrate.

Recommendations:

- design simple inserts with under-

cuts for pull-out retention and

P L A S T I C S
grooves or knurls for torque reten-
tion (see Figure 3.14)
- avoid sharp corners
- use brass, stainless steel or plat-
ed steel inserts; raw steel inserts
may rust

E N G I N E E R I N G
- use clean inserts to safeguard
optimal interfacing between the
metal and the thermoplastic (free
from oil, grease, etc.)
- ensure that adjacent walls
have sufficient thickness to
prevent the insert from being
pulled out during assembly

D S M
- keep knurls away from part
edges for notch sensitivity.

Table of Contents 25
 Screw assembly. Self tapping Figure 3.15 Thread design system PT Figure 3.16 Thread design system for
for plastics up to 40% GF. plastics up to 40% GF.
screws for the assembly of plastic
parts can be distinguished into thread
cutting screws and thread forming
screws.

Thread cutting screws cut the thread

during assembly. That means that
every time the screw is assembled
some material will be cut away. For
that reason this type of screw is not
recommended for repeated assembly
and disassembly. In general, self tap-
ping screws are used for thermosets
with a low elongation at break and low
plastic deformation.

Thread forming screws do not cut but Figure 3.18 Example of boss designs
Figure 3.17 Boss design. (provided adequate fillet radius).
deform the thermoplastic. Close to the
screw the stresses can be high. If this
Boss Ø
type of screw matches the screw
dc
geometry as described in this chap-
ter, they can be used for the range of
(0.3 ÷ 0.5) x d

DSM thermoplastics. Thread forming

screws can be used for repeated 2/3 S (REF)

assembly and disassembly. Figures di Hole Ø

3.15 and 3.16 give an example of

such screws.
S

With regards to screw geometry the d = Nominal Ø of screw

dc = d + 0.2 mm
following requirements should be
observed:

- thread flank angle: as small as

possible (30°) in order to obtain
small radial tensions in the boss
- thread core design: possibly pro-
filed in order to allow a trouble-
free material flow during the
thread-forming process
- thread pitch: possibly below 8°
in order to obtain dynamically
secure joints.

26 Table of Contents
In special cases the usefulness
should be established by means of
component tests. For the optimum
construction the recommendations in
Table 3.2 apply. In order to find out
the recommended hole-boss diameter
of insertion depth, the given factors
should be multiplied with the normal
diameter of the corresponding screw.
A cylindrical lead-in counterbore,
according to Figure 3.17, should be
considered in the design in order to
reduce edge stress.
When using screw assembly, a distinct
difference can be noticed between
the torque required to assemble and
that required to overturn the screw.
This allows for automatic assembly
without damaging the screw or the
thermoplastic part.
During the assembly process a maxi-
mum speed of about 500 rpm should
be observed. Higher speed and the
resulting friction may melt the material.

P L A S T I C S
Table 3.2 Recommended boss design (source Ejot).

Material PT Screw System Insertion Depth

Hole Ø Boss Ø di

Akulon PA 6 and PA 66 0.75 x d* 1.85 x d 1.70 x d

E N G I N E E R I N G
PA 6 + 30% gf 0.80 x d 2.00 x d 1.90 x d
PA 66 + 30% gf 0.82 x d 2.00 x d 1.80 x d

Stanyl PA 46 0.73 x d 1.85 x d 1.80 x d

PA 46 + 30% gf 0.78 x d 1.85 x d 1.80 x d

Arnite PET & PBT 0.75 x d 1.85 x d 1.70 x d

PET & PBT + 30% gf 0.80 x d 1.80 x d 1.70 x d

D S M
Xantar PC 0.85 x d 2.50 x d 2.20 x d
PC + 30% gf 0.85 x d 2.20 x d 2.00 x d

Fiberfil PP 0.70 x d 2.00 x d 2.00 x d

PC + 30% gf 0.72 x d 2.00 x d 2.00 x d

*d = nominal screw diameter

Table of Contents 27
 Mold design

Mold design and construction Table 4.1 Mold mounting dimensions.

requires special attention for optimal Molding Machine Mold
product quality and reliable molding.
A detailed specification is required in minimum/maximum mold height mold closed height
advance: opening stroke ejection stroke
- product shape and tolerances tie bars spacing mounting plate dimensions
- mold in relation to molding mounting holes or grooves knockout pattern
equipment knockout pattern locating ring diameter
- parting lines; venting nozzle alignment length of sprue bushing
- number of cavities insertion depth of nozzle sprue bushing radius
- runner lay-out and gating system nozzle radius sprue orifice diameter
- ejection system nozzle orifice
- cooling system lay-out
- type of tool steel
amount of plastic that can be injected or ejection side. Both sides together
- surface finish.
per shot. The weight of the molding enclose one or more cavities. Relevant
should not exceed 80% of the maxi- details are shown in Figure 4.1. High
Mold-machine combination.
mum shot weight. quality molds are expensive because
The mold should be tuned to the
labor and numerous high- precision
injection molding equipment with
machining operations are time-con-
respect to mold mounting, injection
Mold construction suming. Product development and
unit and clamping force. Relevant
manufacturing costs often can be sig-
molding machine data can be found
A standard injection mold is made of nificantly reduced if sufficient attention
in Table 4.1. The maximum shot
a stationary or injection side contain- is paid to product and mold design.
weight of the injection unit is the
ing one or more cavities and a moving

Figure 4.1 Impression of a standard injection mold.

28 Table of Contents
The minimum plasticizing capacity Figure 4.2 Cammed mold for part with undercut cams move in vertical direction
depends on the relationship between when mold is opened.

shot weight and cooling time. For

example, molding 300 g (0.66 lbs) in
30 seconds requires a minimum plasti-
cating capacity of 36 kg/hr (79 lbs/hr).

The required clamping force of a

molding machine is determined by the
cavity pressure during the injection/
holding stage and the projected area
of the part in the clamp direction.

P L A S T I C S
Various factors affect the molding
pressure, e.g. length over thickness
ratio of the molded part, injection
speed and melt viscosity. Typical Figure 4.3 Three-plate mold with two stripper plates for ejection.
injection pressures are 40-50 N/mm2
(5000-8000 psi), resulting in a
required clamp force of 0.4-0.5

E N G I N E E R I N G
tons/cm2 (3-4 tons/square inch).

The way in which the mold is con-

structed is determined by:

- shape of the part

- number of cavities
- position and system of gating

D S M
- material viscosity
- mold venting.

A simple mold with a single parting

The method of construction is deter- The opening stroke is limited by
line is shown in Figure 4.1. More
mined not only by the part shape and adjusting bolts, which also operate
complex molds for parts with under-
material properties (flexibility, rigidity, stripper plate A.
cuts or side cores may use several
shrinkage) but also by the part
parting lines or sliding cores.These
requirements. Cams, and rotating Runners are stripped from slightly
cores may be operated manually,
cores for example, may be used for undercut cores at the injection side.
mechanically, hydraulically, pneumati-
external screw threads, but consider- Then, the mold is opened at the main
cally or electro-mechanically.
able increase in costs will result. parting line. Stripper plate B ejects
the parts.
Figure 4.2 shows an example of a
Three-plate molds, as shown in Figure
sliding cam. The cam pins which
4.3, have two parting lines that are
operate the cams are mounted under
used in multi-cavity molds or multiple
a maximum angle of 20° - 25° in the
gated parts. During the first opening
injection side. The angle is limited
stage automatic degating takes place
because of the enormous force which
when the parts are pulled away from
is exerted on these pins during mold
the runners.
opening and closing.

Table of Contents 29
 To vent the air in the mold cavity it
must be able to escape during mold
filling. If there are insufficient vents
compression of air may take place.
The pressure and local temperature
rise quickly, potentially causing
incomplete filling or even burning of
the thermoplastic.
Venting should be taken into account
in the design stage and positioned at
the last points to fill.
If the air is trapped with no way out to
the mold parting line, it is advisable to
place a venting pin/ejector pin to per-
mit the air escape through the clear-
ance between pin and hole.
Dimensions of venting channels can
be read from Figure 4.4; the dimen-
sions are chosen in such a way that
air can escape without flash.
Figure 4.5 Total part costs in relation to number of cavities.
30
Inadequate venting may result in vari-
ous molding failures:
- burnt spot
- weak and visible weld lines
- poor surface finish
- poor mechanical properties
- incomplete filling, especially
in thin sections
- irregular dimensions
- local corrosion of the mold
cavity surface.
Multi-cavity molds. The number of
cavities and mold construction
depend both on economical and tech-
nical factors. Important is the number
of parts to be molded, the required
time, and price in relation to mold
manufacturing costs. Figure 4.5
shows the relation between the total
part costs and the number of cavities.
Table of Contents
Figure 4.4 Construction of a venting
channel.
cavity
.
vent
relief
.
all dimensions mm
The gating system and gate location
can limit the design freedom for multi-
cavity molds. Dimensional accuracy
and quality requirements should be
accounted for.
The runner lay-out of multiple-cavity
molds should be designed for simul-
taneous and even cavity filling.
Unbalanced runner systems lead to
unequal filling, post-filling and cool-
ing of individual cavities which may
cause failures like:
- incomplete filling
- differences in product properties
- shrinkage differences/warpage
- sink marks
- flash
- poor mold release
- inconsistency.
Examples of unbalanced runners are
shown in Figure 4.6. With computer
aided flow simulation it is possible to
adjust primary and secondary runner
dimensions to obtain equal filling pat-
terns. Adjusting runner dimensions to
achieve equal filling may not be suffi-
cient in critical parts to prevent
potential failures. Special attention is
required for:
30 cm3 (1.83 in3), shot weight 36 g Figure 4.7 Naturally balanced runner
systems.
(1.3 oz) and a projected area of 20
cm2 (3.1 in2) including runners
requires about 5 kN/cm2 (36 tons)
clamping force.
The maximum number of cavities
based on the clamping force would
be 12. It is advisable to use only
80% of the barrel capacity, thus the
number of cavities in this example is
limited to 6.

- very small components
- parts with thin sections
- parts that permit no sink marks
- parts with a primary runner length
much larger than secondary
runner length.
P L A S T I C S
When very short cycle times are
expected the total number of cavities
may be further reduced. A 6-cavity
mold in this example requires a shot
weight of 216 g (8 oz). The cooling

E N G I N E E R I N G
time must be at least 8.7 seconds.
It is preferred to design naturally bal-
anced runners as shown in Figure 4.7. Figure 4.6 Unbalanced runner systems.

When high quality and tight toler-

ances are required the cavities must
be uniform. Family molds are not
considered suitable. Nevertheless, it
might be necessary for economical

D S M
reasons to mold different parts in one
mold. The cavity with the largest
component should be placed nearest
to the sprue.

The maximum number of cavities in a

mold depends on the total cavity vol-
ume including runners in relation to
the maximum barrel capacity and
clamping force of the injection mold-
ing machine.

Number of cavities. A given

molding machine has a maximum
barrel capacity of 254 cm3 (7 in3), a
plasticizing capacity of 25 g/s
(1 oz/second), 45 mm screw
(1.77 in screw) and a clamping force
of 1300 kN (150 tons). A PC part of

Table of Contents 31
 The flow resistance can be decreased Full trapezoidal channels in one of the
Runners
by rounding off all corners in the run- two mold halves provide a cheaper
ner system. alternative (see Figure 4.8).
The runner system is a manifold for
distribution of thermoplastic melt from
Runners with circular cross-section The rounded off trapezoidal cross
the machine nozzle to the cavities. The
affect favorable melt flow and cooling section combines ease of machining
sprue bushing and runners should be
for their optimal surface area to vol- in one mold half with a cross section
as short as possible to ensure limited
ume ratio (see Figure 4.8). However, it that approaches the desired circular
pressure losses in the mold.
takes more effort to build circular run- shape. The height of a trapezoidal
ners because one half must be runner must be at least 80% of the
The sprue is provided with a cold slug
machined in the fixed mold part and largest width.
well with a reversed taper and will be
the other half in the moving mold part.
extracted from the cavity side when the
The diameter of a runner highly
mold opens. Runners should be pro-
This option is expensive as the two depends on its length but must never
vided with cold slug wells at the end of
halves must match each other with be smaller than the largest wall thick-
primary and secondary runners.
high accuracy. Semi-circular runners ness of the product. Recommended
are not recommended because of runner dimensions can be taken from
Streamlining of runners prevents irreg-
large heat losses. Table 4.2.
ular melt flow with air entrapments as
a potential consequence.

Figure 4.8 Cross sectional area of various runner profiles.

D x 1.192 D x 1.192

10˚ 10˚

D D

D x 0.839

D Full Round Trapezoid Modified Trapezoid

(in) (mm) (in2) (mm2) (in2) (mm2) (in2) (mm2)

1/8 3.2 0.012 8.0 0.016 10.4 0.015 9.7
3/16 4.8 0.028 18.1 0.036 23.4 0.033 21.8
1/4 6.4 0.049 32.2 0.063 41.6 0.059 38.7
5/16 7.9 0.077 49.0 0.099 63.4 0.092 59.0
3/8 9.5 0.110 70.9 0.143 91.6 0.133 85.3
7/16 11.1 0.150 96.8 0.194 125.1 0.181 116.4
1/2 12.7 0.196 126.7 0.254 163.8 0.236 152.4
5/8 15.9 0.307 198.6 0.397 256.7 0.369 238.9

32 Table of Contents

Gate design
The location of gates is of great
importance for the properties and
appearance of the finished part. The
melt should fill the entire cavity quickly
and evenly. For gate design the fol-
lowing points should be considered:
- locate the gate at the thickest section
- note gate marks for aesthetic reasons
- avoid jetting by modifying gate
dimensions or position
- balance flow paths to ensure
uniform filling and packing
- prevent weld lines or direct
to less critical sections
- minimize entrapped air to
eliminate burn marks
- avoid areas subject to impact or
mechanical stress
- place for ease of degating.
A distinction can be made between
center and edge gating of a part.
Center gated parts show a radial flow
of the melt. This type of gate is particu-
larly good for symmetrical parts, such
as cup shaped products or gears,
because the cavity can fill evenly and
give very predictable results. On the
other hand, linear flow and cross flow
properties often differ. In flat parts, this
can induce additional stress and result
in warpage or uneven shrinkage.
Because of their simplicity and ease of
manufacture, edge gates are the most
commonly used. These work well for a
wide variety of parts which are injec-
tion molded. Long narrow parts typi-
cally use edge gates at or near one
end in order to reduce warpage. But it
is very difficult to mold round parts
using this type gate as they tend to
warp into an oval shape.
Sprue gate. Direct gating with the (0.03-0.25 in). Smaller gates may
sprue provides simplicity for symmet- induce high shear and thus thermal
ric, center gated single cavity molds. degradation. Reinforced thermoplas-
tics require slightly larger gates ∆ 1
This type of gating is particularly suit- mm (0.04 in). The maximal land length
able for thick moldings because hold- should be 1 mm. Advised gate dimen-
ing pressure is more effective. A short sions can be found in Table 4.3.
sprue is favored, enabling rapid mold
filling and low pressure losses. A special version of pin point for cylin-
drical parts is the multiple point gate.
In general, the diameter at the begin- Three plate molds and multiple point
ning of the sprue should be approxi- gates are often employed in the mold-
P L A S T I C S
mately 0.5 mm (0.02 in) larger than ing of critical tolerance parts such as
the orifice of the nozzle. A minimum gears.
total taper of 3° is required. The junc-
tion of sprue and part should be Tabs can be regarded as unrestricted
radiused to prevent stress cracking. gates. Tabs offer an alternative for pin
After demolding, the sprue is mechan- point side gating to eliminate jetting
E N G I N E E R I N G
ically removed from the part. and reduce local strains.
Pin points. Pin points are popular for
aesthetics reasons and ease of degat-
ing. They offer an inexpensive solution
in standard two plate multiple cavity
Gate diameters for unreinforced ther-
moplastics range from 0.8 up to 6 mm
D S M
Table 4.2 Maximum runner lengths for specific diameters.
Runner Diameter Maximum Runner Length
Low Viscosity High Viscosity
(in) (mm) (in) (mm) (in) (mm)
1/8 3 4 100 2 50
1/4 6 8 200 4 100
3/8 9 11 280 6 150
1/2 13 13 330 7 175
Table 4.3 Dimensions of gates.
Wall Thickness mm (in) Gate Diameter / Length mm (in)
0.7 - 1.2 mm (0.02 - 0.05) 0.7 - 1.0 / 0.8 - 1 (0.02 - 0.04 / 0.03 - 0.04)
1.2 - 3.0 mm (0.05 - 0.12) 0.8 - 2.0 / 0.8 - 1 (0.03 - 0.08 / 0.03 - 0.04)
3.0 - 5.0 mm (0.12 - 0.20) 1.5 - 3.5 / 0.9 - 1 (0.06 - 0.14 / 0.04 - 0.04)
> 5.0* mm (0.20) 3.5 - 6.0 / 0.8 - 1 (0.14 - 0.24 / 0.03 - 0.04)
* wall thickness larger than 5 mm (0.20 in) should be avoided
Table of Contents 33
 Figure 4.9 Gate designs.

. .

. .

34 Table of Contents
Tunnel gates. Tunnel or sub-surface
gates enable automatic degating after
ejection. The tunnel can be located
either in the moving mold half or in the
fixed half. A sub-gate is often located
into the side of an ejector pin on the
non-visible side of the part when
appearance is important. To degate,
the tunnel requires a good taper and
must be free to bend.
Line/edge gates. Line gates are
used for distribution of melt along
edges of parts. A land length of
0.5-1 mm (0.02-0.04 in) is required.
Degating takes place in a post-mold-
ing operation.
A flash gate is used for long flat thin
walled parts and provides even filling.
Shrinkage will be more uniform which
is important especially for fiber rein-
forced thermoplastics.
A fan gate uniformly spreads the flow
from the sprue or runner to the part
edge. This type is often used for thick
sectioned moldings and enables slow
injection without freeze-off, which is
favored for low stress moldings.
Cylindrical parts requiring good con-
centricity and strength can be molded
in single cavity molds using a
diaphragm gate or internal ring.
Uniform radial mold filling is achieved
without weld lines. External rings are
applied for multi-cavity concentric
moldings where diaphragms can not
be used.
Ejection systems
The method of ejection has to be
adapted to the shape of the molding
to prevent damage. In general, mold
release is hindered by shrinkage of
the part on the mold cores. Large
ejection areas uniformly distributed
over the molding are advised to avoid
deformations.
Mold release is largely simplified
when the part is sufficiently tapered in
the mold opening direction. The
required draft depends on:
- height of the molding
- rigidity of thermoplastic during
ejection
- shrinkage
- material flexibility
- complexity of shape
- ejection system
- surface texture.
In general, rigid thermoplastics need
less draft. Side walls with a rough sur-
face generally require more draft than
smooth walls. It is recommended to
apply a draft of approximately 1° per
side. For small moldings a draft of
0°30’ may be sufficient depending on
Figure 4.10 Draft (A) in mm for various draft angles (B) as
a function of molding depth (C).
Table of Contents
shape and wall thickness. Larger
moldings require a draft of 2° or 3°.
Sometimes a draft angle is not
allowed, then the injection molding
conditions will have to be adapted to
ensure removal of the product.
Figure 4.10 shows the draft in mm for
various draft angles as a function of
height of the molding.
Several ejector systems can be used:
P L A S T I C S
- ejector pin or sleeve
- air valve
- stripper plate.
When no special ejection problems
are expected, the standard ejector pin
E N G I N E E R I N G
will perform well. In case of cylindrical
parts like bosses a sleeve ejector is
used to provide uniform ejection
around the core pin.
D S M
35
 A central valve ejector is frequently between cavity wall and the molding. often operated by means of a draw
used in combination with air ejection Release can be improved by break- bar or chain.
on cup or bucket shaped parts ing the vacuum with an ejection
where vacuum might exist. mechanism.
Mold cooling
A high-gloss surface can have an A stripper plate or ring is used when
adverse effect on mold release ejector pins or valves would not oper- Mold cooling serves to dissipate the
because a vacuum may arise ate effectively. The stripper plate is heat of the molding quickly and uni-
formly. Fast cooling is necessary to
obtain economical production and
Figure 4.11 Basic principle of cooling channels.
uniform cooling is required for product
“w” “d” “a” “b” quality. Adequate mold temperature
control is essential for consistent
wall thickness of diameter of the center distance center distances molding. The lay-out of the cooling
the product cooling channels with respect to between cooling circuit warrants close attention.
mm (in) mm (in) mold cavity channels

2 (0.08) 8 - 10 (0.31 - 0.40)

Optimal properties of engineering
plastics can be achieved only when
2 - 4 (0.08 - 0.16) 10 - 12 (0.40 - 0.47) 1.5 - 2 d 2-3d
the right mold temperature is set and
4 - 6 (0.16 - 0.24) 12 - 14 ( 0.47 - 0.55) maintained during processing. The
mold temperature has a substantial
effect on:

- mechanical properties
- shrinkage behavior
- warpage
- surface quality
- cycle time.

In particular semi-crystalline thermo-

plastics need to cool down at optimal
crystallization rate. Parts with widely
varying wall thicknesses are likely to
deform because of local differences in
Figure 4.12 Position of cooling channels. the degree of crystallization.

In general, the cooling system will be

roughly drilled or milled. Rough inner
surfaces enhance turbulent flow of
coolant, thus providing better heat
exchange. Cooling channels should
be placed close to the mold cavity
surface with equal center distances in
between (see Figures 4.11 and 4.12).
The mechanical strength of the mold
steel should be considered when
designing the cooling system.

36 Table of Contents
Some thermoplastics, like Arnite
and Xantar, may require mold
temperatures of 100°C (210°F) or
higher for optimal processing and
properties. Effective mold insulation
is advised to minimize heat loss
between the mold and the machine
mounting platens. Insulation boards
with low thermal conductivity and
relatively high compressive strength
are commercially available.
Care is required in the correct plac-
ing of seals; they may be damaged
by the sharp edges of the pocket
when the mold insert is mounted
Figure 4.13 Sealing and cooling channel lay-out.
Figure 4.14 Examples of core cooling.
(Figure 4.13). Seals or O-rings should
be resistant to elevated temperatures
and oils.
Guidelines for optimal mold tempera-
ture control:
- independent symmetrical cooling
circuits around the mold cavities
- cores need effective cooling
(see Figure 4.14 and 4.15)
- short cooling channels to ensure
temperature differences between
in- and outlet do not exceed 5°C
(10°F). Parallel circuits are pre-
Table of Contents
ferred over serial cooling as
shown in Figure 4.16
- avoid dead spots and/or air bub-
bles in cooling circuits
- heat exchange between mold and
machine should be minimized
- differences in flow resistance of
cooling channels, caused by
diameter changes, should be
avoided.
P L A S T I C S
E N G I N E E R I N G
D S M
37
 Mold parts that are excessively heat-
ed, like sprue bushings and areas
near the gates, must be cooled inten-
sively. Rapid and even cooling is
enhanced by the use of highly con-
ductive metals, such as beryllium-
copper. These metals are used to full
advantage in places where it is
impossible to place sufficient cooling
channels.
Tool steel
For injection molds there are several
steel types available. For long produc-
tion runs a durable mold is required.
The cost of tool steel is often not more
than 10% of total mold cost. Important
steel properties are:
Beryllium copper inserts may be used Figure 4.15 Examples of separate cool-
ing of core top.
for improved cooling near hot spots.
High heat conductivity is also required
for gate drops in hotrunner molds.
Standardization of mold parts is grow-
ing, not only for ejector pins, leader
pins and bushings, but also for mold
plates and even complete mold
bases. These standard mold bases
require only machining of the cores,
cavities and cooling channels and fit-
ting of an ejection system.
Advantages are:
- cost savings (30-50%)
- short delivery times
- interchangeability
- easy and rapid repair.

Figure 4.16 Cooling of the mold.

- ease of machining
- dimensional stability after
heat treatment
- wear resistance
- surface finish
- corrosion resistance.

Use of specific alloying elements like

carbon may increase single proper-
ties, however, often at the cost of
other properties. Table 4.5 shows
some popular grades of mold tool
steel.

Corrosion resistant hardened steels

should be selected when conventional
flame retardants are used. In the case
of halogen free flame retardant DSM
thermoplastics, standard steel types
can be selected.

38 Table of Contents
 Table 4.4 Price index for various surface finishing classes.
Surface finish

A high-gloss surface finish may be

Roughness Description Price
achieved with proper molding condi- µm Index

surface finish requirements

surface finish requirements
tions and polished mold cavities.
≤0.05 N0-N2 high gloss, no visible
High-gloss polished cavities require scratches or flow lines 1000
careful handling and protection during
0.1 N3 glossy, small, visible 500
processing. Mold maintenance needs scratches acceptable
more frequent attention.
0.2 N4 “technical” finish 200

Great care should be exercised when 0.8 N5 no aesthetical

requirements 100

P L A S T I C S
removing high-gloss parts from the
mold to avoid scratches.

Table 4.4 gives an indication of the

price index for the commonly used When high quality of textures are
surface finish classes according ISO expected use a low alloy tool steel
1302. with a limited carbon content

For low gloss, semi-matt or matt sur-
face finishes, the tool cavity needs
treatment to obtain fine to very fine tex-
tured structures. A matt surface is
obtained by vapor blasting techniques.
Basic steel roughness should be N3 or
better ra < 0.1 mm (0.004 in).
E N G I N E E R I N G
(< 0.45%). If nitriding is necessary,
it should be preceded by texturing.
After long periods of use the mold
surface deteriorates due to wear. Use
of glass fibers will increase abrasion.
Frequent checks of the surface condi-
tion are recommended.

Textured part surfaces have a special
visual and haptic appearance, e.g.
soft touch. Compared to other surface
treatments, textures are relatively
cheap.
Their popularity is based on:
- appearance (wood grain or
leather)
- functionality, e.g. anti-slip
- masking of molding defects.
D S M
Semi-crystalline thermoplastics are
often less scratch resistant when very
fine textures are used. Because of
their good flow properties, the mold
reproduction is better than that of
amorphous thermoplastics. Micro-
scopic ridges at the part surface may
be easily damaged with a finger nail.

Main texturing techniques are:

- photochemical etching
- EDM
- engraving
- brushing
- laser engraving.

Table of Contents 39
 Table 4.5 Steel types for injection molds.

Rockwell C Hardness

Corrosion Resistance
Abrasion Resistance
Chromium Content

Polishing Ability

Machinability

Weldability
Designation Type Usage

P-20 Prehardened 30-36 1.4% F F VG G F High grade mold base plates, hot runner
manifolds, large cavities & cores, gibs

420 Prehardened 30-35 13.6% F G E F F Best grade base plates (no plating
required); large cores, cavities, & inserts

420 Stainless 50-52 13.6% G VG E VG G Best all-around cavity, core, and

insert steel; best polishability

440C Stainless 56-58 17.5% VG VG E VG G Small to medium size cavities, cores

inserts, and stripper rings

H-13 Air Hardening 50-52 5.3% G F VG E G Cavities, cores, inserts, ejector pins,
and sleeves (nitrided)

S-7 Air Hardening 54-56 3.25% E F G E G Cavities, cores, inserts, & stripper rings

D-2 Air Hardening 56-58 12.0% E F G F P Cavities, cores, & runner gate
inserts for abrasive plastics

P = Poor F = Fair G = Good VG = Very Good E = Excellent

40 Table of Contents
Figure 4.17 Examples of textured structures.

P L A S T I C S
E N G I N E E R I N G
D S M

Table of Contents 41
 Figure 4.18 Cross-section of a basic hotrunner section.
Hotrunners

Historically, hotrunners were mainly

used in molds for thermally stable
plastics such as PP, PE and ABS.
Today these systems are becoming
more important when processing
amorphous and semi-crystalline engi-
neering plastics like PC, PA and PBT.

Figure 4.18 shows a schematic

cross-section of a hotrunner system.
It is often cost effective to produce
large volumes with hotrunner molds,
in spite of high investments. These
systems are used for a wide range of
applications.
Table 4.6 Advantages and disadvantages of hotrunner systems.

The electrical/electronic industry uses Advantages Disadvantages

small components, like connectors production increase (cycle) higher investments
and bobbins, that are molded in multi- material saving critical molding conditions
cavity molds. On the other hand, large quality improvement critical temperature control
multi-gated parts are used in the auto- less scrap start-up problems
motive industry, e.g. bumpers and automatic degating color change problems
dashboards. Yet both can benefit from energy savings abrasion (reinforced plastics)
the cost and technical advantages of flexible gating position
hot runners.

Cycle time reduction is possible when Table 4.7 Factors influencing selection of hotrunner systems.
cooling of a cold runner would deter-
Economy Process
mine the cycle time. Table 4.6 shows
typical advantages and disadvan- _ investments _ start-up
tages of hotrunner systems. _ number of parts _ total flow-path
_ cycle time _ pressure-distribution
_ material waste _ color-change
In selecting a hotrunner system, sev- _ energy _ melt homogeneity
eral factors have to be taken into _ regrind _ residence time
account (see Table 4.7).
Product Material
Taking all these factors into considera- _ dimensions _ flow-behavior
tion, there is still a choice between _ shot-weight _ melting temperature/range
many types and variations of hotrun- _ gate/sink marks _ process window
_ reproducibility _ thermal stability
ner manifolds and nozzles. General
_ required tolerances/warpage _ reinforcement
recommendations can not be given.
_ fiber-orientation _ additives
The best option depends on the ther-
moplastic and the requirements of the
specific application.

42 Table of Contents
The following guidelines
should be respected:
- natural runner balancing
- minimal pressure-losses
- sufficient heating capacity for
manifold and each single nozzle
- accurate, separate temperature
controls for manifold and nozzle
- effective insulation between
manifold and mold
Figure 4.19 Advantages and disadvantages of basic nozzle configuration.
Internally heated
nozzle/manifold.
Advantage
_ simple and cheap
_ solid construction
_ lower energy costs
_ no leakage
Disadvantage
_ temperature homogeneity
_ mainly for polyolefines
_ higher pressure losses
_ difficult color changes
_ high shear
- optimal mold temperature control With respect to externally and internal-
- no dead spots and flow restric- ly heated manifolds the same conclu-
tions in manifold and nozzles; sions are applicable as for nozzles.
- limited residence time of melt in
the hotrunner A relatively cheap and robust alter-
- adequate sealing of runners. native for hotrunners is the hotrun-
ner/ cold sprue. The hotrunner mani-
Figure 4.19 shows various basic types fold is followed by a short cold sprue
of nozzle configurations with their typi- that eliminates the use of expensive
cal advantages and disadvantages. nozzles.
P L A S T I C S
E N G I N E E R I N G
D S M
Externally heated Externally heated nozzle
nozzle/manifold. with needle valve.
Advantage Advantage
_ homogeneous melt temperature _ homogeneous melt temperature
_ small melt-volume _ small melt-volume
_ applicable for broad range of materials _ large gate diameter possible
_ low pressure-loss _ applicable for high viscosity and
thermally instable materials
_ easy colour change
_ process control
Disadvantage Disadvantage
_ high energy input _ high energy input
_ possible leakage _ insulation from cold mold necessary
_ insulation from cold mold parts _ costs
necessary _ high maintenance
_ costs _ high shear
Table of Contents 43
 DSM thermoplastics product range

DSM Engineering Plastics has devel- variety of resins, each with a unique ingly demanding requirements in new
oped a wide product portfolio in a profile of properties that meet increas- applications.

Type Properties Processing

Polyolefins

Fiberfil® reinforced homopolymer excellent resistance to chemicals; high notched impact injection molding
and copolymer strength copolymer PP; high flow, available in mineral
polypropylenes filled or glass reinforced grades for increased strength
and stiffness
Amorphous Thermoplastics

Xantar® polycarbonate (PC) high impact strength, ductile down to -80°C (-112°F); injection molding
temperature resistance, dimensional stability; self extin- and extrusion
guishing; transparent or opaque; available in unrein-
forced clear grades and glass fiber reinforced grades
for improved stiffness and dimensional stability

Electrafil® carbon black or EMI shielding; ESD protection injection molding

carbon fiber reinforced
polycarbonate

Semi Crystalline Engineering Plastics

Akulon® nylon 6 and 66 impact resistance; very high rigidity (GF) 5-12 GPa injection molding
(725,00-1,740,000 psi); good thermal stability; excel- and extrusion
lent flow; high arc tracking resistance; good resistance
to chemicals and aging; available either in unrein-
forced or reinforced with glass fibers or mineral fillers

nylon 4/6 continuous use temperature 150-170°C (302-338°F); injection molding

Stanyl®
good property retention at high temperatures; high stiff- and extrusion
ness (GF) 5-12 GPa (725,000-1,7440,000 psi); creep,
wear and fatigue resistance; compatible with most sol-
dering processes; available in unreinforced, glass fiber
or mineral reinforced grades

Arnitel® thermoplastic copolyester high temperature resistance; notched impact strength injection molding
elastomers down to -40˚C (-40˚F); excellent flexural fatigue: good and extrusion
resistance to chemicals and weathering; hardness
range from Shore D 40 to 75

Arnite® thermoplastic polyester
based on polyethylene
terephthalate(PET) or
polybutylene
terephthalate (PBT)
high gloss surface finish; good dielectric properties; injection molding
reinforced: very high stiffness 7-19 GPa (1,000,000 and extrusion
- 2,755,000 psi); high resistance to wear; low/con-
stant friction; resistant to chemicals; unreinforced;
impact strength; low creep; superior resistance to
long term wear

44 Table of Contents
DSM product portfolio

Akulon® Nylon 6 and 6/6 in both unreinforced and reinforced

nylons grades, including flame retardant products.

Stanyl® High temperature nylon which bridges the price-performance gap

46 nylon between traditional nylons and high-performance materials.

Arnitel® High performance elastomers based on polyester.

copolyester elastomers

P L A S T I C S
Xantar® Unreinforced, reinforced, and flame retardant grades with outstanding
polycarbonate impact resistance, dimensional stability, and high heat deflection
temperature.

E N G I N E E R I N G
Arnite® Unreinforced, reinforced, and flame retardant grades offering
thermoplastic polyester dimensional stability and low moisture absorption with good
chemical resistance.

Electrafil® Electrically conductive thermoplastic materials providing ESD and

D S M
conductive thermoplastics EMI shielding.

Plaslube® Internally lubricated nylons to enhance wear and friction properties.

lubricated thermoplastics

Nylatron® Internally lubricated nylons to enhance wear and friction properties.

lubricated thermoplastics

Fiberfil® Reinforced and filled polypropylenes.

reinforced & filled thermoplastics

Table of Contents
North American
Headquarters
DSM Engineering Plastics
P.O. Box 3333
2267 West Mill Road
Evansville, IN 47732-3333
Tel. 812 435 7500
Fax 812 435 7702
www.dsmep.com

Europe
DSM Engineering Plastics
Poststraat 1, 6135 KR
Sittard
The Netherlands
Tel. 31 46 47 70077
Fax 31 46 47 73535

Asia
DSM Engineering Plastics
Asia Pacific
152 Beach Road
#10-01-04 Gateway East
Singapore 189721
Tel. 65 299 6080
Fax 65 294 3808

1-800-333-4237
www.dsmep.com

© 2000 DSM Engineering Plastics Printed in the USA DBD•020052 04/00 2500

Stanyl®, Akulon®, Arnitel®, Arnite®, Xantar®, Electrafil®, Plaslube®, Nylatron® and Fiberfil® are registered trademarks of DSM Engineering Plastics.