This article was downloaded by: [Arizona State University]

On: 16 December 2014, At: 09:47

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954
Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T
3JH, UK

Computer Assisted Language

Learning
Publication details, including instructions for
authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ncal20

LEARNERS AND SECOND

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: A
UNION BLESSED BY CALL?
a
Peter Liddell
a
The Language Centre , University of Victoria ,
Victoria, B.C., Canada
Published online: 03 Aug 2006.

To cite this article: Peter Liddell (1994) LEARNERS AND SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION: A UNION BLESSED BY CALL?, Computer Assisted Language Learning, 7:2,
163-173, DOI: 10.1080/0958822940070207

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0958822940070207

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the
information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform.
However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness,
or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views
expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the
Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with
primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any
losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages,
and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or
indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the
Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes.
Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan,
sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is
 expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Downloaded by [Arizona State University] at 09:47 16 December 2014
 Computer Assisted Language Learning 0958-8221/94/0702-0163$6.00
1994, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 163-173 © Swets & Zeitlinger

LEARNERS
AND
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION:
A UNION BLESSED
BY
CALL?
Downloaded by [Arizona State University] at 09:47 16 December 2014

Peter Liddell
The Language Centre, University of Victoria,
Victoria, B.C., Canada

To those of us involved with developing or implementing CALL,

it may often appear that we are indulging in an act of faith, a loose
conjugation of method and theory united in electrons; yet somehow
a whole has grown which is different from - not yet greater than -
the parts. Whether that next level of integration comes about
depends very much on how CALL evolves over the next years; or,
to follow the metaphor of my subtitle: if this union is to produce
language learners who grow up in an integrated CALL
environment, are we on the right track, or are we letting ourselves
be seduced by an appealing fad? Let me suggest why we need to
take stock - particularly at this time. There are two reasons, as I see
it, one is theoretical, the other very practical.
On the theoretical side (which will be my focus in this paper),
many of the ideas and technologies which blossomed in the 1980s
- cognitive learning theory, proficiency-/student-oriented learning
and their concomitant curriculum designs, more powerful personal
computers, hypertext and so forth - have reached a level of
maturity which enables us to measure their promise against what
has actually been achieved; and, to a degree, we can predict or
propose what may or should come in the near future.
On the more practical side, our institutions are committing
themselves in a time of severe fiscal restraint to spending (and
supporting) relatively large amounts of their capital budget in a
hitherto very undemanding area - the Humanities. In most cases,
these decisions are reached in a spirit of optimism, born of
whatever conviction the decision-makers can muster towards new
.technologies and methods of 'delivering' education. If I may use
my own institution as an example: in September 1993, the last
phase of a CALL project, which had originally been started in
 164 Computer Assisted Language Learning

1989, was completed; it consists of a Language Learning Centre

based on contemporary theories of methodology and pedagogy
and what then appeared to be the most appropriate technology.
Renovations and equipment have so far totalled CA$1.5 mio. At
one stage the project absorbed one-third of the annual capital
expenditure of a state-funded University which by North American
standards is not large (12,000 FTE students). To run it, an
additional 5 FTE staff (additional to 3 already existing, plus the
Academic Director's partial relief from teaching) were also funded.
Downloaded by [Arizona State University] at 09:47 16 December 2014

Yet, while the scope and extent of this particular project may be
relatively high, the same conviction has operated recently in many
other institutions that, expensive as it is, CALL is a desirable
adjunct to Higher Education.
Much of this large commitment has been made with none of
what we might call hard proof that it would 'work1. The Language
Centre at the University of Victoria has been visited, consulted
and even in one case cloned by literally dozens of other institutions
in Canada, the U.S. and S.E. Asia. Yet hardly ever do visitors and
consulting administrators ask if it 'works', was all that money and
effort worthwhile? Statistics showing almost maximal use of
seating-time at workstations may offer satisfying 'proof of the
investment 'pudding'; but the hard educational evidence, in terms
of improved learning outcomes, is nowhere to be found in the
literature on CALL.
The greatest obstacle to an assessment of CALL'S efficacy is
that (still) 'we know rather little, and a great deal of what we do
know derives not only from psychologists, but also from various
sub-branches of linguistics'.1 This theme has become a constant of
CALL evaluation in recent years. It was, for example, the major
focus to emerge at the Georgetown University Round Table in
1990, which had as its stated theme the theory, practice and
research of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). Speaker after
speaker at the conference pointed out the lack of any really
integrated effort among the three professional areas of SL practice.
Two presenters, Diane Larsen-Freeman and Nina Garrett,
contended that it will continue so, as long as we continue to adopt
pedagogical methods which derive from other fields (notably
linguistics and psychology, but also anthropology and
neuroscience).2 As Garrett points out, (ibid.) the most common
1
Alan Bailin, 'Artificial Intelligence and Computer-Assisted Language
Instruction', Calico Journal, 3,(1988)41.
2
Diane Larsen-Freeman, 'On the Need for a Theory of Language Teaching',
Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics
 Learners and Second Language Acquisition 165

sources are the methods (not theories) of linguistics, as derived

from Chomsky and Krashen for example, or in the case of
psychology, methods derived from behaviourism and its child,
audio-lingualism (which spawned the language lab. boom of the
1960s) and cognitive learning theory. Indeed (to revert to the
metaphor of my title), for most analysts who reflect on the past
decades of SLA, it would be no exaggeration to assert that the
relationship between theories which have influenced SL teaching
and the development of CALL has been a rocky one.
Downloaded by [Arizona State University] at 09:47 16 December 2014

Surveys which looked at the last decade of CALL have

generally concluded that, qualitatively, 'the developments that have
taken place, often as a result of technological improvements and
innovations, have not superseded previous applications'. 3 Not only
had CALL software apparently not grown beyond the status of its
early years, but there were those who argued that educational
software in general had not markedly progressed beyond what was
provided by the pre-computer technologies. Stephen Jobs for
example, the founder of Apple Computers, surveyed traditional
educational software in 1987 and saw 'a very big failure.... If we
look at the delivery of education on a spectrum from mechanistic
(quantitative) to humanistic (qualitative)... what we've seen is that
technology applied to higher education has all focused on
automating the mechanistic end'.4 Marshall McLuhan's forecast
that 'every innovation must pass through a primary phase in which
the new effect is secured by the old method, amplified or modified
by some new feature' had apparently been proven once again.5
Specific concerns about the quality, or at least the efficacy of
CALL software had arisen even earlier in the USA. Richard E.
Clark raised something of a storm inl983, in an article which
assessed current research into CALL, particularly with his analogy
between CALL media and a grocery truck - both, he asserted, were
able to deliver and facilitate, but neither had a direct effect on the
customer's nutritional or linguistic regimen. In 1991, he reviewed
[henceforward cited as: GURT ], James E. Alatis, ed. Washington, D.C.:
Georgetown UP ,1990.261ff.
Nina Garrett, 'Yes, but.. What kind of theory? What kind of practice? What kind
of research?1 GURT "90,514ff.
^M-M. Kenning, 'Computer-Assisted Language Learning', Language Teaching:
the International Journal for Language Teachers and Applied Linguists (April,
1990) 67. ['State of the Art article']
4
Stephen Jobs. 'An Industry Perspective of Computer Use in Higher
Education:Three Interviews', Academic Computing, 2 (2) (1987)) 12-15.
5
Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extension of Man. New York:
McGraw Hill, 1964.292.
 166 Computer Assisted Language Learning

the intervening research and reached essentially the same

conclusion: CALL media per se do not influence learner
achievement.6
In his later article, Clark goes beyond an analysis of
research on the media per se to make conclude that all too often
'instructional methods have been confused with media, [but]
methods are what influence learning'( 1991,34). He reserves his
strongest criticism for theorists who apply methods from other
disciplines, for example neuroscience, in order to reify, or make
Downloaded by [Arizona State University] at 09:47 16 December 2014

absolute, computer models of information processing, by assuming

that they are transferable to other models of information-
processing, notably, the human mind. Clark quotes George Miller,
who compared computer models of the mind to computer models
of the weather, and asked 'How many of us would expect a model
of violent weather to damage the computer centre?' (1991,39)
If there is a moral to the criticisms mentioned so far, it is that
the media used in CALL are not the message; nor, apparently, are
the methods upon which media use depends. The message
delivered by CALL media must be those of the subject in hand ~
in this case, a theory or theories of Second Language Acquisition.
The problem with discussing CALL in the light of the
methodology of SLA is that this is a methodology which is yet to
be defined with any degree of agreement. Thus, when someone
asks a Nina Garrett whether technology in language learning
actually works, she begs the question: 'What technology? What
kind of learning? Under what kind of real circumstances?' This
leads to her well-known argument for a properly founded theory of
SLA, based on classroom research into how students learn.7 Yet
some theorists would argue that even that is premature, until we
understand how linguistic competence can be effectively
promoted: 'How can we build a knowledge base for language
learning, language acquisition and the language teaching process
when the underlying mechanics of the process, the very knowledge
we would need to codify into the database is itself so hotly
disputed?'8 In the final analysis, therefore, achieving effective use
6
Richard E. Clark, 'Reconsidering Research on Learning from the Media',
Review of Educational Research^, 53 (4) (1983) 445-459.
Richard E. Clark, "When Researchers Swim Upstream: Reflections on an
Unpopular Argument about Learning from Media', Educational Technology,
1991,34-40.
7
Nina Garrett, The Synergism of Technology and Theory in Classroom Second
Language Acquisition Research', GURT '89,288-294.
8
M. & M. Kenning, Computers and Language Learning. Current Theory and
Practice, New York: Ellis Horwood, 1990,22.
 Learners and Second Language Acquisition 167

of CALL to foster linguistic competence or, ultimately, the

development of an acceptable SLA theory, are dependent upon the
ability of researchers to understand how the mind processes
information, specifically, a second language,
For at least the past decade, the dominant influence in Second
Language Acquisition Theory has come from the cognitive theory
of learning. In turn, this has influenced developments in CALL.
Cognitive theory, according to Ellis 'views language learning as a
complex skill, which, like other such skills, involves the use of
Downloaded by [Arizona State University] at 09:47 16 December 2014

various information-processing techniques to overcome limitations

in mental capacity which inhibit performance. Learning takes place
when the learner is able to carry out operations automatically or as
a result of practice'.9 The crucial points for theorists and teachers
involved in SLA are: (1) Whether learning a language is entirely
the same as other forms of information processing, in other words:
Is it just 'a complex skill....like other such skills' as Ellis puts it:
and (2) if it is, can language teachers help learners to learn how to
'carry out operations automatically as a result of practice'?
Without being able here to examine the hypothesis
comprehensively, I think it is fair to say, that 'there is some
agreement among researchers and practitioners alike that access to
the human brain and its storage capacity may be accomplished
consciously or sub- or unconsciously'.10 That suggests that
language learning has much in common with other forms of skill
acquisition. If so, and if research can help to explain how raw
information (such as a second language) can be processed into
automatic behaviours, it ought eventually to help teachers to
present learners with the appropriate environments to encourage
language proficiency.
The second point to arise from Ellis' assertion, whether
cognitive learning theory can help teachers to teach and learners to
learn, is by no means a given. As often stated, the theory of SLA
and the practice of it (teaching) have had very little bearing on each
other. Not only that, but there is little likelihood of the two
becoming much more closely dependent in the near future, because
research into how students learn in the second language classroom
(as opposed to how teachers teach) has been negligible or
inconclusive. As an example, Van Lier's observations of a second
language class in action led to the conclusion that 'it is clear that
no direct link can be made between observable behaviour and
9
Rod EUisJnstructed Second Language Acquisition: Learning in the
Classroom. Oxford: Blackwell, 1990,175.
10
E. Buchholz, Tactors Influencing the Acceptance of CALLware', Literary
and Linguistic Computing, 7, (2), (1992) 132-137.
 168 Computer Assisted Language Learning

language development. Learning is not generally directly and

immediately observable1. n The reasons given are that learning
emerges only after some unspecified time and may not be
produced by 'one specifically identifiable event, but rather by the
cumulative effect of a number of events' (ibid.).
Nevertheless, cognitive learning theory (with its emphasis on
emulating the ways in which the brain processes, selects, sorts and
categorizes raw information, and eventually is able to call it up
automatically or autonomously) has apparently many parallels in
Downloaded by [Arizona State University] at 09:47 16 December 2014

CALL (Kenning and Kenning, 33). These are perhaps most notable
in exercises which aim to help to make language processing
routine, by emphasizing structure, pattern and transfer. That
includes, for instance: drill and practice, discrete-item exercises
with truly helpful, context-sensitive feedback; parsers (however
limited these may still be); grammar/structure checkers; skill-
oriented programmes, for example those aimed at developing
reading or pronunciation skills. Also designed to increase the
transfer from raw information to skill are the so-called structured
micro-worlds or adventure games and cultural immersion
programs, like Montevidisco or MIT's ambitious Project Athena.
The basic assumption underlying both cognitive theory (and
the 'high-end' of CALL programming), is that language learning is
comparable for the most part to other forms of information-
processing, as raw input is processed into skills, to be called up
automatically . The problem arises when we come to consider that
'other part' which is not comparable.
Even cognitive theorists are not agreed on how or whether
cognitive learning is a continuum from raw, non-analyzed
information to automatic, analyzed proficiency. Bialystok, for
example argues that the ability to analyze and recall analysis of
language is entirely independent of the ability to use it: she claims
that explicit knowledge (what I know about what I know) is
independent of implicit knowledge (what I can do without even
thinking about it). 12 If this is true, it would help to explain how a
student may excel at discrete-item, analytical exercises, such as
drill-and-practice or controlled-response exercises, and yet at the
same time be incapable of transferring those structural skills into a
less-structured, free-flowing environment (i.e. 'creative' language
use).
11
L. Van Lier, The Classroom and the Learner, London: Longman, 1988, 91.
Cited in Ellis (1990)91.
12
E. Bialystok. 'Psycholinguistic Dimensions of Second Language Proficiency',
in W. Rutherford & M. Sharwood-Smith, eds Grammar and Second Language
Teaching. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House, 1988. Cited in Ellis (1990) 179-180.
 Learners and Second Language Acquisition 169

Another phenomenon well-known to language teachers is that

of the highly motivated learner who attends religiously, works
diligently, but somehow cannot rise beyond the basic level of
competence. Such students may say things like 'languages are like
music, and I wasn't born musical'. A cognitive theorist such as Ellis
explains this by saying that 'the available evidence indicates that
instruction is often powerless to convert explicit knowledge into
implicit'(p. 196). He reinforces this by acknowledging that 'in the
main, it is the learner who is in charge of both what can be learnt
Downloaded by [Arizona State University] at 09:47 16 December 2014

and when it can be learnt, not the teacher' (ibid.). Ellis does not go
beyond pointing out the existence of this dilemma, however. Are
we to conclude that this particular aspect of learning is not
something which can be satisfactorily explained by a theory which
is based on cognition? Apparently the capacity of cognitive theory,
and those CALL programs which reflect similar principles, to
explain or affect student learning is limited by the fact that not
every psychological process is well enough understood nor able to
be satisfactorily replicated in a learning program.
Henry Widdowson, who has long resisted the purely cognitive
approach to SLA, accuses cognitivists of 'limiting the parameters
of enquiry' to examination of grammar - both Chomskyan
Universal Grammar (the innate, subconscious ordering of
language) and natural-language grammar.13 He further criticizes
cognitive SLA researchers for implying that, while naturalistic
language acquisition is 'immensely complex', classroom factors are
relatively simple and 'formal' (p.45). As he points out, the
sociological and psychological complexities of the classroom are
an integral, perhaps even crucial, aspect of language learning,
which teachers ignore at their peril (p.46). He warns teachers who
may be contemplating intimate collaboration with a linguist or an
SLA researcher to ensure that the relationship is on their own
terms: 'Your place, not theirs' (p. 47). The key, for Widdowson
(like his image) is in the very area of the learning environment
which is not readily susceptible to cognitive analysis ~ the
affective interplay among the participants.
One possible avenue of research which offers some hope of
explaining these affective (socio-psychological) aspects of
language-learning is neuroscience. Schumann, for example, has
made a strong case for the existence of an affective 'gateway'
('gatekeeper' might even be appropriate) in the brain: The
amygdala is a nucleus in the limbic system, which plays an
important part in the neural circuit involved in memory. Briefly,
13
H. Widdowson, Discourses of Enquiry and Conditions of Relevance1, GURT
'90, 38-48.
 170 Computer Assisted Language Learning

and at the risk of oversimplifying a complex explanation, the

amygdala receives new input from the outside world by means of
two interlinked circuits. One circuit is longer than the other, so the
information it carries arrives more slowly than it does via the
shorter circuit. But the information arriving on the shorter circuit
triggers a first reaction in the amygdala by calling on the stored
memory of previous, apparently similar experiences and giving the
information a first, quick emotional 'tag' — this is a 'good'
situation; or this is a 'bad1 situation which I will react against or
resist. When the second circuit provides its version of the same
Downloaded by [Arizona State University] at 09:47 16 December 2014

information, the amygdala will then process that information into

memory or not, or not completely, depending on how it had first
'tagged' the information as it arrived on the shorter circuit.14
Schumann suggests that the existence of such an affective
gateway into long-term memory would help to explain three key
aspects of language acquisition theory: the significance of the
'affective filter' (to use Krashen's term); the difficulty of
researching second language acquisition processes in older learners
who have more experience on which to base their affective
reactions to language-learning experiences; and thirdly, the
phenomenon of the highly motivated student who can't learn,
which could occur when the two circuits conflicted - when, for
example, a negative, but subconscious affective filter was
frustrating a conscious and positive desire to learn (ibid.).
So how does this affect the role of CALL? As I have tried to
indicate, some of the CALL software which has been developing
over the past 5 or 6 years seems to correspond (I have to say
'seems' for lack of any coherent scientific proof) to the principles of
cognitive learning theory in many respects. It also shares the same
shortcoming of CLT in not being able to model in any
comprehensive way the sociological and psychological
environments of the classroom. Some multi-media projects do
aspire to emulate the cultural environment of the target language,
as seen through a cognitive filter (e.g. Montevidisco), but we do
not yet have models of the classroom learning environment, such
as Garrett points to, and Widdowson demands, as a sine qua non of
SLA theory.
It is true that certain relatively superficial things can be done to
optimize the affective situation in the classroom and the CALL
areas. These include relaxed settings, comfortable furniture, well-
trained, personable and committed staff, user-friendly software and
a minimum of technical interference. But apart from the purely
14
John Schumann. "The Role of the amygdala as a Mediator of Acculturation
and Cognition in Second Language Acquisition1, GURT '90, 169-176.
 Learners and Second Language Acquisition 171

physical environment, the more significant lesson from current

SLA theory is that the role of the teacher ~ whether human or
media-based ~ is far more significant than was often assumed by
some of the radical advocates of communicative or 'natural'
approaches to language acquisition. Intelligent tutoring, for
instance, is a goal which is entirely in tune with the post-cognitive
approach: in its purest form it will be sensitive to the individual
learner needs, not overly intensive, but readily available, flexible
yet firmly founded in the rules of grammar, pragmatics and
Downloaded by [Arizona State University] at 09:47 16 December 2014

semantics. Technically, this will be extremely demanding to

implement. It will require expert parsing, grammar and lexical
information bases, as well as allowing students the freedom to
explore and learn in associative ways. Intelligent tutoring will, of
course need to provide rapid and flexible access to the various
forms of subject-matter, both 'raw' (live satellite feeds, for
instance) and controlled.15
Another form of 'Intelligent Computer-Assisted Instruction', or
ICALI, which speaks to the not-strictly-cognitive and which
promises much, if the technology can ever deliver the medium and
the programmers can provide the platform, is the discovery worlds,
giving students the option of language-learning support via
integrated IT systems. The ultimate dream of truly interactive
media is still the stuff of science fiction, nonetheless, and will
probably stay that way until machines learn how to procreate and
outstrip their makers.16
Less 'intelligent' and less technically demanding , but offering
quite sophisticated motivation to those who are attracted to such
things, and to advocates of discovery learning, are the so-called
'MUDs', or 'multi-user domains'. These are less-structured (in the
linguistic sense) micro-worlds which exist on electronic bulletin
boards on the Internet and consist of Utopian (or dystopian) worlds
in which individuals participate according to the rules of the
specific domain. There are several which might be accessible to
proficient language-learners (e.g. 2 in Swedish and 5 in German to
date). Occasionally, these worlds, or domains, are based on well-
known works of fiction, such as the 'Chronicles of Narnia', which
requires participants to be familiar with the source books. Whether
15
An early, but still persuasive view of evolutionary trends in CALL is set out
in: John Underwood. 'On the Edge: Intelligent CALL in the 1990s', Computers
and the Humanities, 23, (1989) 71-84.
16
In his introduction to a special issue of the Calico Journal (autumn 1991) 5-8,
which echoed his previous survey of ICALI in the journal Computing and the
Humanities, 23, 1989, the guest editor, Alan Bailin readily acknowledged the
'modest scope' of the investigations into ICALI.
 172 Computer Assisted Language Learning

second language learners at the beginning stages will be able to

participate successfully is doubtful, however, unless 'intelligent'
reference tools can be made available on-line.
If judged by the outward signs of activity alone, CALL must be
seen as a growth industry: individual research projects at all levels,
new software emerging daily, very large bibliographies, new
facilities attracting large numbers of users, a new class of
sophisticated support professionals, new textbooks at the tertiary
level which include computerized exercises, and (not least) the
Downloaded by [Arizona State University] at 09:47 16 December 2014

frequently expressed concern of researchers for a sustaining

methodology. It is the lack of that sustaining methodology which
will continue to create doubts about the strength of the link
between CALL and Second Language Acquisition - or, to turn the
argument over ~ to drive researchers to experiment and to keep
looking for the evidence, both applied and theoretical, which will
lead to a closer match.

References:

Bailin, A. (1988) 'Artificial Intelligence and Computer-Assisted

Language Instruction: A Perspective', CALICO Journal, 3, 25ff.
Bailin, A. (1991) 'ICALI Research: Investigations in Teaching and
Learning', CALICO Journal (Autumn 1991) 5-8.

Bailin, A. & Levin, Lori (1989) 'Intelligent Computer-Assisted

Language Instruction', Computers and the Humanities, 23, 3-11.
Bialystok, E. (1988) 'Psycholinguistic Dimensions of Second
Language Proficiency', in W. Rutherford and M. Sharwood-Smith,
eds Grammar and Second Language Teaching, Rowley, Mass:
Newbury House.
Buchholz, E. (1992) 'Factors Influencing the Acceptance of
CALLware', Literary and Linguistic Computing, v.7 (2), 132-137.
Clark, R.E. (1983) 'Reconsidering Research on Learning from the
Media', Review of Educational Research, 53 (4), 445-459.
Clark, R.E. (1991) When Researchers Swim Upstream:
Reflections on an Unpopular Argument about Learning from
Media', Educational Technology, (Feb. 1991) 34-40.

Ellis, R. (1990) Instructed Second Language Acquisition: Learning

in the Classroom, Oxford: Blackwell.
 Learners and Second Language Acquisition 173

Garrett, N. (1989) 'The Synergism of Technology and Theory in

Classroom Second Language Acquisition Research', GURT '89,
288-294.

Garrett, N. (1990) 'Yes, but...What Kind of Theory? What Kind of

Practice? What Kind of Research? GURT '90, 514-523.

GURT: James E. Alatis (ed.) Georgetown University Round Table

on Languages and Linguistics, Washington D.C.: Georgetown UP,
Downloaded by [Arizona State University] at 09:47 16 December 2014

1989 (= GURT '89) and 1990 (= GURT '90).

Jobs, Stephen (1987) 'An Industry Perspective of Computer Use in

Higher Education: Three Interviews', Academic Computing, 2, (2),
12-15.

Kenning, M-M. (1990) 'Computer-Assisted Language Learning',

Language Teaching: the International Journal for Language
Teachers and Applied Linguists (April 1990), 67ff.

Kenning, M-M. & Kenning, M. (1990) Computers and Language

Learning: Current Theory and Practice, New York: Ellis
Horwood.

Larsen-Freeman, Diane. (1990) 'On the Need for a Theory of

Language Teaching', GURT '90, 261-270.

McLuhan, Marshall. (1964) Understanding Media: The Extension

of Man, New York: McGraw Hill.

Schumann, John. (1990) The Role of the amygdala as a Mediator

of Acculturation and Cognition in Second Language Acquisition',
GURT '90, 169-176.

Underwood, John. (1989) 'On the Edge: Intelligent CALL in the

1990s', Computers and the Humanities, 23, 71-84.
Van Lier, L. (1988) The Classroom and the Learner, London:
Longman.

Widdowson, H. (1990) 'Discourses of Enquiry and Conditions of

Relevance', GURT '90, 261-270.