CEGUERA TECHNOLOGICAL COLLEGES

Iriga City, Philippines

JONAS VILLAREAL FERMANTE & CHRISTIAN KYLE H. LOMAHAN

BS-Information Technology students

JOYLYN FATIMA V. ORASA

Computer Fundamentals 1 Instructor
Table of contents
Introduction to Internet Technologies……………………………………p1-p11

Internet Security……………………………………………………………………p12-p16

Internet Safety……………………………………………………………………...p-16-p18

Network Communication……………………………………………………...p18-21

Exercises……………………………………………………………………………….p21-

References……………………………………………………………………………
Introduction to Internet Technologies
Welcome to Internet Technologies, the second, and final course in the I-Net+ Certification
Series.
The certification program is specifically designed to prepare you to take the I-Net+ exam by
providing an overview of entry-level knowledge of Internet technology. This is the second in a
two-part series that teaches basic Internet terms and technologies. These are terms, types, and
technologies you will use throughout your Web developing experience.

Course goals
After completing the course, you will be able to:
1. Describe and evaluate the hardware and software you need to access the Internet
2. Describe the core components of the Internet infrastructure and how they relate to
each other
3. Troubleshoot problems with Internet connectivity using various diagnostic tools
4. Describe the nature and purpose of Internet protocols
5. Explain the purpose of HTTP
6. Explore search engines and best practice techniques for searching
7. Explain the basic methods used to keep connections to the Internet secure
In this course, you will learn with two kinds of applets:
1. Slide Show
2. Tool Tip

This work is aimed at people already familiar with using the Internet, who want to know how
and why it works. When I say technology, I do not mean the software and hardware, but also
the human components which are an integral part of the overall system of the Internet.
The Internet is a worldwide collection of computer networks that began as a single network
that was originally created in 1969 by ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency), a U.S.
government agency that was far more interested in creating projects that would survive a
nuclear war than in creating anything useful for the civilian population.
With ARPANET, the U.S. government hoped to create a network of computers that would allow
communication between government agencies and certain educational centers that would be
able to survive a nuclear explosion. It is doubtful that the original founders of ARPANET foresaw
what we now know as "the Internet." From its humble beginnings as a military project, the
ARPANET grew slowly throughout the 70's and 80's as a community of academics.
In addition to the U.S. ARPANET, other countries developed their own computer networks
which quickly linked up to ARPANET, such as the UK's JANET (1983 onwards), and Australia's
ACSnet (mid-1970s until replaced).
The various protocols, including IP, TCP, DNS, POP, and SMTP , took shape over the years, and
by the time the World Wide Web (HTML and HTTP) was created in the early 90's, this "Internet"
had become a fully functional, fairly robust system of network communication, able to support
this new pair of protocols which eventually turned the Internet into a household word.The
series
Internet Technologies is the second of two courses in the Internet Development Series. In the
next lesson, you will learn about prerequisites to this course.
Introduction to Accessing the Internet
As an Internet developer, it is important to know the mechanics of the Internet. You need to
understand about all the components and factors involved in accessing the Internet.
This module introduces you to the hardware and software you need to access the Internet. It
also introduces you to setting up essential elements of the infrastructure such as your desktop,
browser, and email. You will round out your learning with instruction on various Internet
services and the clients that enable them.

You will find learning the information almost as simple as learning your ABCs.
After completing this module, you will be able to:
1. Evaluate the hardware and software you need to access the Internet
2. Describe how to configure a desktop computer to access the Internet
3. Explain how to optimize a browser for performance
4. Explain how to configure a browser for cookies and Active X
5. Describe which protocols to use for sending and receiving email
6. Define the purpose and types of MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)
In the next lesson, you will learn about the three critical components of the Internet.
internet marketing is the fastest growing and most exciting branch of marketing today. As the
world becomes ever more connected, keeping up with developments and trends is vital for
marketers trying to reach new audiences. Technology and software are changing at such a high
rate that it seems almost impossible to keep up with trends. Products and services are evolving
and adapting to the online sphere. The web is constantly shifting, growing and changing. How
do savvy internet marketers cope with all this? They harness the power of the web and its
myriad tools for their own needs. They find unique and personal ways to interact with
customers online. They plan, organize, implement and measure complex internet-wide
strategies seamlessly. Most importantly, they never stop learning, growing and adapting
themselves.
The Internet connection
There are three parts to an Internet connection:
1. The client
2. The server
3. The connection linking them

This configuration is called the client/server model. In the client/server model, one program
requests a service from another program. The client makes a request; the server answers the
request with a service. The client and server communicate with each other by both physical
(hardware) and logical (software) links.
Client
A client consists of:
1. A desktop computer (hardware)
2. A program (software) that requests information from the server
The program usually resides on a personal computer. An example of such a program is a Web
browser. When you want to see a particular Web site, the browser handles your request.
Server
Typically a server is a remote device shared by many users. A server can be:
1. A machine that stores a particular resource you want to use, such as a database or Web
pages
2. A machine that performs specific functions such as sending and receiving e-mail
Servers are available commercially from companies including Sun Microsystems, Sequent, IBM,
Unisys, Dell, Compaq, and NCR. The figure below illustrates the relation between a client and
server connected through local and regional Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
In the next lesson, you will learn about the hardware and software you need to access the
Internet.

Interaction between Client and Internet server connection

Hardware + Software = Infrastructure
Multiple hardware and software components work together to form the infrastructure needed
to access the Internet.
Hardware
Here are examples of the required client hardware you will need:
1. Desktop machine:A desktop computer or a device dedicated to Internet access.
2. Internet-enabled devices:Portable Internet-ready devices and appliances.
3. Network Interface Card (NIC):Also known as a network adapter, NICs are required to
connect computers to the network cabling system (using either coaxial cables or RJ-45
connectors). NICs plug into client and server machines and control the exchange of
information between the two (known as handshaking).
4. Modem:An acronym for modulator-demodulator. A modem converts digital signals to
analog (outgoing traffic) and analog signals to digital (incoming traffic). Modems are
used when dial-up services are needed (called POTS lines), that is, when connecting to
 the Internet through phone lines. Such connections use RJ-11 connectors, the same
plastic square-tipped plug used on household phones.
5. Cable:The physical wiring used to connect modems to a telecommunications
infrastructure, or to connect networks to the Internet.
You can see examples of these hardware requirements in the following MouseOver:

Hardware and Software

Software
Here are examples of the required client software you will need:
1. Operating system: An operating system (OS) provides the user interface and manages
system resources such as disk drives and video cards. The operating system controls
how the system operates overall.
OSs are needed on both the client and the server, but they can be different types.
2. TCP/IP software: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a
communications protocol suite that lets dissimilar systems communicate. Every TCP/IP
network client and server needs a unique IP address to identify it.
3. Web browser: A client application used to browse, or "interface with," the Internet.
Examples of browsers include Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer.
4. Email: Electronic mail is a client application for transmitting mail over a network. Email
is used as a worldwide communications tool.
In the next lesson, how to configure a Macintosh to access the Internet will be discussed.
Internet Infrastructure Quiz
Click the Quiz link below to reinforce your understanding of terms and concepts related to the
Internet infrastructure.
Configuring desktops
To configure means to set up for operation in a certain way. Desktop machines need to be
configured, or set up in a certain way, when you switch your ISP or when you add a new
machine to the network. The process is basically the same for each circumstance. If you
connect to the Internet through a modem, your system might be configured automatically
based on information supplied by your ISP. If you connect to the Internet through a network,
you may have to configure your system manually. The system administrator should supply you
with the necessary information.
Configuring the desktop involves modifying some or all of the following:
1. TCP/IP settings
2. HOSTS files
3. Browsers
4. Email
5. MIME settings
Configuring TCP/IP
TCP/IP is:
1. A generic name for a suite of protocols used to connect computers and networks
2. The protocol used to connect to the Internet
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is used to transfer the IP-formatted data packets. The
Internet Protocol (IP) is the set of rules used to pass packets of data from one network to
another.
Configuring TCP/IP on a Macintosh
To configure TCP/IP on a Macintosh, from the Apple menu, select Control Panels, then select
TCP/IP. The settings shown in the table below appear. For information about the settings to use
for your system, talk with your system administrator or ISP.
Setting Description
Connection
Choices include Apple Talk, Ethernet
method
Server
Choices include BootP, DHCP, RARP
configuration
1. Identifies your computer to the network
IP Address
2. Allows you to assign an address or accept automatic assignment
1. Required information
Subnet Mask
2. Defines use of address bits and indicates host or network number
Router Address Network address to which messages are sent
Name server
Identifies the network address by name instead of number
address
Configuring TCP/IP on Windows NT
To configure TCP/IP on a Windows NT-based computer, first make sure TCP/IP is actually
installed on your client. Do this by opening the Control Panel folder, then select Network.
The Network dialog box appears:
Windows Network Dialog Box
In the Network dialog box, scroll down to TCP/IP then click the Properties button. The table
below lists the options that appear. A subnet mask, gateway, and DNS must be entered before
your client can use TCP/IP. Contact your system administrator or your ISP for the information
you need.
Setting Description
1. Disable or enable WINS resolution, or choose DHCP (Dynamic Host
WINS
Configuration Protocol) or WINS resolution
Configuration
2. Specific to networks
1. Identifies your computer to the network
IP Address
2. Allows you to assign an address or accept automatic assignment
DNS Configuration Allows you to configure a DNS (domain name server)
1. Gateway address for each machine on the network
Gateway
2. Primary address or router (gateway)
Net Bios Allows you to run NetBios applications over the TCP/IP Protocol
Bindings Checklist of network components that will communicate using TCP/IP
Advanced Settings Allows you to add settings and values to TCP/IP

Configuring Windows NT Client using TCP- IP

In the next lesson, you will learn how to configure hosts files.
Configuring Windows NT - Exercise
Click the exercise link below to put to the test what you have learned about concepts related to
desktop configuration.
Computers read numbers (like IP addresses). Humans read words (like New York Times).
Fortunately, there is a way for computers to translate words (or names) into numbers. That
translation process is called name resolution. For example, when you enter
http://www.yahoo.com in your browser's address field, the name www.yahoo.com is resolved
into its corresponding IP address by the Internet protocol running on your computer. There are
two ways this resolution can occur: hosts files or a DNS server.
What is a hosts file?
The original resolution method was to manually update local hosts files. A hosts file is an ASCII
text file containing the name and the corresponding IP address of systems that you regularly
communicate with. The system administrator would update the file as new systems came
online. In the past, a hosts file was maintained by the IP address registry and would be
periodically downloaded and edited by system administrators. As the number of hosts
connected to the Internet increased, this method became impractical. So, University of
California, Berkeley developed the Domain Name System (DNS).
The figure below is an example of a host configuration file.
What is DNS?
Instead of maintaining local hosts files on every computer system, DNS uses database (DNS)
servers and DNS clients (called resolvers). Through the hierarchy of Internet DNS servers, users
can access by name any registered system.
If you are connected to the Internet using a dial-up connection (phone/modem line), your
Internet service provider (ISP) automatically assigns the DNS address. If necessary, however,
you can enter this information manually by entering DNS configuration information in the
TCP/IP Properties dialog box as shown in the figure below.
 Sample TCP/IP Domain Name
Settings
IP addresses are either static or dynamic. Something static rarely changes. So, a static IP
address on a client rarely changes. A dynamic IP address issued to a client is just the opposite. It
changes each time the client connects to the network (or Internet).
IP addresses
You have to consider the cons if you issue a static IP address. The first is record keeping. You
have to keep voluminous records of every IP address for every client in your organization. Then,
you need to consistently update the list, making adjustments where necessary. Second is
reconfiguring each client. If ever your IP address scheme changes, you have to go back and
reconfigure every client by hand. If you have a large organization, say of 50 clients, this can be
an arduous task. Last, the IP address protocol is 32 bits long. As more and more users across the
world join the Internet, there are fewer unique addresses left, so administrators can conserve
address allocation by only assigning them to users currently connected to the network (or
Internet).
Dynamic IP addresses
Larger networks use dynamic IP addressing because they can afford the automation equipment
associated with dynamic addressing. For example, think of a network in a college. The system
administrator might dynamically assign IP addresses to students' computers located in the
residence halls. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is the protocol used to
automatically assign IP addresses. The server simply issues the IP address as needed.
How DHCP works
Your client initially requests an IP address from the DHCP server. The DHCP server then scans its
list, finds an available IP address, and issues it to the client. The client then uses that address
until it expires. Expiration can be set to a particular time, but it's typically valid until the user
logs off.
The primary advantage of DHCP is that system administrators no longer have to manually assign
IP addresses to every computer.
Either way, the IP protocol permits network administrators the option to statically assign an IP
address or to automatically assign an IP address (dynamic IP address, using DHCP).
The table below describes these options.
In the next lesson, you will learn how to configure your browser for best performance.
Type of IP Address Description
1. Permanent IP address
2. Can be assigned to clients or servers in a TCP/IP network
Static
3. Usually assigned to servers and other devices that serve multiple
network users, such as printers
1. Automatically assigned to a client in a TCP/IP network
Dynamic 2. Usually assigned from a DHCP server
3. Can specify a time period for which the IP address will be available
Internet security
a branch of computer security specifically related to the Internet, often involving browser
security but also network security on a more general level as it applies to other applications
or operating systems on a whole. Its objective is to establish rules and measures to use against
attacks over the Internet.[1] The Internet represents an insecure channel for exchanging
information leading to a high risk of intrusion or fraud, such as phishing.[2] Different methods
have been used to protect the transfer of data, including encryption and from-the-ground-up
engineering.
Threats
Malicious software
A computer user can be tricked or forced into downloading software onto a computer that is of
malicious intent. Such software comes in many forms, such as viruses, Trojan horses, spyware,
and worms.
 Malware, short for malicious software, is any software used to disrupt computer operation,
gather sensitive information, or gain access to private computer systems. Malware is
defined by its malicious intent, acting against the requirements of the computer user, and
does not include software that causes unintentional harm due to some deficiency. The term
badware is sometimes used, and applied to both true (malicious) malware and
unintentionally harmful software.
 A botnet is a network of zombie computers that have been taken over by a robot or bot
that performs large-scale malicious acts for the creator of the botnet.
 Computer Viruses are programs that can replicate their structures or effects by infecting
other files or structures on a computer. The common use of a virus is to take over a
computer to steal data.
 Computer worms are programs that can replicate themselves throughout a computer
network, performing malicious tasks throughout.
 Ransomware is a type of malware which restricts access to the computer system that it
infects, and demands a ransom paid to the creator(s) of the malware in order for the
restriction to be removed.
 Scareware is scam software with malicious payloads, usually of limited or no benefit, that
are sold to consumers via certain unethical marketing practices. The selling approach uses
social engineering to cause shock, anxiety, or the perception of a threat, generally directed
at an unsuspecting user.
 Spyware refers to programs that surreptitiously monitor activity on a computer system and
report that information to others without the user's consent.
 A Trojan horse, commonly known as a Trojan, is a general term for malicious software that
pretends to be harmless, so that a user willingly allows it to be downloaded onto the
computer.
Denial-of-service attacks
A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an
attempt to make a computer resource unavailable to its intended users. Although the means to
carry out, motives for, and targets of a DoS attack may vary, it generally consists of the
concerted efforts to prevent an Internet site or service from functioning efficiently or at all,
temporarily or indefinitely. According to businesses who participated in an international
business security survey, 25% of respondents experienced a DoS attack in 2007 and 16.8%
experienced one in 2010.[4]
Phishing
Main article: Phishing
Phishing occurs when the attacker pretends to be a trustworthy entity, either via email or web
page. Victims are directed to fake web pages, which are dressed to look legitimate, via spoof
emails, instant messenger/social media or other avenues. Often tactics such as email
spoofing are used to make emails appear to be from legitimate senders, or long
complex subdomains hide the real website host.[5][6] Insurance group RSA said that phishing
accounted for worldwide losses of $1.5 billion in 2012.[7]
Application vulnerabilities
Main article: Application security
Applications used to access Internet resources may contain security vulnerabilities such
as memory safety bugs or flawed authentication checks. The most severe of these bugs can give
network attackers full control over the computer. Most security applications and suites are
incapable of adequate defense against these kinds of attacks.[8][9]
Remedies
Network layer security
TCP/IP protocols may be secured with cryptographic methods and security protocols. These
protocols include Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), succeeded by Transport Layer Security (TLS)
for web traffic, Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) for email, and IPsec for the network layer security.
Internet Protocol Security (IPsec)
IPsec is designed to protect TCP/IP communication in a secure manner. It is a set of security
extensions developed by the Internet Task Force (IETF). It provides security and authentication
at the IP layer by transforming data using encryption. Two main types of transformation that
form the basis of IPsec: the Authentication Header (AH) and ESP. These two protocols provide
data integrity, data origin authentication, and anti-replay service. These protocols can be used
alone or in combination to provide the desired set of security services for the Internet
Protocol (IP) layer.
The basic components of the IPsec security architecture are described in terms of the following
functionalities:
 Security protocols for AH and ESP
 Security association for policy management and traffic processing
 Manual and automatic key management for the Internet key exchange (IKE)
 Algorithms for authentication and encryption
The set of security services provided at the IP layer includes access control, data origin integrity,
protection against replays, and confidentiality. The algorithm allows these sets to work
independently without affecting other parts of the implementation. The IPsec implementation
is operated in a host or security gateway environment giving protection to IP traffic.
Security token
Some online sites offer customers the ability to use a six-digit code which randomly changes
every 30–60 seconds on a security token. The keys on the security token have built in
mathematical computations and manipulate numbers based on the current time built into the
device. This means that every thirty seconds there is only a certain array of numbers possible
which would be correct to validate access to the online account. The website that the user is
logging into would be made aware of that devices' serial number and would know the
computation and correct time built into the device to verify that the number given is indeed
one of the handful of six-digit numbers that works in that given 30-60 second cycle. After 30–60
seconds the device will present a new random six-digit number which can log into the
website.[10]
Electronic mail security
Background
Email messages are composed, delivered, and stored in a multiple step process, which starts
with the message's composition. When the user finishes composing the message and sends it,
the message is transformed into a standard format: an RFC 2822 formatted message.
Afterwards, the message can be transmitted. Using a network connection, the mail client,
referred to as a mail user agent (MUA), connects to a mail transfer agent (MTA) operating on
the mail server. The mail client then provides the sender’s identity to the server. Next, using the
mail server commands, the client sends the recipient list to the mail server. The client then
supplies the message. Once the mail server receives and processes the message, several events
occur: recipient server identification, connection establishment, and message transmission.
Using Domain Name System (DNS) services, the sender’s mail server determines the mail
server(s) for the recipient(s). Then, the server opens up a connection(s) to the recipient mail
server(s) and sends the message employing a process similar to that used by the originating
client, delivering the message to the recipient(s).
Pretty Good Privacy (PGP
Pretty Good Privacy provides confidentiality by encrypting messages to be transmitted or data
files to be stored using an encryption algorithm such as Triple DES or CAST-128. Email messages
can be protected by using cryptography in various ways, such as the following:
 Signing an email message to ensure its integrity and confirm the identity of its
sender.
 Encrypting the body of an email message to ensure its confidentiality.
 Encrypting the communications between mail servers to protect the confidentiality
of both message body and message header.
The first two methods, message signing and message body encryption, are often used
together; however, encrypting the transmissions between mail servers is typically used only
when two organizations want to protect emails regularly sent between each other. For
example, the organizations could establish a virtual private network (VPN) to encrypt the
communications between their mail servers over the Internet.[11] Unlike methods that can
only encrypt a message body, a VPN can encrypt entire messages, including email header
information such as senders, recipients, and subjects. In some cases, organizations may
need to protect header information. However, a VPN solution alone cannot provide a
message signing mechanism, nor can it provide protection for email messages along the
entire route from sender to recipient.
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)
MIME transforms non-ASCII data at the sender's site to Network Virtual Terminal (NVT)
ASCII data and delivers it to client's Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) to be sent
through the Internet.[12] The server SMTP at the receiver's side receives the NVT ASCII data
and delivers it to MIME to be transformed back to the original non-ASCII data.
Message Authentication Code
A Message authentication code (MAC) is a cryptography method that uses a secret key to
encrypt a message. This method outputs a MAC value that can be decrypted by the
receiver, using the same secret key used by the sender. The Message Authentication Code
protects both a message's data integrity as well as its authenticity.[13]
Firewalls
A computer firewall controls access between networks. It generally consists of gateways
and filters which vary from one firewall to another. Firewalls also screen network traffic and
are able to block traffic that is dangerous. Firewalls act as the intermediate server between
SMTP and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) connections.[14]
Role of firewalls in web security
Firewalls impose restrictions on incoming and outgoing Network packets to and from
private networks. Incoming or outgoing traffic must pass through the firewall; only
authorized traffic is allowed to pass through it. Firewalls create checkpoints between an
internal private network and the public Internet, also known as choke points (borrowed
from the identical military term of a combat limiting geographical feature). Firewalls can
create choke points based on IP source and TCP port number. They can also serve as the
platform for IPsec. Using tunnel mode capability, firewall can be used to implement VPNs.
Firewalls can also limit network exposure by hiding the internal network system and
information from the public Internet.
Types of firewall
Packet filter
A packet filter is a first generation firewall that processes network traffic on a packet-by-
packet basis. Its main job is to filter traffic from a remote IP host, so a router is needed to
connect the internal network to the Internet. The router is known as a screening router,
which screens packets leaving and entering the network.
Stateful packet inspection
In a stateful firewall the circuit-level gateway is a proxy server that operates at the network
level of an Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model and statically defines what traffic will
be allowed. Circuit proxies will forward Network packets (formatted unit of data )
containing a given port number, if the port is permitted by the algorithm. The main
advantage of a proxy server is its ability to provide Network Address Translation (NAT),
which can hide the user's IP address from the Internet, effectively protecting all internal
information from the Internet.
Application-level gateway
An application-level firewall is a third generation firewall where a proxy server operates at
the very top of the OSI model, the IP suite application level. A network packet is forwarded
only if a connection is established using a known protocol. Application-level gateways are
 notable for analyzing entire messages rather than individual packets of data when the data
are being sent or received.
Browser choice
Main article: Browser security
Web browser statistics tend to affect the amount a Web browser is exploited. For
example, Internet Explorer 6, which used to own a majority of the Web browser market
share,[15]is considered extremely insecure[16] because vulnerabilities were exploited due to
its former popularity. Since browser choice is more evenly distributed (Internet Explorer at
28.5%, Firefox at 18.4%, Google Chrome at 40.8%, and so on)[15] and vulnerabilities are
exploited in many different browsers.
Internet security products
Antivirus
Antivirus software and Internet security programs can protect a programmable device from
attack by detecting and eliminating viruses; Antivirus software was mainly shareware in the
early years of the Internet,[when?] but there are now[when?] several free security applications
on the Internet to choose from for all platforms.
Password managers
A password manager is a software application that helps a user store and organize
passwords. Password managers usually store passwords encrypted, requiring the user to
create a master password; a single, ideally very strong password which grants the user
access to their entire password database.[21]
Security suites
So called security suites were first offered for sale in 2003 (McAfee) and contain a suite of
firewalls, anti-virus, anti-spyware and more.[22] They also offer theft protection, portable
storage device safety check, private Internet browsing, cloud anti-spam, a file shredder or
make security-related decisions (answering popup windows) and several were free of
charge.[23]

Internet Safety,
is the knowledge of maximizing the user's personal safety and security risks to private
information and property associated with using the internet, and the self-protection
from computer crime in general.
As the number of internet users continues to grow worldwide,[1] internets, governments and
organizations have expressed concerns about the safety of children using the Internet. Safer
Internet Day is celebrated worldwide in February to raise awareness about internet safety.[2] In
the UK the Get Safe Online campaign has received sponsorship from government
agency Serious Organized Crime Agency (SOCA) and major Internet companies such
as Microsoft and eBay.[3]
Information security
Sensitive information such as personal information and identity, passwords are often
associated with personal property (for example, bank accounts) and privacy and may present
security concerns if leaked. Unauthorized access and usage of private information may result in
consequence such as identity theft, as well as theft of property. Common causes of information
security breaches include:
Phishing
Phishing is a type of scam where the scammers disguise as a trustworthy source in attempt to
obtain private information such as passwords, and credit card information, etc. through the
internet. Phishing often occurs through emails and instant messaging and may contain links to
websites that direct the user to enter their private information. These fake websites are often
designed to look identical to their legitimate counterparts to avoid suspicion from the user. [4]
Internet scams
Internet scams are schemes that deceive the user in various ways in attempt to take advantage
of them. Internet scams often aim to cheat the victim of personal property directly rather than
personal information through false promises, confidence tricks and more.
Malware
Malware, particularly spyware, is malicious software disguised as legitimate software designed
to collect and transmit private information, such as passwords, without the user's consent or
knowledge. They are often distributed through e-mail, software and files from unofficial
locations. Malware is one of the most prevalent security concerns as often it is impossible to
determine whether a file is infected, despite the source of the file.
Personal safety
The growth of the internet gave rise to many important services accessible to anyone with a
connection. One of these important services is digital communication. While this service
allowed us to communicate with others through the internet, this also allowed the
communication with malicious users. While malicious users often use the internet for personal
gain, this may not be limited to financial/material gain. This is especially a concern to parents
and children, as children are often targets of these malicious users. Common threats to
personal safety include:
Cyberstalking
Cyberstalking is the use of the Internet or other electronic means to stalk or harass an
individual, a group of individuals, or an organization. It may include the making of false
accusations or statements of fact (as in defamation), monitoring, making threats, identity theft,
damage to data or equipment, the solicitation of minors for sex, or gathering information that
may be used to harass. According to a study conducted by Baum et al. (2009), the rate of
assault through electronic means such as e-mail or instant messaging was over one in four out
of all stalking victims in the study.[5]
Cyberbullying
Cyberbullying is the attack upon an individual or group through the use of electronic means
such as instant messaging, social media, e-mail and other forms of online communication with
the intent to abuse, intimidate, or overpower. In a 2012 study of over 11,925 students in the
United States, it was indicated that 23% of adolescents reported being a victim of cyber
bullying, 30% of which reported experiencing suicidal behavior.[6][7]
Online predation
Online predation is the act of engaging an underage minor into inappropriate sexual
relationships through the internet. Online predators may attempt to initiate and seduce minors
into relationships through the use of chat rooms or internet forums. In a sample of 216
incarcerated sexual offenders, the behavior characteristics that emerged were categorized into
three groups: A) manipulative - typically a child molester; B) Opportunist - typically a rapist and
C) Coercive being a mixture of both rapists and child molesters. [8]
Obscene/offensive content
Various websites on the internet contain material that some deem offensive, distasteful or
explicit, which may often be not of the user's liking. Such websites may include internet, shock
sites, hate speech or otherwise inflammatory content. Such content may manifest in many
ways, such as pop-up ads and unsuspecting links.[9]
Sextortion
Sextortion, especially via the use of webcams, is a concern, especially for those who
use webcams for flirting and cybersex.[10][11] Often this involves a cybercriminal posing as
someone else - such as an attractive person - initiating communication of a sexual nature with
the victim. The victim is then persuaded to undress in front of a webcam, and may also be
persuaded to engage in sexual behaviour, such as masturbation.[12] The video is recorded by the
cybercriminal, who then reveals their true intent and demands money or other services (such
as more explicit images of the victim, in cases of online predation), threatening to publicly
release the video and send it to family members and friends of the victim if they do not
comply.[12] A video highlighting the dangers of sextortion has been released by the National
Crime Agency[13] in the UK to educate people, especially given the fact that blackmail of a sexual
nature may cause humiliation to a sufficient extent to cause the victim to take their own
life,[11] in addition to other efforts to educate the public on the risks of sextortion. [10]

communications network
is a collection of terminal nodes,[1] links are connected so as to
enable telecommunication between the terminals.[1] The transmission links connect the nodes
together. The nodes use circuit switching, message switching or packet switching to pass the
signal through the correct links and nodes to reach the correct destination terminal.
Each terminal in the network usually has a unique address so messages or connections can be
routed to the correct recipients. The collection of addresses in the network is called the address
space.
Benefits of telecommunications and networking
Telecommunications can greatly increase and expand resources to all types of people. For
example, businesses need a greater telecommunications network if they plan to expand their
company. With Internet, computer, and telephone networks, businesses can allocate their
resources efficiently. These core types of networks will be discussed below:
Computer network: a computer network consists of computers and devices connected to one
another. Information can be transferred from one device to the next. For example, an office
filled with computers can share files together on each separate device. Computer networks can
range from a local network area to a wide area network. The difference between the types of
networks is the size. These types of computer networks work at certain speeds, also known as
broadband. The Internet network connects computers worldwide.
Internet network: access to the network allows users to use many resources. Over time the
Internet network will replace books. This will enable users to discover information almost
instantly and apply concepts to different situations. The Internet can be used for recreational,
governmental, educational, and other purposes. Businesses in particular use the Internet
network for research or to service customers and clients.
Telephone network: the telephone network connects people to one another. This network can
be used in a variety of ways. Many businesses use the telephone network to route calls and/or
service their customers. Some businesses use a telephone network on a greater scale through a
private branch exchange. It is a system where a specific business focuses on routing and
servicing calls for another business. Majority of the time, the telephone network is used around
the world for recreational purposes.
Network structure
In general, every telecommunications network conceptually consists of three parts, or planes
(so called because they can be thought of as being, and often are, separate overlay networks):
 The data plane (also user plane, bearer plane, or forwarding plane) carries the network's
users' traffic, the actual payload.
 The control plane carries control information (also known as signaling).
 The management plane carries the operations and administration traffic required for
network management. The management plane is sometimes considered a part of the
control plane.
Example: the TCP/IP data network
The data network is used extensively throughout the world to connect individuals and
organizations. Data networks can be connected to allow users seamless access to resources
that are hosted outside of the particular provider they are connected to. The Internet is the
best example of many data networks from different organizations all operating under a
single address space.
Terminals attached to TCP/IP networks are addressed using IP addresses. There are different
types of IP address, but the most common is IP Version 4. Each unique address consists of 4
integers between 0 and 255, usually separated by dots when written down, e.g. 82.131.34.56.
TCP/IP are the fundamental protocols that provide the control and routing of messages across
the data network. There are many different network structures that TCP/IP can be used across
to efficiently route messages, for example:
 wide area networks (WAN)
 metropolitan area networks (MAN)
 local area networks (LAN)
 Internet area networks (IAN)
 campus area networks (CAN)
 virtual private networks (VPN)
There are three features that differentiate MANs from LANs or WANs:
1. The area of the network size is between LANs and WANs. The MAN will have a physical
area between 5 and 50 km in diameter.[3]
2. MANs do not generally belong to a single organization. The equipment that
interconnects the network, the links, and the MAN itself are often owned by an
association or a network provider that provides or leases the service to others.[3]
 3. A MAN is a means for sharing resources at high speeds within the network. It often
provide connections to WAN networks for access to resources outside the scope of the
MAN.[3]
Optical transport network

Optical transport network (OTN) is a large complex network of server hubs at different
locations on ground, connected by optical fiber cable or optical network carrier, to transport
data across different nodes. The server hubs are also known as head-ends, nodes or simply,
sites. OTNs are the backbone of Internet Service Providers and are often daisy chained and
cross connected to provide network redundancy. Such a setup facilitates uninterrupted services
and fail-over capabilities during maintenance windows, equipment failure or in case of
accidents.
The devices used to transport data are known as network transport equipment. Some of the
widely used equipment are manufactured by
 Alcatel Lucent - AL7510, AL7750
 Nortel Networks Corp. (acquired by Ciena Corp.) - Optera Metro series - OM4500, OM6500
 Fujitsu Ltd. - FlashWave series FW4500, FW7500, FW9500
The capacity of a network is mainly dependent on the type of signaling scheme employed on
transmitting and receiving end. In the earlier days, a single wavelength light beam was used to
transmit data, which limited the bandwidth to the maximum operating frequency of the
transmitting and receiving end equipment. With the application of wavelength division
multiplexing (WDM), the bandwidth of OTN has risen up to 100Gbit/s (OTU4 Signal), by
emitting light beams of different wavelengths. Lately, AT&T, Verizon, and Rogers
Communication have been able to employ these 100G "pipes" in their metro network. Large
field areas are mostly serviced by 40G pipes (OC192/STM-64).
A 40G pipe can carry 40 different channels as a result of Dense Wave Division Multiplexing
(DWDM) transmission. Each node in the network is able to access different channels, but is
mostly tuned to a few channels. The data from a channel can be dropped to the node or new
data can be added to the node using Re-configurable Optic Add Drop Mux (ROADM) that
uses Wavelength Selective Switching (WSS) to extract and infuse a configured frequency. This
eliminates the need to convert all the channels to electric signals, extract the required
channels, and convert the rest back to optical into the OTN. Thus ROADM systems are fast, less
expensive and can be configured to access any channel in the OTN pipe.
The extracted channels at a site are connected to local devices
through muxponder or transponder cards that can split or combine 40G channels to 4x 10G
channels or 8x 2.5G channels of optical fiber.
Exercise 1. True or false.
1.
References

www.google.com
www.wikipedia.com
www.youtube.com
www.tipsandtrics.com
www.seapearl.com