INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING

Technology is the making, modification, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts,
systems, and methods of organization, in order to solve a problem, improve a pre-existing solution to a
problem, achieve a goal, handle an applied input/output relation or perform a specific function. It can also
refer to the collection of such tools, including machinery, modifications, arrangements and procedures.
Technologies significantly affect human as well as other animal species' ability to control and adapt to their
natural environments. The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include
construction technology, medical technology, and information technology.

The human species' use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The
prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of food and the invention
of the wheel helped humans in travelling in and controlling their environment. Recent technological
developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers
to communication and allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale. However, not all technology has
been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has
progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons.

Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a number of ways. In many societies, technology
has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy) and has allowed the rise
of a leisure class. Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products, known as pollution, and
deplete natural resources, to the detriment of Earth's environment. Various implementations of technology
influence the values of a society and new technology often raises new ethical questions. Examples include
the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, a term originally applied only to
machines, and the challenge of traditional norms.

Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and future use of technology in society, with
disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-Luddism,
anarcho-primitivism, and similar movements criticise the pervasiveness of technology in the modern world,
opining that it harms the environment and alienates people; proponents of ideologies such as
transhumanism and techno-progressivism view continued technological progress as beneficial to society
and the human condition. Indeed, until recently, it was believed that the development of technology was
restricted only to human beings, but recent scientific studies indicate that other primates and certain
dolphin communities have developed simple tools and learned to pass their knowledge to other
generations.

Definition and usage

The invention of the printing press made it possible for scientists and politicians to communicate their
ideas with ease, leading to the Age of Enlightenment; an example of technology as a cultural force.

The use of the term technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century,
the term was uncommon in English, and usually referred to the description or study of the useful arts. The
term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(chartered in 1861). "Technology" rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the Second
Industrial Revolution. The meanings of technology changed in the early 20th century when American social
scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into
"technology." In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between Technik and
Technologie that is absent in English, as both terms are usually translated as "technology." By the 1930s,
"technology" referred not to the study of the industrial arts, but to the industrial arts themselves. In 1937,
the American sociologist Read Bain wrote that "technology includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons,
instruments, housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the skills by which we produce
and use them." Bain's definition remains common among scholars today, especially social scientists. But
equally prominent is the definition of technology as applied science, especially among scientists and
engineers, although most social scientists who study technology reject this definition. More recently,
scholars have borrowed from European philosophers of "technique" to extend the meaning of technology
to various forms of instrumental reason, as in Foucault's work on technologies of the self ("techniques de
soi").

Dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. The Merriam-Webster dictionary offers a
definition of the term: "the practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area" and "a
capability given by the practical application of knowledge". Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 "Real World of
Technology" lecture, gave another definition of the concept; it is "practice, the way we do things around
here". The term is often used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just
consumer electronics, rather than technology as a whole. Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time, 1, defines
technology in two ways: as "the pursuit of life by means other than life", and as "organized inorganic
matter."

Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the
application of mental and physical effort in order to achieve some value. In this usage, technology refers to
tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems. It is a far-reaching term that may
include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space
station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material; virtual technology, such as
computer software and business methods, fall under this definition of technology.

The word "technology" can also be used to refer to a collection of techniques. In this context, it is the
current state of humanity's knowledge of how to combine resources to produce desired products, to solve
problems, fulfill needs, or satisfy wants; it includes technical methods, skills, processes, techniques, tools
and raw materials. When combined with another term, such as "medical technology" or "space
technology", it refers to the state of the respective field's knowledge and tools. "State-of-the-art
technology" refers to the high technology available to humanity in any field.

Technology can be viewed as an activity that forms or changes culture. Additionally, technology is the
application of math, science, and the arts for the benefit of life as it is known. A modern example is the rise
of communication technology, which has lessened barriers to human interaction and, as a result, has
helped spawn new subcultures; the rise of cyberculture has, at its basis, the development of the Internet
and the computer. Not all technology enhances culture in a creative way; technology can also help facilitate
political oppression and war via tools such as guns. As a cultural activity, technology predates both science
and engineering, each of which formalize some aspects of technological endeavor.

Science, engineering and technology

Antoine Lavoisier conducting an experiment with combustion generated by amplified sun light

The distinction between science, engineering and technology is not always clear. Science is the reasoned
investigation or study of phenomena, aimed at discovering enduring principles among elements of the
phenomenal world by employing formal techniques such as the scientific method. Technologies are not
usually exclusively products of science, because they have to satisfy requirements such as utility, usability
and safety.

Engineering is the goal-oriented process of designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural
phenomena for practical human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques from science.
The development of technology may draw upon many fields of knowledge, including scientific, engineering,
mathematical, linguistic, and historical knowledge, to achieve some practical result.

Technology is often a consequence of science and engineering — although technology as a human activity
precedes the two fields. For example, science might study the flow of electrons in electrical conductors, by
using already-existing tools and knowledge. This new-found knowledge may then be used by engineers to
create new tools and machines, such as semiconductors, computers, and other forms of advanced
technology. In this sense, scientists and engineers may both be considered technologists; the three fields
are often considered as one for the purposes of research and reference.

The exact relations between science and technology in particular have been debated by scientists,
historians, and policymakers in the late 20th century, in part because the debate can inform the funding of
basic and applied science. In the immediate wake of World War II, for example, in the United States it was
widely considered that technology was simply "applied science" and that to fund basic science was to reap
technological results in due time. An articulation of this philosophy could be found explicitly in Vannevar
Bush's treatise on postwar science policy, Science—The Endless Frontier: "New products, new industries,
and more jobs require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature ... This essential new
knowledge can be obtained only through basic scientific research." In the late-1960s, however, this view
came under direct attack, leading towards initiatives to fund science for specific tasks (initiatives resisted by
the scientific community). The issue remains contentious—though most analysts resist the model that
technology simply is a result of scientific research.

History

Further information: Outline of prehistoric technology

The use of tools by early humans was partly a process of discovery and of evolution. Early humans evolved
from a species of foraging hominids which were already bipedal, with a brain mass approximately one third
of modern humans. Tool use remained relatively unchanged for most of early human history.
Approximately 50,000 years ago, the use of tools and complex set of behaviors emerged, believed by many
archaeologists to be connected to the emergence of fully modern language.

Stone tools

Hand axes from the Acheulian period

A Clovis point, made via pressure flaking

Human ancestors have been using stone and other tools since long before the emergence of Homo sapiens
approximately 200,000 years ago. The earliest methods of stone tool making, known as the Oldowan
"industry", date back to at least 2.3 million years ago, with the earliest direct evidence of tool usage found
in Ethiopia within the Great Rift Valley, dating back to 2.5 million years ago. This era of stone tool use is
called the Paleolithic, or "Old stone age", and spans all of human history up to the development of
agriculture approximately 12,000 years ago.
To make a stone tool, a "core" of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as flint) was struck with a
hammerstone. This flaking produced a sharp edge on the core stone as well as on the flakes, either of which
could be used as tools, primarily in the form of choppers or scrapers. These tools greatly aided the early
humans in their hunter-gatherer lifestyle to perform a variety of tasks including butchering carcasses (and
breaking bones to get at the marrow); chopping wood; cracking open nuts; skinning an animal for its hide;
and even forming other tools out of softer materials such as bone and wood.

The earliest stone tools were crude, being little more than a fractured rock. In the Acheulian era, beginning
approximately 1.65 million years ago, methods of working these stone into specific shapes, such as hand
axes emerged. The Middle Paleolithic, approximately 300,000 years ago, saw the introduction of the
prepared-core technique, where multiple blades could be rapidly formed from a single core stone. The
Upper Paleolithic, beginning approximately 40,000 years ago, saw the introduction of pressure flaking,
where a wood, bone, or antler punch could be used to shape a stone very finely.

Fire

The discovery and utilization of fire, a simple energy source with many profound uses, was a turning point
in the technological evolution of humankind. The exact date of its discovery is not known; evidence of burnt
animal bones at the Cradle of Humankind suggests that the domestication of fire occurred before
1,000,000 BC;[28] scholarly consensus indicates that Homo erectus had controlled fire by between
500,000 BC and 400,000 BC. Fire, fueled with wood and charcoal, allowed early humans to cook their food
to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the number of foods that could be
eaten.

Clothing and shelter

Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era were clothing and shelter; the adoption of
both technologies cannot be dated exactly, but they were a key to humanity's progress. As the Paleolithic
era progressed, dwellings became more sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380,000 BC, humans
were constructing temporary wood huts. Clothing, adapted from the fur and hides of hunted animals,
helped humanity expand into colder regions; humans began to migrate out of Africa by 200,000 BC and into
other continents, such as Eurasia.

An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools

Man's technological ascent began in earnest in what is known as the Neolithic period ("New stone age").
The invention of polished stone axes was a major advance because it allowed forest clearance on a large
scale to create farms. The discovery of agriculture allowed for the feeding of larger populations, and the
transition to a sedentist lifestyle increased the number of children that could be simultaneously raised, as
young children no longer needed to be carried, as was the case with the nomadic lifestyle. Additionally,
children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could to the hunter-gatherer
lifestyle.

With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase in labor specialization. What
triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as Uruk, and the first
civilizations, such as Sumer, is not specifically known; however, the emergence of increasingly hierarchical
social structures, the specialization of labor, trade and war amongst adjacent cultures, and the need for
collective action to overcome environmental challenges, such as the building of dikes and reservoirs, are all
thought to have played a role.
Metal tools

Continuing improvements led to the furnace and bellows and provided the ability to smelt and forge native
metals (naturally occurring in relatively pure form). Gold, copper, silver, and lead, were such early metals.
The advantages of copper tools over stone, bone, and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early
humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning of Neolithic times (about 8000 BC).
Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite common and some of
them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires. Eventually, the working of metals led to
the discovery of alloys such as bronze and brass (about 4000 BC).

Energy and transport

Meanwhile, humans were learning to harness other forms of energy. The earliest known use of wind power
is the sailboat. The earliest record of a ship under sail is shown on an Egyptian pot dating back to 3200 BC.
From prehistoric times, Egyptians probably used the power of the Nile annual floods to irrigate their lands,
gradually learning to regulate much of it through purposely built irrigation channels and 'catch' basins.
Similarly, the early peoples of Mesopotamia, the Sumerians, learned to use the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
for much the same purposes. But more extensive use of wind and water (and even human) power required
another invention.

According to archaeologists, the wheel was invented around 4000 B.C. probably independently and nearly
simultaneously in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central
Europe. Estimates on when this may have occurred range from 5500 to 3000 B.C., with most experts
putting it closer to 4000 B.C. The oldest artifacts with drawings that depict wheeled carts date from about
3000 B.C.; however, the wheel may have been in use for millennia before these drawings were made. There
is also evidence from the same period of time that wheels were used for the production of pottery. (Note
that the original potter's wheel was probably not a wheel, but rather an irregularly shaped slab of flat wood
with a small hollowed or pierced area near the center and mounted on a peg driven into the earth. It would
have been rotated by repeated tugs by the potter or his assistant.) More recently, the oldest-known
wooden wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia.

The invention of the wheel revolutionized activities as disparate as transportation, war, and the production
of pottery (for which it may have been first used). It did not take long to discover that wheeled wagons
could be used to carry heavy loads and fast (rotary) potters' wheels enabled early mass production of
pottery. But it was the use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through water wheels, windmills, and
even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources.

Medieval and modern history (300 AD – present)

Main articles: Medieval technology, Renaissance technology, Industrial Revolution, Second Industrial
Revolution, Productivity improving technologies (historical), and Information Technology

Innovations continued through the middle Ages with innovations such as silk, the horse collar and
horseshoes in the first few hundred years after the fall of the Roman Empire. Medieval technology saw the
use of simple machines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley) being combined to form more
complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills and clocks. The Renaissance brought forth many of
these innovations, including the printing press (which facilitated the greater communication of knowledge),
and technology became increasingly associated with science, beginning a cycle of mutual advancement. The
advancements in technology in this era allowed a more steady supply of food, followed by the wider
availability of consumer goods.
 The automobile revolutionized personal transportation.

Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution was a period of great
technological discovery, particularly in the areas of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, metallurgy and
transport, driven by the discovery of steam power. Technology later took another step with the harnessing
of electricity to create such innovations as the electric motor, light bulb and countless others. Scientific
advancement and the discovery of new concepts later allowed for powered flight, and advancements in
medicine, chemistry, physics and engineering. The rise in technology has led to the construction of
skyscrapers and large cities whose inhabitants rely on automobiles or other powered transit for
transportation. Communication was also greatly improved with the invention of the telegraph, telephone,
radio and television. The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a revolution in transportation with the
invention of the steam-powered ship, train, airplane, and automobile.

The 20th century brought a host of innovations. In physics, the discovery of nuclear fission has led to both
nuclear weapons and nuclear power. Computers were also invented and later miniaturized utilizing
transistors and integrated circuits. The technology behind got called information technology, and these
advancements subsequently led to the creation of the Internet, which ushered in the current Information
Age. Humans have also been able to explore space with satellites (later used for telecommunication) and in
manned missions going all the way to the moon. In medicine, this era brought innovations such as open-
heart surgery and later stem cell therapy along with new medications and treatments. Complex
manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are needed to construct and maintain these
new technologies, and entire industries have arisen to support and develop succeeding generations of
increasingly more complex tools. Modern technology increasingly relies on training and education — their
designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require sophisticated general and specific training.
Moreover, these technologies have become so complex that entire fields have been created to support
them, including engineering, medicine, and computer science, and other fields have been made more
complex, such as construction, transportation and architecture.

Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations
and predictions about the universe. In an older and closely related meaning, "science" also refers to a body
of knowledge itself, of the type that can be rationally explained and reliably applied. A practitioner of
science is known as a scientist.

Since classical antiquity, science as a type of knowledge has been closely linked to philosophy. In the early
modern period the words "science" and "philosophy of nature" were sometimes used interchangeably. By
the 17th century, natural philosophy (which is today called "natural science") was considered a separate
branch of philosophy.

In modern usage, "science" most often refers to a way of pursuing knowledge, not only the knowledge
itself. It is also often restricted to those branches of study that seek to explain the phenomena of the
material universe. In the 17th and 18th centuries scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in
terms of laws of nature such as Newton's laws of motion. And over the course of the 19th century, the
word "science" became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself, as a disciplined way to
study the natural world, including physics, chemistry, geology and biology. It is in the 19th century also that
the term scientist was created by the naturalist-theologian William Whewell to distinguish those who
sought knowledge on nature from those who sought other types of knowledge.
However, "science" has also continued to be used in a broad sense to denote reliable and teachable
knowledge about a topic, as reflected in modern terms like library science or computer science. This is also
reflected in the names of some areas of academic study such as "social science" or "political science".

Both Aristotle and Kuan Tzu (4th century BCE), in an example of simultaneous scientific discovery, mention
that some marine animals were subject to a lunar cycle, and increase and decrease in size with the waxing
and waning of the moon. Aristotle was referring specifically to the sea urchin, pictured above.

Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era, and in many historical civilizations, but modern
science is so distinct in its approach and successful in its results that it now defines what science is in the
strictest sense of the term. Much earlier than the modern era, another important turning point was the
development of classical natural philosophy in the ancient Greek-speaking world.

Pre-philosophical

Science in its original sense is a word for a type of knowledge, rather than a specialized word for the pursuit
of such knowledge. In particular it is one of the types of knowledge which people can communicate to each
other and share. For example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before
recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thinking, as shown by the construction of
complex calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible, and buildings such as the pyramids.
However no consistent conscientious distinction was made between knowledge of such things which are
true in every community, and other types of communal knowledge such as mythologies and legal systems.

Philosophical study of nature

Before the invention or discovery of the concept of "nature" by the Pre-Socratic philosophers, the same
words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows, and the "way" in which, for
example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason it is claimed these men were the first
philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish "nature" and
"convention".[11] Science was therefore distinguished as the knowledge of nature, and the things which are
true for every community, and the name of the specialized pursuit of such knowledge was philosophy —
the realm of the first philosopher-physicists. They were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly
interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature (artifice or
technology, Greek technē) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class
artisans.

Philosophical turn to human things

A major turning point in the history of early philosophical science was the controversial but successful
attempt by Socrates to apply philosophy to the study of human things, including human nature, the nature
of political communities, and human knowledge itself. He criticized the older type of study of physics as too
purely speculative, and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early
physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely
in terms of motion and matter.

The study of human things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, and Socrates was executed.
Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy, which was
teleological, and human-centred. He rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example in
his physics the sun goes around the earth, and many things have it as part of their nature that they are for
humans. Each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and
change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, according to what types of things
they are. While the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of
the best way to live for a human being (a study Aristotle divided into ethics and political philosophy), they
did not argue for any other types of applied science.

Aristotle maintained the sharp distinction between science and the practical knowledge of artisans, treating
theoretical speculation as the highest type of human activity, practical thinking about good living as
something less lofty, and the knowledge of artisans as something only suitable for the lower classes. In
contrast to modern science, Aristotle's influential emphasis was upon the "theoretical" steps of deducing
universal rules from raw data, and did not treat the gathering of experience and raw data as part of science
itself.[13]

Medieval science

During late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the Aristotelian approach to inquiries on natural
phenomenon was used. Some ancient knowledge was lost, or in some cases kept in obscurity, during the
fall of the Roman Empire and periodic political struggles. However, the general fields of science, or natural
philosophy as it was called, and much of the general knowledge from the ancient world remained
preserved though the works of the early Latin encyclopedists like Isidore of Seville. Also, in the Byzantine
empire, many Greek science texts were preserved in Syriac translations done by groups such as Nestorians
and Monophysites. Many of these were translated later on into Arabic under Islamic rule, during which
many types of classical learning were preserved and in some cases improved upon.[14] In the later medieval
period, as science in Byzantium and the Islamic world waned, Western Europeans began collecting ancient
texts from the Mediterranean, not only in Latin, but also in Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew. Knowledge of
ancient researchers such as Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid, amongst Catholic scholars, were recovered with
renewed interest in diverse aspects of natural phenomenon. In Europe, men like Roger Bacon in England
argued for more experimental science. By the late Middle Ages, a synthesis of Catholicism and
Aristotelianism known as Scholasticism was flourishing in Western Europe, which had become a new
geographic center of science.

Philosophy of science

Working scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the
scientific method: (1) that there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; (2) that this
objective reality is governed by natural laws; (3) that these laws can be discovered by means of systematic
observation and experimentation. Philosophy of science seeks a deep understanding of what these
underlying assumptions mean and whether they are valid.

The belief that scientific theories should and do represent metaphysical reality is known as realism. It can
be contrasted with anti-realism, the view that the success of science does not depend on it being accurate
about unobservable entities such as electrons. One form of anti-realism is idealism, the belief that the mind
or consciousness is the most basic essence, and that each mind generates its own reality. In an idealistic
world view, what is true for one mind need not be true for other minds.

There are different schools of thought in philosophy of science. The most popular position is empiricism,
which claims that knowledge is created by a process involving observation and that scientific theories are
the result of generalizations from such observations. Empiricism generally encompasses inductivism, a
position that tries to explain the way general theories can be justified by the finite number of observations
humans can make and the hence finite amount of empirical evidence available to confirm scientific
theories. This is necessary because the number of predictions those theories make is infinite, which means
that they cannot be known from the finite amount of evidence using deductive logic only. Many versions of
empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being bayesianism and the hypothetico-deductive method.

Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism, the position originally associated with Descartes, which
holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation. Critical rationalism is a
contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper.
Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He
claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of
theories and that the only way a theory can be affected by observation is when it comes in conflict with it.
Popper proposed falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories, and falsification as the empirical
method, to replace verifiability and induction by purely deductive notions. Popper further claimed that
there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method of criticism, trial
and error. It covers all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art.

Another approach, instrumentalism, colloquially termed "shut up and calculate", emphasizes the utility of
theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena. It views scientific theories as black boxes
with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical
entities and logical structure are claimed to be something that should simply be ignored and that scientists
shouldn't make a fuss about (see interpretations of quantum mechanics). Close to instrumentalism is
constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is
whether what it says about observable entities is true.

Paul K Feyerabend advanced the idea of epistemological anarchism, which holds that there are no useful
and exception-free methodological rules governing the progress of science or the growth of knowledge,
and that the idea that science can or should operate according to universal and fixed rules is unrealistic,
pernicious and detrimental to science itself. Feyerabend advocates treating science as an ideology
alongside others such as religion, magic and mythology, and considers the dominance of science in society
authoritarian and unjustified. He also contended (along with Imre Lakatos) that the demarcation problem
of distinguishing science from pseudoscience on objective grounds is not possible and thus fatal to the
notion of science running according to fixed, universal rules. Feyerabend also stated that science does not
have evidence for its philosophical precepts, particularly the notion of Uniformity of Law and the
Uniformity of Process across time and space.

Finally, another approach often cited in debates of scientific skepticism against controversial movements
like "scientific creationism", is methodological naturalism. Its main point is that a difference between
natural and supernatural explanations should be made, and that science should be restricted
methodologically to natural explanations. That the restriction is merely methodological (rather than
ontological) means that science should not consider supernatural explanations itself, but should not claim
them to be wrong either. Instead, supernatural explanations should be left a matter of personal belief
outside the scope of science. Methodological naturalism maintains that proper science requires strict
adherence to empirical study and independent verification as a process for properly developing and
evaluating explanations for observable phenomena.[33] The absence of these standards, arguments from
authority, biased observational studies and other common fallacies are frequently cited by supporters of
methodological naturalism as characteristic of the non-science they criticize.
The scientific method

The scientific method seeks to explain the events of nature in a reproducible way. An explanatory thought
experiment or hypothesis is put forward, as explanation, using principles such as parsimony (also known as
"Occam's Razor") and are generally expected to seek consilience—fitting well with other accepted facts
related to the phenomena. This new explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions that are testable by
experiment or observation. The predictions are to be posted before a confirming experiment or
observation is sought, as proof that no tampering has occurred. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of
progress. This is done partly through observation of natural phenomena, but also through experimentation,
that tries to simulate natural events under controlled conditions, as appropriate to the discipline (in the
observational sciences, such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might take the place of a
controlled experiment). Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish causal
relationships (to avoid the correlation fallacy).

When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is either modified or discarded. If the hypothesis survived
testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory. This is a logically reasoned, self-
consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena. A theory
typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of phenomena than a hypothesis; commonly, a large
number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis
explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same
scientific principles as hypotheses. In addition to testing hypotheses, scientists may also generate a model
based on observed phenomena. This is an attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of a
logical, physical or mathematical representation and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested.

While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over
another, and so it is important to ensure that science as a whole can eliminate this bias. This can be
achieved by careful experimental design, transparency, and a thorough peer review process of the
experimental results as well as any conclusions. After the results of an experiment are announced or
published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was
performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results
might be. Taken in its entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while
minimizing any effects of subjective bias on the part of its users (namely the confirmation bias).

Branches and fields

Scientific fields are commonly divided into two major groups: natural sciences, which study natural
phenomena (including biological life), and social sciences, which study human behavior and societies. These
groupings are empirical sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena
and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions. There
are also related disciplines that are grouped into interdisciplinary and applied sciences, such as engineering
and medicine. Within these categories are specialized scientific fields that can include parts of other
scientific disciplines but often possess their own nomenclature and expertise.

Mathematics, which is classified as a formal science, has both similarities and differences with the empirical
sciences (the natural and social sciences). It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an objective,
careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its
knowledge, using a priori rather than empirical methods. The formal sciences, which also include statistics
and logic, are vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major
advances in the empirical sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of hypotheses,
theories, and laws, both in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people
think and act (social sciences).

Science and society

Women in science

Vera Rubin, the first astronomer to infer galactic clumping from astronomical data in 1953, was not allowed
to use the telescope at Palomar until 1965, with the given reason that the facility did not have a women's
restroom.

Science has traditionally been a male-dominated field, with some notable exceptions. Women historically
faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they did in other areas of male-dominated societies,
such as frequently being passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work. The
achievements of women in science have been attributed to their defiance of their traditional role as
laborers within the domestic sphere.

In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of institutional discrimination on the
basis of sex greatly increased the number of female scientists, but large gender disparities remain in some
fields; over half of new biologists are female, while 80% of PhDs in physics are given to men. Feminists
claim this is the result of culture rather than an innate difference between the sexes, and some
experiments have shown that parents challenge and explain more to boys than girls, asking them to reflect
more deeply and logically. In the early part of the 21st century, in America, women earned 50.3%
bachelor's degrees, 45.6% master's degrees, and 40.7% of PhDs in science and engineering fields with
women earning more than half of the degrees in three fields: Psychology (about 70%), Social Sciences
(about 50%), and Biology (about 50-60%). However, when it comes to the Physical Sciences, Geosciences,
Math, Engineering, and Computer Science; women earned less than half the degrees. However, lifestyle
choice also plays a major role in female engagement in science; women with young children are 28% less
likely to take tenure-track positions due to work-life balance issues, and female graduate students' interest
in careers in research declines dramatically over the course of graduate school, whereas that of their male
colleagues remains unchanged.

Science policy

Science policy is an area of public policy concerned with the policies that affect the conduct of the scientific
enterprise, including research funding, often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as
technological innovation to promote commercial product development, weapons development, health care
and environmental monitoring. Science policy also refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge and
consensus to the development of public policies. Science policy thus deals with the entire domain of issues
that involve the natural sciences. In accordance with public policy being concerned about the well-being of
its citizens, science policy's goal is to consider how science and technology can best serve the public.

State policy has influenced the funding of public works and science for thousands of years, dating at least
from the time of the Mohists, who inspired the study of logic during the period of the Hundred Schools of
Thought, and the study of defensive fortifications during the Warring States period in China. In Great
Britain, governmental approval of the Royal Society in the 17th century recognized a scientific community
which exists to this day. The professionalization of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled
by the creation of scientific organizations such as the National Academy of Sciences, the Kaiser Wilhelm
Institute, and State funding of universities of their respective nations. Public policy can directly affect the
funding of capital equipment, intellectual infrastructure for industrial research, by providing tax incentives
to those organizations that fund research. Vannevar Bush, director of the Office of Scientific Research and
Development for the United States government, the forerunner of the National Science Foundation, wrote
in July 1945 that "Science is a proper concern of government"

Science and technology research is often funded through a competitive process, in which potential research
projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by
government, corporations or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most developed
countries is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP. In the OECD, around two-thirds of research and development in
scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and
government. The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research
in social science and humanities. Similarly, with some exceptions (e.g. biotechnology) government provides
the bulk of the funds for basic scientific research. In commercial research and development, all but the
most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialisation possibilities
rather than "blue-sky" ideas or technologies (such as nuclear fusion).

Media perspectives

The mass media face a number of pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing
scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how
much weight to give different sides in a scientific debate may require considerable expertise regarding the
matter. Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even beat reporters who know a great deal
about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to
cover.

Political usage

Many issues damage the relationship of science to the media and the use of science and scientific
arguments by politicians. As a very broad generalisation, many politicians seek certainties and facts whilst
scientists typically offer probabilities and caveats. However, politicians' ability to be heard in the mass
media frequently distorts the scientific understanding by the public. Examples in Britain include the
controversy over the MMR inoculation, and the 1988 forced resignation of a Government Minister, Edwina
Currie for revealing the high probability that battery farmed eggs were contaminated with Salmonella.[98]

John Horgan, Chris Mooney, and researchers from the US and Canada have described Scientific Certainty
Argumentation Methods (SCAMs), where an organization or think tank makes it their only goal to cast
doubt on supported science because it conflicts with political agendas. Hank Campbell and microbiologist
Alex Berezow have described "feel-good fallacies" used in politics, where politicians frame their positions in
a way that makes people feel good about supporting certain policies even when scientific evidence shows
there is no need to worry or there is no need for dramatic change on current programs.

Engineering is the application of scientific, economic, social, and practical knowledge in order to design,
build, maintain, and improve structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes. It may
encompass using insights to conceive, model and scale an appropriate solution to a problem or objective.
The discipline of engineering is extremely broad, and encompasses a range of more specialized fields of
engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of technology and types of application.

The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET) has
defined "engineering" as:
The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or
manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the
same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions;
all as respects an intended function, economics of operation or safety to life and property.

One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal
designations such as Professional Engineer, Federal Aviation Administration Designated Engineering
Representative, Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur or European Engineer.

History

Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the pulley,
lever, and wheel. Each of these inventions is consistent with the modern definition of engineering,
exploiting basic mechanical principles to develop useful tools and objects.

The term engineering itself has a much more recent etymology, deriving from the word engineer, which
itself dates back to 1300, when an engine'er (literally, one who operates an engine) originally referred to "a
constructor of military engines." In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine,
i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult). Notable exceptions of the obsolete
usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers.

The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium (c. 1250),
meaning "innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention."

Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a technical discipline, the
term civil engineering entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the
construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the older discipline of military engineering.

Problem solving

Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, logic, economics, and appropriate experience or
tacit knowledge to find suitable solutions to a problem. Creating an appropriate mathematical model of a
problem allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions.

Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers must evaluate the different design choices on their
merits and choose the solution that best meets their requirements. Genrich Altshuller, after gathering
statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of "low-level"
engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction
causing the problem.

Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to
full-scale production. They use, among other things: prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive
tests, nondestructive tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected.

Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected and will not
cause unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs
to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. However, the greater the safety factor, the less efficient the design
may be.
The study of failed products is known as forensic engineering, and can help the product designer in
evaluating his or her design in the light of real conditions. The discipline is of greatest value after disasters,
such as bridge collapses, when careful analysis is needed to establish the cause or causes of the failure.

Computer use

A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around a Space Shuttle during re-entry. Solutions to the
flow require modelling of the combined effects of fluid flow and the heat equations.

As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly
important role. As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided
applications (computer-aided technologies) specifically for engineering. Computers can be used to generate
models of fundamental physical processes, which can be solved using numerical methods.

One of the most widely used design tools in the profession is computer-aided design (CAD) software like
Autodesk Inventor, DSS SolidWorks, or Pro Engineer which enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D
drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with Digital Mockup (DMU) and CAE software such
as finite element method analysis or analytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs
that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.

These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics;
and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures,
electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics.
Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of Product Data
Management software.

There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as computer-aided manufacture (CAM)
software to generate CNC machining instructions; Manufacturing Process Management software for
production engineering; EDA for printed circuit board (PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers;
MRO applications for maintenance management; and AEC software for civil engineering.

In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be
known as Product Lifecycle Management (PLM).

Engineering is a subject that ranges from large collaborations to small individual projects. Almost all
engineering projects are beholden to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a
government. The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro bono
engineering and open design engineering.

By its very nature engineering is bound up with society and human behavior. Every product or construction
used by modern society will have been influenced by engineering. Engineering is a very powerful tool to
make changes to environment, society and economies, and its application brings with it a great
responsibility. Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide
members and inform the public at large.

Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Examples from different engineering disciplines include
the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and use of sport utility vehicles
and the extraction of oil. In response, some western engineering companies have enacted serious
corporate and social responsibility policies.
 Engineering is a key driver of human development. Sub-Saharan Africa in particular has a very small
engineering capacity which results in many African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure
without outside aid. The attainment of many of the Millennium Development Goals requires the
achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological
development.

All overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster
and development scenarios. A number of charitable organizations aim to use engineering directly for the
good of mankind:

 Engineers Without Borders

 Engineers Against Poverty

 Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief

 Engineers for a Sustainable World

 Engineering for Change

 Engineering Ministries International

Relationships with other disciplines

Science

Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.

There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science.
Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics
and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations. Scientists may also have to complete
engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the
process of developing technology engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus
becoming, for the moment, scientists.

In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It, Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research
has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic
physics and/or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an
exact manner.

Examples are the use of numerical approximations to the Navier-Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic
flow over an aircraft, or the use of Miner's rule to calculate fatigue damage. Second, engineering research
employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the
method of parameter variation.

As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text, Foundations of Solid Mechanics:

"Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make
things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress invention. To embody an invention the engineer must
put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a device,
a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a
problem, or an improvement on what is existing. Since a design has to be concrete, it must have its
geometry, dimensions, and characteristic numbers. Almost all engineers working on new designs find that
they do not have all the needed information. Most often, they are limited by insufficient scientific
knowledge. Thus they study mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they have to
add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences are born."

Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into account
safety, efficiency, economy, reliability and constructability or ease of fabrication, as well as legal
considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution.

Medicine and biology

Leonardo da Vinci, seen here in a self-portrait, has been described as the epitome of the artist/engineer. He
is also known for his studies on human anatomy and physiology.

The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an important
common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. Medicine aims to sustain, enhance and
even replace functions of the human body, if necessary, through the use of technology.

Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can
significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, brain
implants and pacemakers. The fields of bionics and medical bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic
implants pertaining to natural systems.

Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying, and
are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with technology. This has led to fields
such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and robotics. There are also substantial
interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.

Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before
phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation
and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both.

Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has
many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods.

The heart for example functions much like a pump, the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers, the
brain produces electrical signals etc. These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application
of engineering principles in medicine, led to the development of the field of biomedical engineering that
uses concepts developed in both disciplines.

Newly emerging branches of science, such as systems biology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally
used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological
systems.

Art

A drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives. Engineering is applied to design, with emphasis on
function and the utilization of mathematics and science.
There are connections between engineering and art; they are direct in some fields, for example,
architecture, landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the extent that these disciplines may
sometimes be included in a university's Faculty of Engineering); and indirect in others.

The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of NASA's aerospace design.[45]
Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic. At the University of
South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant with the National Science Foundation, has
developed a course that connects art and engineering.

Among famous historical figures Leonardo da Vinci is a well-known Renaissance artist and engineer, and a
prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.

Other fields

In political science the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of social
engineering and political engineering, which deal with forming political and social structures using
engineering methodology coupled with political science principles. Financial engineering has similarly
borrowed the term.

The Engineer as an Artist

The pioneers of the engineering profession were more of artists than science-based engineers.
This was probably why the British Institution of Civil Engineers, in 1824, defined Civil Engineering
as “… the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of
man.” In the beginning, engineering was practiced as an art based on talent, skill and experience.
Many of the professionals at that time were carpenters, masons, instrument makers, irrigation
operators, technicians, etc.

Some examples can be given of these early engineers:

1. James Watt who was famous for making factory systems possible.

2. Brindley who developed canals.

3. Stephensons who developed the railways.

4. Macadam and Telford who showed how roads and bridges should be built.

5. Whiteworth and others who invented machines that made engineering production and
manufacture viable process.

These 19th century craftsmen did not study science before going into engineering practice. In fact
modern day engineering science owes more to these great men who provided the basis for the
science of engineering to be developed. They were able to achieve what they did because the
whole practice of engineering is an art which can be learned, or based on talent.

Even in modern day practice of engineering, we note that although the science-based engineer
may have a good number of scientific formulae, principles and procedures, the end product of any
engineering work is more of an art, inventiveness and creativity than science. In the logic of
science, there is normally a solution to a problem, but in arts, there is no such single solution to a
problem. In design and most other translation of engineering science to useful ends, the artist’s
procedure is followed. The actual design involves the personal touch of the designer, although he
is guided by established scientific laws and principles.

Examples of the role of the engineer as an artist can be seen by observing unique buildings in
Nigeria such as the National Theatre, Headquarters of the multinationals at Marina in Lagos.

The Engineering Family

In every set up where a group of people work together to achieve a common goal, there is always
some kind of division of labour and hierarchy. The biological family of which everybody belongs is
a typical example. There is a father, mother, child, house-help, relation, etc. Each member of the
family is distinct and has a specific indispensable role to play. Where any member is absent or is
not performing his duties well, the overall output of the family suffers.

The group of people who carry out engineering activity in Nigeria can be classified into what Faluyi
(1993) called the “Engineering Family.” Just like in a family, the engineering family can only
succeed if each member of the family understandings and plays his role effectively. In most cases
the roles are clear but sometimes they overlap.

The Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN) recognizes four cadres in
engineering professional practice in the country. These four cadres make up the engineering
family. They are craftsman/artisan, technician, technologist and engineer.

The Craftsman is at the bottom of the hierarchy but is probably the most important member of
the family. He is highly skilled in one or more aspects of engineering practice to an extent that he
can recognize and use engineering tools and materials for production and materials for production
and services in a plant or engineering work. Examples include mason, carpenter, mechanic,
electrician, fitter, plumber, etc. These are the people that actually do the final phase of any
engineering work. It is recommended by COREN that a craftsman should undergo a certificate
vocational training in his chosen area after primary school and junior secondary school. Such
training can be obtained from a trade school. However, most craftsmen in Nigeria today were
trained on the job.

The next group in the ladder is the technician who is formally trained up to the technical college
level in more than one specific art or engineering practice. He is usually the direct supervisor of
the craftsmen and will most likely hold an Ordinary National Diploma (OND) from a college or
polytechnic. Examples include, foreman in a construction site, supervisors in factories, head
mechanics, etc. whereas the craftsman in a construction site may be just a plumber, the technician
will be a plumber, fitter, mason, carpenter, etc. such that he can supervise the works of the
different craftsmen under him.
Technologists are higher in training than technicians, usually up to the Higher National Diploma
(HND) level in their chosen disciplines. In Nigeria, they are trained at the polytechnics and Colleges
of Technology and other relevant institutions. In industry, they function partly as operatives and
partly as managers. Usually, they posses most of the skills of artisans plus some level of analytical
skills of the engineer. In ministries and parastatals they are sometimes called Higher Technical
Officers (HTOs).

The engineer is the head of the engineering family, and is usually a holder of a Bachelor’s degree in
engineering and sometimes higher (Masters or Ph.D). By training, he possesses mostly analytical
and managerial skills to design, analyse and manage engineering systems including men and
materials. He may not necessarily be detailed or knowledgeable in the skills of the artisan but
should be able to provide leadership, guidance and supervision. This is why in most
establishments; engineers end up as managers, overseeing what is going on in different sections.
The figure shows that in practice there are more technologists than engineers; more technicians
than technologists; and more artisans than technicians. A kind of pyramidal technological structure
such as shown below is maintained giving the ratio of Engineers: Technologists: Technicians:
Artisans/Craftsman as 1:2:4:8.

The Engineering family at work in a typical industry

Different cadres of engineering profession

Engineering-In-Society

The engineering profession is widely regarded as the most extensive and intensive profession
covering almost all facets of human endeavor. The role of the engineer in society spans across
politics, religion, technology, law, medicine, manufacturing, teaching, management,
administration, defence, food production, and provision of utilities.

Politics

earlier engineers abhorred politics believing that they were too busy with their tools to turn onto
the rhetorics and troubles of politics and governance of man. In the beginning the pioneer
professional engineers were normally busy and tired after a busy day’s job of manual cutting and
joining of metals, woods, etc or other products. Even when he would be so much occupied with
the whys and hows of the numerous problems hindering the development of man and his
environment that he alienated himself from the idea of governance and the organization of man
and materials, believing that politics was best suited for those who had little to show from their
strength, creativity, technical competence and practical ingenuity. Engineers were then very
satisfied with what they produced and the problems they solved with their products. They took
pride in satisfying technical needs of mankind.

They forgot that politics and the associated powers of government are the pivot upon which their
technical prowess and ingenuity lies. Politics is a serious game which only very serious-minded
persons such as engineers must play for the greater advantage of the people. It is widely known
that politics is a process and art of power struggle, power consolidation and power utilization. If
one has technology but has no political power, his technology will be taken away from him
through the night and polities of government. If one has money and has no political power, his
money can be taken away. Also if one enjoys peace without political power, his peaceful state of
mind can be violated and taken away from him in exchange for imprisonment, restriction etc.
These suggest that political power is very important to the engineer to enable him gain the right
environment to practice. It will enable the engineer to participate in policy formulation necessary
for the advancement of the engineering profession.

As a Member of the Society

The engineer is first and foremost a member of his village, town, local government area, state,
country, etc. He is therefore expected to do his duties as a member of his community. He must be
a good citizen, attend community gatherings/meetings and make meaningful contributions in such
meetings necessary to advance ideas, knowledge and promote cordial existence between the
different arms of the community. In most parts of the world, engineers are known to be the most
honest professionals. The engineer must therefore, try to exhibit this quality in whatever he says
and does with the members of the society. In most societies, which engineers belong, they are
called upon to head committees for erecting building, installing utilities, etc. The engineer should
participate in the these activities diligently.

Religion

The engineer-in-society needs to understand the religious beliefs of his environment and play an
active part in its enhancement. He has to be spiritually religious in his behaviours and actions.
Religious discipline is important in the daily co-existence of man and his neighbours. It promotes
peace and tolerance. It is believed that when God stopped creation, he handed over His tools of
creation to the engineer with the instruction to continue from where he stopped. That is why the
engineer has created and can create virtually anything on earth today. It is therefore important
that the engineer should think back and remember the original creator GOD, thank and ask Him
for more powers to create and develop these creations for the advancement of humanity.

New Technologies

Engineers are trained to solve the technological problems of man. Wherever he may be, the
engineer is widely expected to proffer solutions to most technical problems of humanity. In the
midst of farmers, he should plan, research, design, and develop relevant appropriate technology,
machinery and equipment to solve the technical problems of agriculture in such areas as land
clearing, drying, storage, transportation, processing and marketing of their products.

Similarly, the engineer always seeks for the solutions for the numerous problems of the
environment; transportation by air, land and sea; automobiles, telecommunications, electricity,
roads, buildings, industrial constructions and maintenance.

In each of these areas, the engineer creates new technologies, both simple and complex,
necessary to solve the challenging problems of the time.

Law

When properly enforced, laws promote peace and orderliness of human activities. A lawless
society is often characterized by disorder, anarchy and confusion. The engineering profession
hardly grows in a state of lawlessness. This means that the engineer requires a well-established
non-oppressive law to operate. He starts with understanding and obeying the scientific discoveries
to solving the problems of nature, environment and human existence.

The engineer also needs to understand the contract laws, factory laws, etc and the general laws of
his country and is duty-bound to understand and obey them with strictest discipline. To
underscore the importance of understanding the law in the professional practice of the engineer,
at least a course on law of practice has been incorporated in the academic programmes of most
engineering disciplines in Nigerian Universities (NUC, 1989).

Medicine

The roles of the engineer in the development and sustenance of modern medicine is principally
based on the design and manufacture of medical tools, equipment and machines. These range
from the simplest tools such as syringes, needles, etc to the complex radiological laboratory and
pharmaceutical machines.

Because of these machines and equipment, it is widely believed that modern medicine heavily
depends on the advancement of the engineering profession in order to carry out the diagnosis of
health and medical problems of mankind most efficiently. Other applications include building of
hospitals, and related medical complexes as well as artificial limbs for orthopedic requirements.

Military Function

The military powers of a Nation are dependent on the level of advancement of engineering and
technology. The engineer designs and produces the ammunition and many military machines
necessary to execute wars and maintain peace. Military engineering was one of the earliest
engineering disciplines dating back to the prehistoric era when the early man first fashioned out
tools to protect himself from aggressors of man and animal origins.

Total mechanization of all military operations is very vital in the prosecution of modern warfare.
This is the sole duty of the engineer. The engineer is also required to construct military structures
such as trenches, roads, bridges and build cars, trucks, etc to move men and materials from one
location to another.

Administration and Management

The engineer should be fully involved in the administration and management of human and
material resources in workshops and manufacturing industries. The recruitment of technical
personnel, selection of production materials, machinery and equipment; performance testing of
new machines/equipment; maintenance and repair of machines and equipment; costs and
engineering analysis of machines, equipment, processes, controls and techniques of production,
etc are all the management and administrative responsibilities of the engineer.

Food Production

Perhaps the most important role of the engineer in the society is in the production, processing,
distribution of food. Engineers develop machines and systems that are used to produce crops and
animals for food and fibre. When these are harvested, machines and structures developed by
engineers are used to process and store the products, in factories, storage depots, etc.

Utilities

Most developed societies live in cities which require utilities such as roads, water, electricity,
schools, markets, drainage systems, etc. These utilities are provided and maintained by engineers.
The code of practice for engineers demands that professionals entrusted with these services
should ensure that the interest of the society is placed above other interests.

BRANCHES OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

Agricultural Engineering

Definition of Agricultural Engineering

Agricultural Engineering is the application of engineering knowledge and services in solving

technical and environmental problems in agriculture. It utilizes all branches of engineering and
technology in the art, science and business of crop and animal production as well as in the
processing, preservation, storage, handling, manufacture, distribution or marketing of agricultural
products. The primary mission of agricultural engineering is to mechanize agriculture, agro-based
industries and to protect the environment of the farmer, his household and that of agro-based
industries. Agricultural mechanization is defined as the application of engineering principles and
technology in designing, developing, manufacturing, selecting, testing, adopting, operating and
maintaining tools, implements, machines, structures and other technological systems and gadgets
for improved agricultural production, storage and processing.

Modern agricultural engineering has a very recent past. There was no formalized discipline of
science-based agricultural engineering until 1907. Before then, engineering in agriculture was
performed by mechanical, civil and electrical engineers. As specializations widened and the
application of engineering practice in agriculture became increasingly necessary, a group of
engineers in the United States of America, trained as Mechanical, Civil, Electrical engineers but
working in agriculture got together to form the American Society of Agricultural Engineers in 1907.

In Nigeria, there was no qualified Agricultural Engineer prior to 1960 (Odigboh, 1985). The
professional body of Agricultural Engineers, Nigerian Society of Agricultural Engineers (NSAE),
came into existence only in 1975.

Agricultural engineering has certain features uncommon to other engineering disciplines. The
agricultural engineer deals with living plants and animal materials and therefore adds a biological
dimension to his engineering training. He studies some aspects of biology, understands the
principles of crop production and protection, animal production and management as well as the
strength and properties of crops and animals materials.

Areas of Specialization in Agricultural Engineering

The main areas of specialization in agricultural engineering and technology are:

1. Farm power and machinery engineering

2. Soil and water engineering
3. Electric power and processing engineering
4. Farm structures and environmental control engineering
5. Food engineering
6. Wood products processing engineering
7. Food science and technology

The agricultural engineer who specializes in Farm power and machinery is simply a mechanical
engineer that specializes in the design, development, testing and selection of agricultural
machines and equipment. Farm Power and Machinery option covers such areas as the design,
development, manufacture, and maintenance of machines, implements and tools useful in
agriculture. Such machines may include tractors, sprayers, water/irrigation pumps, ploughs,
ridgers, harrows, planters, combine harvesters, manure spreaders, fertilizer broadcasters, etc.

The specialist in Soil and Water Engineering option is summarily a civil engineer trained to handle
agricultural engineering problems of soil and water observation; design, development and
installation of irrigation and drainage works and systems, rural water supply, etc.

The agricultural engineer in the Electric Power and Processing engineering option is an expert in
farm/rural electrification, selection, use and installation of electric motors; application of
electricity to handling, processing and storage of agricultural products; processing and storage,
cleaning, sorting, grading, size reduction, heat treatment, packaging, air-conditioning and
refrigeration. Such a specialist will also be involved in the conception, design, development and
testing of machines for crop and animal processing.
The agricultural engineering specialist in the Farm Structures and Environmental Control
Engineering concerns himself with the planning, design, of the environmental requirements of
crops and animals; farmstead planning, sewage and farm waste management, planning of houses
for livestock and storage of crops and animal materials; design and installation of irrigation, soil
and water conservation structures.

The Food Engineer deals with food, feed, fibre and beverages/drinks manufacture; heat and mass
transfers in food processing; design and installation of heat exchangers in food processing plants;
hot and cold preservation of food materials; food packaging and quality control.

The wood products engineering specialist is concerned with wood as a structural materials in
buildings, quality control of wood products; pulp and paper technology, design and development
of wood seasoning and conversion machines, equipment and processes such as wood cutting,
saws, cutters, saw-milling; vibration and noise in sawmills; buckling of saw blades, etc.

The specialist in the area of Food Science and Technology deals with the physical, chemical,
biological and microbiological principles of food processing and preservation; food infection and
poisoning; food packaging, analysis, process plant design, etc.

Career Opportunities in Agricultural Engineering

Agricultural Engineers can pursue careers in Different areas of the economy. These can be
classified as government, private sector, International Organization, Non-Government
Organizations, Institutions or learning and research and self-employment.

There are many opportunities for agricultural engineers in government parastatals. These are with
the Ministries of Agriculture, Water Resources and Science and Technology at the Federal, State
and Local Government levels. Within these ministries and sometimes under the presidency, there
are many extra-ministerial parastatals which employ agricultural engineers in large numbers.
These include the National Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALDA), Crop Storage Unit
(CSU), Rural Agro-Industrial Development Scheme (RAIDS), National Centre for Agricultural
Mechanization (NCAM), Rural Artisan Training Support Unit (RATSU), Agricultural Mechanics and
Machinery Operators, Training Centers (AMMOTRAC), Directorate for Foods, Roads and Rural
Infrastructure (DFRRI), Strategic Grains Reserve (SGR), National Directorate of Employment (NDE),
etc.

In the private sector, opportunities exist in companies that manufacture, market or service
agricultural machinery, food processing companies, and consultancy outfits. Of recent, a number
of agricultural engineers have been employed in oil companies and banks. Some of the big
relevant companies include Steyr, John Holt, Bewac, Scoatrac, UAC, starch Mills, Flour Mills.

The International Organizations and NGOS include United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP), United Nations Industrial Development Organization of the United Nations (FAO). These
can employ directly or through one of their numerous projects on poverty alleviation all over the
country.
In the area of self employment, agricultural engineers are involved in equipment fabrication, sales
and maintenance, as well as in consultancy services.

Under educational and research institutions sector, many agricultural engineers find employment
in the more than 18 agricultural research institutes in Nigeria, federal and state colleges of
agriculture, polytechnics and universities.

Civil Engineering

Definition of Civil Engineering

Civil Engineering is one of the oldest Engineering disciplines dating back to the time when man first
sought for shelter, lived in cities and combated the problems usually associated with urbanization
such as housing, waste disposal, water supply; and later problems such as transportation, harbor
works, bridges, highways, airports, churches, dams, dykes, etc. Civil Engineering has dominated
the bulk of Engineering works up to the recent past and therefore has exerted an overwhelming
influence in the course of infrastructural development of nations.

Civil Engineering is concerned with the design, construction and maintenance of public services
such as water supply, water ways, drainages, highways, docks, railways, roads, power stations and
the creation of buildings in which people live, work and play.

Areas of Specialization in Civil Engineering

Many areas of specialization are identifiable within the field of Civil Engineering. Some of them
include:

1. Structural Engineering
2. Water Engineering
3. Public Health Engineering
4. Highway and Transportation Engineering
5. Geotechnical/Foundations Engineering
6. Sanitary Engineering
7. Construction/Building Engineering
8. Geodetic Engineering and Photogrammetry

The Structural Engineer deals with the design and analysis of all types of structures such as
buildings, bridges, storage tanks, dams, power transmission towers, etc. He understands the
mechanics of structures; strength characteristics of soils and other materials; element of
architectural and construction technology required for the erection of any desired structure.

The water resources and environmental engineer is concerned with the planning,
harvesting/development, transportation, storage and distribution of water and the protection of
such water from adverse environmental conditions. He has good understanding of the mechanics
of soils and foundations; hydraulics and hydro-geology; design and construction of hydraulic
structures, water and waste water treatment plants; pollution control and water supply.
The public Health Engineer deals with water quality management, identification and control of
water diseases, design and construction of solid waste, waste water, water supply, toxic and
nuclear waste treatment plants; land waste disposal system, pollution transport and control.

The Highway and Transportation engineering option deal with the movement of people and cargo
from place to place by land, sea and air. This option is involved with the design, construction and
maintenance of highways and pavements; transportation planning and economics; design of traffic
signals, and management; carrying out of traffic surveys on high ways etc.

The Geotechnical or Foundation Engineer is concerned with the uses, properties, stresses, bearing
capacity, earth pressures, consolidation settlement and shear strength of soils as engineering
material. He applies his knowledge of soils to analyse the foundations of buildings.

The Sanitary Engineer deals with the problems of providing safe and adequate water supply both
for domestic and industrial uses; controlling and preventing air and water pollution; disposing of
all types of domestic and industrial wastes. He performs similar functions as the Public Health and
Environmental Engineer.

The Building/Construction engineer deals with the process of developing efficient economical
methods of construction operations such as earth moving and erection procedures. He has good
understanding of the properties and strength characteristics of building materials, construction
techniques, building strength and stability etc.

Geodetic Engineering and Photogrammetry deal with engineering surveying operations involving
contour plans and maps; topographical surveys, etc. This option deals with the conception, design,
development, testing, maintenance, and application of surveying and photogrammetric
instruments, equipment and machines.

Career Opportunities in Civil Engineering

The employment opportunities for civil engineers are very wide and includes the following:-
building/construction industry, oil, gas, defence, transportation industries, mining, railways,
agriculture, water resources development and distribution. They are also involved in teaching,
research and consultancy services.

Therefore, in the public sector, civil engineers work in ministries of works, water resources,
defence, etc. In addition they work in those parastatals that provide public utilities such as Water
Corporation, Housing Corporation, National Electric Power Authority, etc. In the private sector,
every company needs a civil engineer at least for the maintenance of existing facilities. In addition,
there are many construction and Civil Engineering Companies in Nigeria such as Julius Berger,
Monier Construction Company (MCC), Roynolds Construction Company (RCC), DUMEZ, and a host
of others. In the area of self employment, most civil engineers are involved in construction work
which is very lucrative.
Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical engineering is one of the pioneer disciplines of engineering and is widely regarded as
the prime mover of the engineering profession.

Mechanical engineering as a profession, involves the science of human and material management
in industries involving man-machine-environment suitability (ergonomics and bio-engineering; the
science of energy, mass and heat transfer to help conserve energy or dissipate energy as may be
required; the science of energy conversion and use of materials to produce useful work. This may
include power-generating equipment, machines that produce or consume this power; the science
and art of formulation, design, development, production/manufacture, operation, testing,
selection, installation and control of machine components and systems; the technology of
transportation systems like automobiles, trains, marine vehicles, air crafts, etc; the technology of
refrigeration, air-conditioning, ventilation and cryogenics ie (low temperature operations for
liquefying gas) e.g. liquid oxygen used in medicine, liquid hydrogen used in rockets, helium, argon
used in lighting; the science of tribology; friction and wear of materials; the mechanics of
machines/solids and strength of materials.

Areas of Specialization in mechanical Engineering

The areas of specialization in Mechanical and Technology include the following:

1. Industrial and Production Engineering

2. Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineering
3. Automotive Engineering
4. Marine Engineering
5. Mining Engineering
6. Power plant Engineering
7. Design and Manufacturing Engineering

The area of Industrial and Production Engineering is concerned with the planning and design of
factory production and design of factory production and inventory; project planning, feasibility
and monitoring; industrial machines design, development, selection, installation and maintenance;
factory layout and industrial process design; economics of production; cost analysis and control.
The production/industrial engineer must be aware of all the activities of the business enterprise.
He has sound knowledge of the technology of production processes, finance and accounting. He
must be conversant with the important activities of design for manufacture and also be well
acquainted with the modern methods and techniques available for efficient operation of a
production/industrial engineering establishment. The engineer is specially trained in the
fundamental requirements of industries and is significantly equipped to solve problems of industry
some of which could have both human and social dimensions.

A specialist in Refrigeration and Air-conditioning engineering deals with psychrometry and air
system designs; selection of refrigerants; design, development, selection and installation of
refrigeration and air-conditioning equipments etc.
The Automobile/Automotive Engineer is concerned with the planning and designing of automobile
workshop; selection, testing and maintenance of automobile systems; auto systems mechanics
and vehicle dynamics; design, development and testing of all classes of engines; analysis and
production of fuels and lubricants.

The Marine Engineer is a specialist in marine operations, naval architecture and ship building
technology; ship propulsion including ship engines and power plants; ship equipment, marine
diesel engines, stemma boilers, steam turbines; meteorology and navigation.

The Mining Engineer is a specialist in the geology of rocks and minerals; mine surveying; mining
process and systems design; mien ventilation, health and safety; design, development, selection,
installation, operation and maintenance of mining plants, process controls and machinery.

The Design Engineer is mostly involved with the design, development, selection and installation of
machines, components, system, machine elements; etc; failure and strength analysis of machine
components and systems; design optimization; kinematics, rigidity and mechanics of machine
tools and components; jigs and tool designs.

Career Opportunities in Mechanical Engineering

Career opportunities in mechanical Engineering are so wide that it is difficult to enumerate. These
include private and public industries, government ministries and parastatals, educational and
research institutions and self employment.

In the private sector the mechanical engineer works in many manufacturing industries such as
Michelin, Dunlop, Shell, Schlumberger, Chevron, Breweries, ANNAMCO and PZ.

Electrical/Electronic Engineering

Definition of Electrical/Electronic Engineering

Electrical engineering emerged as a result of the discovery of electricity. Electrical/Electronic

Engineering deals with the following:

i. Design and development of a vast number of electrical machines.

ii. Generation, transmission and distribution of electric power.
iii. Design and development of various communication components and systems such as
radio, television, microwave systems, telegraphs, telephones etc.
iv. Design of electronic equipment and computers.
Areas of Specialization in Electrical/Electronic Engineering are as follows:
1. Electrical Engineering
2. Electronic Engineering
3. Computer Engineering
4. Communications Engineering
5. Power Systems Engineering
6. Instrumentation Engineering
The electrical engineer in the area of electrical Engineering deals with the design, development,
installation and maintenance of elector mechanical devices and machines such as electric motors,
transformers etc. Electric power generations, transmissions, distribution and application of eclectic
power measurements and instrumentation devices e.g. electric meter, rectifier, voltmeter,
electrodynamometer, watt meter, electronic multimeter, digital voltmeters; oscilloscope etc;
design and development of switchgears and high voltage generating and measuring equipment.
He has good understanding of electrical cables, lightning phenomena and protection; amplifiers,
control engineering, telecommunication engineering etc.

The electronic engineer is concerned with the design, development, installation and maintenance
of electronic components and systems, power electronics and devices, computer hardware and
software techniques; communication systems and devices, industrial and solid state electronics
etc.

Computer is widely being regarded as the last of the technologies of man towards technological
perfection. Its application known’s no boundary and cuts across all known professions ranging
from engineering, medicine, military, agriculture, law, management, etc. to space exploration.
Computer has its own languages and helps man in decision making.

The communications engineer is concerned with the design, development, installation and
maintenance of telecommunication engineering systems such as telegraph systems, codes, radio
systems; terminal equipments like telephone receivers, telephone network structures, digital
telephony; image and data transmission systems; optical communication systems; feed-back and
control systems; planning of these systems; digital signal processing etc.

The power systems engineer deals with the planning, design, development, installation and
maintenance of transformers, AC and DC machines, lighting and power installations, energy supply
and distribution; selection of cables, conductors, wiring systems and accessories; illumination,
earthing and testing of tems and selection etc. electrical installations; load forecasting; economics
of power systems; power transmission, distribution lines etc.

The Electrical/Electronic Instrument engineer is primarily concerned with the design,

development, selection, analysis and application of instruments, components, devices and
machines for the general instrumentation and measurement of the flow, voltage, power etc of
electricity in electrical/electronic machines, devices, installations and systems.

Career Opportunities in Electrical/Electronic Engineering

A wide range of career and employment opportunities is open to graduates of Electrical/Electronic

engineering in the following areas:

1. Telecommunication industries e.g. NITEL, P&T,

2. Power generating, transmitting, distributing and maintaining industries e.g NEPA.
3. Computer systems and component designing, development, sales, installation and
maintenance industries, e.g. Paks, Date Sciences, IBM, Gateway, etc.
4. Automation Control units e.g. Oil companies, industries.
5. Electrician services design or building services such as house wiring, lighting, systems
design and selection etc.
6. Electrical/Electronic machines and equipments designing, development, installation and
maintenance,
7. Electrical/Electronic/computer research industries.
8. Teaching in Universities and Polytechnics.

Chemical Engineering and Technology

Definition of Chemical Engineering

Chemical engineering is that branch of engineering which deals with the panning, designing,
operating and maintaining of the various processes and operations involved in chemical, food and
petrochemical industries. It is one of the newer engineering disciplines carved out of mechanical,
metallurgical and agricultural engineering disciplines, it is clearly related to ceramic, petroleum
and food engineering.

Areas of Specialization in Chemical Engineering

The following areas of specialization exist in Chemical Engineering and Technology:

1. Petroleum Engineering
2. Petro-chemical technology
3. Polymer and textile technology
4. Nuclear Engineering
5. Chemical Reaction Engineering

The Petroleum Engineer is concerned with the exploration, production, handling, refining and
storage of petroleum and allied petro-chemical products, He is conversant with the design,
installation and maintenance of refineries, storage tanks, reservoirs, etc. He understands drilling
technology, petroleum geology, well logging, oil pollution and control; off-shore and on-shore
operations; natural gas processing etc.

Petrochemical engineering is concerned with the technology of petro-chemical processes, like

cracking, reforming etc; Homogenous and heterogeneous catalytic systems; quality control in
petrochemical industry; chemical process evaluation and economics; oil refinery operations and
products; chemical process control and instrumentation etc.

Polymer and textile engineering deals with the technology of polymerics and textile materials; the
structural requirement of polymerics and textiles; technology of adhesives and elastomers;
analysis and testing of polymerics and textiles; non-woven and knitting technology; modern yarn
production techniques; colouration and finishing of polymerics and textiles etc.

The nuclear engineer deals with the design construction, installation, operation and maintenance
of nuclear power plants: he is an expert in nuclear reactor radiation hazards and protection
techniques; safety and the environmental effects and limitations of nuclear reactors; applications
of nuclear power for both military and non-military purposes e.g. the use of radioisotopes in
medicine and industry etc.

The Chemical Reactions Engineer is concerned with the design and installation of chemical
reaction plants; analysis and design of chemical reactions; section of reactors etc.

Career Opportunities in Chemical Engineering

There is abundant job opportunities for graduate chemical Engineers in the manufacture of rubber
and plastics; chemicals, petroleum products; glass and ceramics, paper and boards, metals and
textiles, paints. Examples include shell, Cadbury, African paints, etc.

They are also required in breweries, wood processing, biochemical and food processing industries,
environmental control including effluent treatment, sewage disposal and water resources
management; in consultancy and private employment, etc.

Materials and Metallurgical Engineering

Definition of Metallurgical Engineering

Materials and metallurgical engineering deal with the manufacture, use, extraction and properties
of metals, non-metals and alloys as engineering materials.

Materials engineering deals with the art, science and technology of the development, selection
and use of metals and non-metals like ceramics, semi-conductors, polymerics, forest products etc.

Metallurgical engineering is concerned with the art, science and technology of extraction, property
control, shaping, selection and use of metals and alloys.

Materials have played vital roles in the activities of man. The nature, kind and level of usage of
materials have been the basis of classification of human development and age. Hence, the stone,
bronze, golden, silver and iron ages. The commonest and most important material is metal and
most activities of humanity depends on materials – metals and non-metals.

Areas of Specialization in Metallurgical Engineering

The areas of specializations in materials and metallurgical engineering can be grouped as follows:

1. Material Engineering
2. Metallurgical Engineering
3. Ceramic Engineering
4. Polymer Science and Engineering

The materials engineer is concerned with the science and technology of development, selection
and use of metals and non-metallic materials. He is involved with the choice and design of process
technology to be used; thermal treatment of materials, foundry; corrosion of metals and controls;
mineral processing, extractions etc.

The metallurgical engineering deals with the science and technology of the development and
utilization of metals and alloys through extraction, refining and alteration of the
mechanical/strength properties of metals by alloying, working etc so as to meet the designed
material requirement. He is conversant with the metallurgical processes and product, atomic
bonding, metallurgraphy etc.

The ceramic engineer deals with the application of scientific principles to the fabrication of
ceramics products; the mining, refining and processing of raw materials and their manufacture
into finished products; the design, construction and operation of the equipment needed are all
encompassed in the works of the ceramic engineer. He understands ceramic processing, process
planning and design; physical and solid-state ceramics; ceramic coating of materials, glass
technology, heat treatment of ceramic materials etc. the polymer engineer is conversant with the
synthesis, structure, physical and mechanical properties of synthetic and natural polymers. He
deals with the industrial applications of polymeric materials; the mechanical, rheological and
chemical properties of polymers; polymer process engineering; rubber, ceramic and glass
technology; medical and industrial applications of polymeric materials; plastic foams and textile
technology etc.

Career Opportunities in Metallurgical Engineering

All industries engaged in the manufacture of metallic and nonmetallic products require materials
and metallurgical engineers. Companies which are prime producers of metals and alloys are in
need of metallurgists and metallurgical engineers. A good number of these engineers could be
self-employed owning their own foundries or other metal products or ceramic manufacturing
industries. Consultancy, research, teaching in universities, polytechnics etc are important career
and employment opportunities.

Specifically, the metallurgical engineer is useful in iron and steel, car assembly plants, iron ore
mines, oil companies, steel rolling mills, tin smelting and processing industries etc.

Also jobs for the ceramic engineer can be found in refractories, glass, enameled and abrasive
industries; cement factories, iron and steel industries, beer and soft drink industries.

Similarly, the polymer engineer is needed in the natural polymer industries (e.g. wool, silk, leather
etc. and in the plastics, textiles, paper packaging and chemical industries.

Other Engineering Disciplines

The branches of engineering listed above should not be misinterpreted to mean that there are
only six disciplines. However, these are the major ones with many other subsidiaries. The other
disciplines include

- Production Engineering
- Aeronautical Engineering
- Marine Engineering
- Software Engineering
- Biomedical Engineering
- Food Engineering
- Environmental Engineering

Education and training of Artisans/Craftsmen

As pointed out earlier, the craftsman must be trained to recognize and use engineering tools (both
hand and machine tools) and materials for the production, operation and maintenance of
engineering facilities, products and services. The training of craftsmen involves both theoretical
and practical education as opposed to the general notion that they should be trained in only
practical jobs.

To formally qualify as a craftsman, the candidate must attend an approved vocational training
school or centre. These are usually the technical schools scattered all over the country in addition
to some government owned trade centres. The training at these centres are development centres.
At the end of the programme which usually lasts for about three years, a certificate is usually
awarded. Examples include Trade Test Certificates. To be admitted to such schools and training
centres, one has to go through primary and junior secondary schools.

It should be noted, however, that most craftsmen in Nigeria, and those in small private
establishment and those on their own, do not have any formal education. Most of them (e.g.
mechanics, carpenters, masions, plumbers) acquired their skill through informal training as
apprentices to more experienced ones. Such apprenticeship schemes last from 5 to 10 years
depending on the age of the candidate at the beginning of the training. Such training procedures
are not good for both the individual and the economy, as they produce illiterates who cannot
function effectively.

Education and Training of Technicians

The technician cadre is the next in the hierarchy of the engineering family. As such his role is a
little different from that of the craftsman. Since his role involves simple designs, application of
known techniques in engineering practice, fault diagnosis etc, he has to be trained as a craftsman
with diverse skills such that he can work with different craftsmen on a particular job.

Most technicians in Nigeria are holders of the Ordinary National Diploma (OND) in an area of
engineering. This is obtained after a minimum of 2 years in a Polytechnic, College of Technology or
College of Agriculture with an approved engineering programme, plus four months Industrial
Attachment in an Industry for the Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES).
Accreditation and supervision of such educational institutions in Nigeria is by the National Board
for Technical Education (NBTE). To enter such a school a prospective student needs to have the
West African SCHOOL Certificate with a minimum of credit in at least four subjects relevant to the
area of specialization. The POLYJAMB brochure is available for these details.
Education, and Training of Technologists

Technologists in Nigeria are educated at Polytechnics and Colleges of Technology just like
Technicians. They undergo two years of theoretical and practical education the colleges plus four
months of Industrial Attachment at relevant industry. At the end of the programme, candidates
are awarded the Higher National Diploma (HND) in their chosen discipline.

Education and Training of Engineers

The engineer’s role in the engineering family is generally supervisory. He therefore has to be
trained in a broad sense so as to be able to synthesize ideas, design new systems, plants and
machinery, and manage a complex mixture of resources – men, materials, machinery and money
usually found in an industrial or any engineering outfit. Engineers are formally educated in
Universities in Nigeria. All the Faculties of Engineering IN Nigerian Universities run a standard five
year programme but some programmes run for four years for applicants with higher qualifications.

The entry qualification for an engineering programme is a minimum of five credits in Ordinary
level subjects, usually administered by the West African Examination Council (WASC). The
combination of subjects must include Mathematics and the basic sciences. With this qualification,
candidates apply through the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB). A national
examination is usually conducted by JAMB every year. Final admission is given by JAMB on
recommendation by the Universities based on certain criteria which include merit, catchment
area, educationally disadvantaged states and discretion. For direct entry students, admission is
given without any examination. However, the candidate must have the Higher School Certificate or
GCE advanced level in three subjects – Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics. Candidates that enter
through the Direct Entry Route stay four years in the university. In other words, they sip the first
year. In addition to the 4 or 5 years of study, candidates must undergo at least 6 months of
Industrial Attachment under the SIWES programme sponsored by the Industrial Attachment under
the SIWES programme sponsored by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF).

Professional Registration

Any professional practice that affects the lives and property of any nation must be regulated by
government. The engineering profession is no exception to this rule. This control is achieved by
government through the Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN) which was
formally known as Council of Registered Engineers of Nigeria (COREN). Before we discuss the
process and procedure for registration, it is relevant to understand the importance of registration
to the public, the employer and the individual members of the engineering family.

The importance of registration was eloquently presented by Salau (1993) during the 1 st National
Engineering Assembly held in Lagos. For the public, the importance include:

a. Registration protects the public from quacks, charlatans and the unworthy;
b. It provides a strict yardstick against which an engineer, the technologist, a technician, a
craftsman may be judged on his or her ability to undertake specific responsibilities;

c. Assures that an independent body, has examined the registered person and found
him/her qualified to be so registered.

For the employer of laobour, registration:

a. Assures a skill base to cope with new technologies and market changes;

b. Shows investors, analysts and customers, well qualified staff;

c. Assures customers of professional standards to meet legal requirements;

d. Ensures that the employer uses staff with qualifications recognized internationally;

e. Saves time when recruiting through the use of identified standards;

f. Demonstrates that the aspirations of new employees can be satisfied.

For the individual member of the engineering family, registration

a. Provides proof of standard of education, training and experiences;

b. Provides qualification of international standard known and understood by employers and

their customers;

c. Increases mobility across a wide range of employments;

d. Keeps him or her abreast of latest development;

e. Stimulates career developments;

f. Creates opportunities for satisfying work and tangible results for the individual;

Registration of engineers in Nigeria is carried out by COREN which was established by Degree 55 of
1970 with subsequent amendments in 1992. Initially the body registered only engineers but the
engineering family according to their cadre, namely, “Engineer,” “Technologist,” “Technician” and
“Craftsman.” Once registered, the professional can use the appropriate tag to his name. for
example, a registered engineer uses the prefix “Engr” before his name.

In order to get registered, a candidate must satisfy the educational requirements up to the level
required for each cadre in addition to a period of supervised training and experience. For the
“Engineer” cadre, the minimum academic, qualification is a Bachelors degree or its equivalent in
the relevant engineering discipline. The minimum number of years of experience is two years. In
addition to these conditions, the candidate must pass a professional interview. There are two
routes to registration for young engineers. The first and probably the recommended one is to first
become a member of the Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE). After that an application is made to
COREN. Once COREN is satisfied that the candidate is a member of NSE, automatic registration is
granted without any interview. This is because membership of NSE requires a similar professional
interview. Alternatively, one can apply directly to COREN and attend the professional interview.
For older candidates, the mature candidates route eliminates professional interviews since he is
assessed by his/her wealth of experience.

The requirements for the Registration of Technologists include the Higher National Diploma (HND)
and professional interview and two years experience. That for “Technician” includes the National
Diploma (OND) with two years experience, and professional interview. The craftsman is also
registered after obtaining a certificate of competence in the relevant field plus the two years
experience and interview.

It is possible to move form one cadre to the other by writing and passing professional
examinations. For example a technologist who wishes to move to the ‘engineer’ cadre can write
the NSE graduateship examination, and if he passes, will be dully registered as an engineer.

ETHICAL AND LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS IN ENGINEERING PRACTICE

Responsibilities of the Engineer (Engineers Council for Professional Development)

In line with the objectives of ethics, the Engineers Council for Professional Development (Lyons
and Dublin, 1978) based in USA has approved the under listed Cannons to establish the
responsibilities of a practicing professional Engineer with the public, employer, client and with
fellow engineers.

Responsibilities of the Engineer to the Public

1. The engineer will have proper regard for the safety, health and welfare of the public in
performance of his professional duties.
2. He will endeavour to extend public knowledge and appreciation of engineering and its
achievement, and will oppose any untrue, unsupported, or exaggerated statements regarding
engineering.
3. He will be dignified and modest in explaining his work and merit, will ever uphold the
honour and dignity of his profession, and will refrain from self-laudatory advertising.
4. He will express an opinion on an engineering subject only when it is founded on adequate
knowledge and honest conviction.
5. He will preface any exparte statements, criticisms or arguments that he may issue by
clearly indicating on whose behalf they are made.
Responsibilities of the engineer to Employers and Clients
1. The Engineer will act in professional matters as a faithful agent or trustee for each
employer or client.
2. He will act fairly and justly toward vendors and contractors, any commissions or
allowances, directly or indirectly.
3. He will inform his employer or client if he is financially interested in any vendor or
contractor, or in any invention, machine, or apparatus, which is involved in a project or work of his
employer or client. He will not allow such interest to affect his decisions regarding engineering
services which he may be called upon to perform.
4. He will indicate to his employer or client the adverse consequences to be expected if his
engineering judgment is over-ruled.
5. He will undertake only those engineering assignments for which he is qualified. He will
engage or advise his employer or client to engage specialists and will co-operate with them
whenever his employer’s or client’s interests are served best by such an arrangement.
6. He will not disclose information concerning the business affairs or technical processes of
any present or former employer for client without his consent.
7. He will not accept compensation – financial or otherwise from more than one party for
the same service, or for other services pertaining to the same work without the consent of all
interested parties.
8. The employed engineer will engage in supplementary employment or consulting practice
only with the consent of his employer.
Responsibilities of Engineer with other Engineers
1. The Engineer will take care that credit for engineering work is given to those to whom
credit is properly due.
2. He will provide a prospective engineering employee with complete information on
working conditions and his proposed status of employment and after employment will keep him
informed of any changes in them.
3. He will uphold the principle of appropriate and adequate compensation for those
engaged in engineering work, including those in subordinate capacities.
4. He will endeavour to provide opportunity for the professional development and
advancement of engineers in his employ or under his supervision.
5. He will not injure maliciously the professional reputation, prospects, or practice of
another engineer. However, if he has proof that another engineer has been unethical, illegal or
unfair in his practice, he should so advise the proper authority.
6. He will not compete unfairly with another engineer.
7. He will not invite or submit price proposals for professional services, which require
creative intellectual effort, or a basis that constitutes competition on price alone. Due regard
should be given to all professional aspects of the engagement.
8. He will cooperate in advancing the engineering profession by interchanging information
and experience with other engineers and students, and by contributing to public communication
media, to the efforts of engineering and scientific societies and schools.
Engineer’s Courtesy (Engineers’ Council for Professional Development)

I am an Engineer. In my profession, I take deep pride, but without vain glory; to it I owe solemn
obligations that I am eager to fulfill.

As an Engineer, I will participate in none but honest enterprise. To him that has engaged my
service as employer or client, I will give the utmost of performance and fidelity.
When needed, my skill and knowledge shall be given without reservation for public good. From
special capacity springs the obligation to use it well in the service of humanity; and I accept the
challenge that this implies.

Jealous of the high repute of my calling, I will strive to protect the interests and the good name of
any engineer that I known to be deserving; but I will not shrink, should duty dictate, from
disclosing the truth regarding any one that, by unscrupulous act has shown himself unworthy of
the profession.

Since the Age of Stone, human progress has been conditioned by the genius of my professional
forebears. By them have been rendered usable to mankind, Nature’s vast resources of material
and energy. By them have been vitalized and turned to practically account, the principles of
science and revelations of technology. Except for this heritage of accumulated experience, my
efforts would be feeble. I dedicate myself to the dissemination of engineering knowledge, and
especially to the instruction of younger members of my profession in all its arts and traditions.

To my fellows, I pledge, in the same full measure, I ask of them, integrity and fair dealing,
tolerance and respect, and devotion in the standards and the dignity of our profession, with the
consciousness always, that our special expertness carries with it the obligation to serve humanity
with complete sincerity.

Engineer’s Code of Conduct (COREN)

Also, in Nigeria, the Council for the Regulation of Engineering has approved the under listed
Engineers Code of Conduct for professional engineering practice in the country.

Responsibility of a Registered Engineer to the Profession

A registered Engineer shall not knowingly take part in a competition involving the submission of
proposals and designs for engineering work unless an assessor who shall b an engineer of
acknowledge standing has been appointed, to whom all such proposals and designs are to be
submitted for adjudication.

A registered engineer should satisfy himself to the best of his ability, that the enterprises with
which he becomes indentified are to legitimate character. If, after becoming associated with an
enterprise in good faith, he finds it to be of questionable character, he should serve his connection
with it as soon as practicable.

A registered Engineer shall not engage in the practice of making preliminary studies and estimates
of cost for proposed projects or render other professional services or advice without adequate
compensation.

A registered engineer shall not advertise engineering services in any language or manner
derogatory to the dignity of the profession.
A registered engineer shall not, either himself or through any person or firm, offer to make
payments, by way of commission or otherwise, for the introduction of employment.

It shall be the duty of every Registered Engineer to bring to the attention of Council any violation
of this Code of Conduct and to endeavour to encourage other Registered Engineers to adhere to
its provisions.

A registered engineer shall not act so as to injure or attempt to inure, whether directly or
indirectly, the professional reputation, prospect or business of another Registered Engineer
provided that this rule shall not be taken as prohibiting him from expressing technical opinion on
behalf of his Client before a tribunal or in a commissioned report, or from lodging a complaint of
the conduct of another Registered Engineer to the competent body.

A registered engineer shall not review or take over work of another registered engineer acting as a
consulting engineer for the same client, until he has either obtained the consent of such registered
engineer, or has been notified by the client in writing that the connection of such registered
engineer with the work has been terminated, and in either case, his reports and advice shall be
confined to the particular matters upon which he has been consulted.

A registered engineer shall not accept engagement while the just claim for compensation or
damages, or both, of another registered engineer previously employed on the same project and
whose employment has been terminated, remains unsatisfied or until such claim has been
referred to arbitration, or issue has been joined at law, unless the registered Engineer previously
employed has neglected to press his claim legally after a reasonable time.

It is improper for a registered engineer to attempt to secure engagement by reducing his usual
charges for professional service after being informed of the charges names by a competitor.

It shall be considered unprofessional and inconsistent with honourable and dignified conduct and
contrary to the public interest for any Registered Engineer to use the advantages of a salaried
position to compete unfairly with other registered engineer.

It is the duty of the registered engineer to ensure that credit for work and ideas are attributed only
to the real authors.

Relation between a Registered Engineer and His Employer or Client

A registered Engineer shall not be a director or salaried employee of any company firm or person
carrying on any commercial, contracting or manufacturing business which is or may be involved in
the class of work to which his appointment relates, not have any substantial financial interest in,
nor be an agent for any such company, firm or person without disclosing the fact to his client in
writing.

A registered engineer shall not place orders in his own behalf in respect of a project of his client.
A registered engineer shall not be the medium of payments made on his client’s behalf unless
especially so requested in writing by his client, but shall only issue certificates for payment.

Unless authorized by the owner, a registered engineer shall not receive directly or indirectly any
royalty, gratuity or commission on any patented or protected article or process used in connection
with work upon which he is retained by the Owner nor shall he accept without the Owner’s
consent any other secondary considerations in connection with any professional service which he
undertakes for the owner.

A registered engineer shall discharge his duties to his employer with complete fidelity and shall
accept remuneration only from his client unless he has his client’s authority in writing to do
otherwise.

A registered engineer shall make available his professional knowledge and experience at all times
and in accordance with this code as a consultant, or adviser, or salaried employer, or teacher of
engineering science, or in design, or manufacture, or construction as a faithful agent and trustee
of his client, employer, or other people connected with the worth.

Responsibility of the Engineer as a an Employer

It is the duty of a registered engineer as an employer to ensure that no person in his employment
other than a registered engineer holds any post, discharge any function that is properly that of an
engineer.

A registered engineer employing the services of any person working or training to become a
registered engineer, shall ensure that such a person is given every opportunity to satisfy the
condition to enable him earn satisfactory certificate or experience and shall not improperly
withhold the issue of such a certificate when required to do so.

Responsibility of a Registered Engineer to the Public

A registered engineer in discharging his responsibility to his employer and to the profession, shall
have full regard to the public interest.

A registered engineer shall maintain dignified interest in the welfare of the community and shall
endeavour to assist the public to arrive at a correct general understanding of the technical phases
or issues or public interest. He shall discourage and challenge untrue, unfair and exaggerated
statements on technical subjects, especially when such statements lead to unworthy or
uneconomic public enterprises.

A registered engineer shall accept personally his responsibility as a citizen; assume his share of
tratuitous public work for the general goods; support public officials in the enforcement of
technical regulations; and take an active interest in the formulation and improvement of such
regulations.
Public appreciation of the professional will be increased by the advancement of the technical
sciences. A registered engineer shall therefore promote such advancement by his own effort and
by his encouragement of sound technical training and research.

In addition to the safeguards required of him, a registered engineer shall recognize his broader
obligation to provide amply for the safety, health, and comfort of the public in whatever field his
services may be required.

A registered engineer, hen working in a country other than his on shall order his conduct according
to these Rules, so far as they are applicable; but where there are recognized standards of
professional conduct, he shall adhere to them.

A registered engineer, who shall be convicted by a competent tribunal of a criminal offence which
in the opinion of the disciplinary body renders him unfit to be a member of his professional
society, association or institution, shall be deemed to have been guilty of improper conduct.

A registered engineer shall see that every provision which he considers necessary to protect the
interest of owner, engineer, contractor or the public is incorporated in the contract.

A registered engineer shall ensure that fairness and honour shall govern the use of every bid over
which he is to adjudicate. The contractor shall be awarded on the basis of the work, or when
further bidding on alternative items is requested. Any reduction of a bid disproportionate to such
change constitutes unfair competition.

A registered engineer shall ensure that a bid received from a contractor, whether in open
competition or privately, should not be used to secure lower prices from competitors; nor shall
competitive bids be rejected for the purpose of using the information derived from them as a
means of securing lower bids from those who competed or from others. After the acceptance of a
bid any alternation which would have materially changed the bidding or award shall be avoided.

A registered Engineer shall not call for unnecessary of full estimates from prospective bidders on
tentative projects, and if he calls upon a contractor for preliminary estimates of appraisals, the
registered engineer shall see that the contractor is paid for the service.

The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer

Reproduced below is the text of the oath engineers take upon graduation in all engineering
schools in Canada. The oath is taken during the traditional iron ring ceremony in which the
engineer is given a ring to be worn on the smallest finger of the left palm.

Obligation

I ……………………………….. in the presence of these my betters and my equals in my calling, bind

myself upon my Honour and cold iron, that, to the best of my knowledge and power, I will not
hence forward suffer or pass, or be privy to the passing, bad workmanship or faulty material in
aught that concerns my work before men as an engineer, or in my dealings with my on soul before
my maker.

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ENGINEERING TOOLS, MACHINES AND SYSTEMS

Problems Facing the Design Engineer

Engineering design and development involves the creation of solutions to identified problems. The
solution may be a machine, structure, process or a service to be rendered to people. To be a
successful design engineer, one has to overcome a number of obstacles inherent in the process.
Some of these problems are:

i. Team work: most designs require the designer to interact with other people. In most cases, a
number of engineers and technologists work together to come up with the solution. For this to
work effectively, the engineer must be ready to discuss and share ideas with people and work as a
member of a team.
ii. Uncertainty about decisions: since the new product is not in existence anywhere, the
engineer has to be ready to take decisions with limited information. For example in designing a
machine, the engineer may have recommend a machine part that he is not sure is still available in
the market.
iii. Acceptability of the end product – For a product to be successful, it has to e acceptable to
people. This is a factor which the engineer has to contend with. There are cases of very novel ideas
which engineers developed but which are not acceptable to people probably due to cultural
factors.
iv. Simplicity – the Engineer is often challenged with complex problems but people would
want simple solutions. Thus he has to battle for a compromise between the best solution which
may be complex and a simpler but less efficient solution.
v. Affordability – Related to simplicity is affordability. The engineer has to think about the
end-user, to be sure that the product will be affordable. There is no point in developing a machine
that will be too costly for people.
vi. Timeliness – Throughout the career of an engineer, he is faced with deadlines of one form
or the other. Whatever ideas of a solution none has must be tried and finished with in time before
it is too late.

The successful design engineer must recognize all the factors above. It is also important to note
that design success s a function of imagination, judgment, knowledge and enthusiasm. These
virtues may not all be in an engineer but can be acquired by interacting with others in a project.
The Design Process
With all these in mind, we can now discuss the basic steps in a design process. Different engineers
use different steps to arrive at a solution. However, for a logical procedure which can be of
assistance to young engineers, the following steps can be followed:
a. Definition of problem
b. Collection of information
c. Analysis of the problem
d. Synthesis of the solution
e. Selection of best solution
f. Detailed development of solution
g. Testing and evaluation
Definition of the Problem: This is usually the biggest problem in engineering design. Most of the
time, people think they know what their problem is, these are influenced by their experiences and
so problems are defined by what is existing. For a real problem definition to emerge, the engineer
must discuss with different people including the intended end user, more experienced engineers
and any body that has something to do with the problem. Based on the information obtained, the
problem must be defined in writing, showing objectives and design criteria.
Collection of Information: For most beginners in design, the tendency is to look for textbooks in
design whenever they are confronted with a design project. Unfortunately, they get disappointed
as the solution may not be found in such books. The real sources of information for any design
include brain-storming by a design team or just by the designer, discussion with people outside the
designer’s immediate environment, interaction with professional colleagues and of course
catalogues, journals and conference proceedings in the relevant area.
Analysis of the Problem: The aim of an analysis of the problem is to carry out a technical and
economic feasibility study of the problem. All the information collected are used to develop
alternative designs which are evaluated in order to eliminate some.
Synthesis of the Solution: In this step, the designer begins to put together the solution suggested
by the analysis. Several options must be developed so that the optimum solution can be selected
later.
Selection of the Solution: At this stage, the optimum or best potential design is selected based on
an evaluation. The option that best satisfies or solves the problems of design described earlier is
selected as the best.
Development of Solution: This involves the detailed presentation of the solution in writing and
drawings including materials, scheduling of production etc. If it is a machine, the prototype is built
at this stage.
Testing and Evaluation: This involves the testing of the prototype. Most likely, the initial testing
will reveal mistakes and oversights in the original solution. An iterative procedure in which the
design is modified, tested and modified as many times as required is followed.
It must be pointed out at this stage that even for an experienced designer, there is always some
uncertainty at the beginning of the project. This usually results in a very large inertia to start or
take a decision. Procrastination is very dangerous in design and so should be avoided. It should be
remembered that there will always be time to change decisions or put finishing touches to your
design. So when ever confronted with a design problem, go on and make the mistakes and correct
them later. Once you have a sketch, you go on building on it until a perfect design emerges.

Indigenous Design and Development of Machines and Systems

Nigerian engineers have been variously accused of not being practical engineers.
The public has the impression that indigenous engineers cannot achieve what their counterparts
abroad can achieve. This perception of the public is not unfound. A look at any sector of the
Nigerian economy shows that the engineering sector is dominated by imported technology.
Let us look at the oil industry which is the mainstay of the economy. Most of the equipment,
machinery and technique used in prospecting, transportation and refining of petroleum products
are imported. It is only in the engineering manpower in this sector that you can find Nigerian
engineers. Even at that, most of them work under expatriate staff. Other factories such as the
breweries, soft drinks companies, soap and detergents etc are run by machines imported from
abroad.
This is probably why most of the companies are operating below capacity because of the down
turn in the economy which makes it impossible for these companies to buy all the needed
machinery and raw materials for production. This has led to lay-offs and increase in
unemployment. In addition, the drain on the economy through the use of foreign exchange is
enormous. In the agricultural sector, most farmers are still involved with the use of hand tools for
production of crops and animals for food and fibre. These are in spite of several efforts by
government in establishment of the institutional frame work for technology development in the
country. There are Establishments like Projects Development Institute (PRODA), Enugu, Federal
Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi (FIIRO), Defence Industries Corporation, Kaduna and a
number of Universities and Polytechnics with Faculties of Engineering and Technology.
One may therefore wonder why machinery and engineering systems cannot be fully developed in
Nigeria even though we have all these establishments. The problems facing local research,
development and manufacture of needed machinery, equipment and materials have been
discussed fully in other publications (Odigboh, 1992; Odigboh and Onwualu, 1994) These problems
include:
1. Lack of national coordination and control
2. Poor funding of research and development efforts by government
3. Absence of funding for research and development by the private sector.
4. Weak institutional provisions.
5. Unfavorable technological environment
6. High cost of utilities – power, fuel, water, transportation, communication.
7. Near absence of truly manufacturing industries.
8. Difficulty in attracting foreign partners.
9. Uncertain market and volume of production
10. Insufficient facilities for Research and Development work.

In order to solve these problems, concerted efforts must be made at three levels in the society
namely government, non-governmental organizations and private companies. Government should
initiate efforts at proper coordination and control as well as equipping of relevant institutions
already established for the purpose of development of indigenous technology. Non-government
organizations and individual private companies should trust local engineers and challenge them
with their problems instead of looking abroad for easy solutions.

Intellectual Property Rights

Engineering practice usually involves the design and development of new ideas, systems and
machines. When this is developed, it can be reproduced for commercial purposes. In order to
protect the inventor of a new system or machine, the law enforces patents, copyrights,
trademarks and trade secrets. These are referred to as intellectual property rights.
Patents
A patent is a legal document issued by the patent office of Nigeria to protect a new product from
un-authorized production. It dates back to 15th century when the first patent was granted in
England in 1624. The first patent in the United States was granted in 1970. Since then, patents
have been granted to different inventors by different countries.
Once a patent is granted, the ingenuity and expenses of the inventor in developing the product is
protected. Only the inventor or his appointed agent can then market the new product. Any
infringements usually attracts heavy penalties. The overall effect of this is to encourage people to
invent, since the potential for reaping the fruits of their labour will be driving force.
To apply for a patent, the inventor must first certify that the product is useful and worthwhile and
has not been “invented” elsewhere. Usually, an agent assists the inventor to check that the criteria
for granting patent are satisfied. He ten sends a petition to the patents office asking for the patent
to be granted. The office then carries out some investigations to ensure that the equipment is
really new and useful. If the result of the investigation is positive, the patent is granted. This way,
the intellectual property of the inventor is protected since nobody can manufacture the product
unless under his license.
Application for a patent must be made in writing to the commissioner of patents. The application
include:
1. Specification:
A written description of the invention, and of the manner and process of making and using it in
such full, clear, concise and exact terms as to enable any person skilled in the art to which it
pertains to make and use the same, and shall set forth the best mode contemplated by the
inventor of carrying out his invention.
2. Drawings
This requirement is vital if the conception, design and dimensions of the machine, device,
component etc will be understood. It helps to show originality of the work.
3. Models, Specimen
A convenient size of the invention shall be provided for exhibition. Where the invention is a
composition of matter, the specimens will be required for presentation to the commissioner of
patents.
4. Oath of Application
The applicant for a patent shall be required to make oath believing himself to be the original
inventor of the machine, products, etc. Whenever na application for a patent is accepted and the
patent granted, the patentee has remedy by civil action for infringement of his patent. The courts
may grant him junctions to prevent the violation of any right secured by a patent. Damages may
be awarded by the court to compensate the patentee and for infringement of his patent.

Copyright
Copyright is granted usually to intellectual properties such as books, periodicals, music, maps,
drawings, photographs, movies, electronic circuits, and computer software. It is a license granted
to an applicant for a creative work in order to prevent any body from copping or plagiarizing the
work without proper acknowledgement and permission. For this to be effective, the conditions of
the copyright must be displayed in the work for example, copyrights are written in the opening
pages of a book stating the conditions of use. Such rights are granted in order to avoid
unauthorized reproduction of the work. In Nigeria, the copyright law has not been very effective
because of lack of enforcement. This is why people photocopy whole books, duplicate audio and
video tapes on a commercial basis without reference to the artist, who then loses money.
Trade Marks
A trademark is a mark made on a product by a manufacturer to distinguish it’s products from that
of others. The usefulness of trademark lies in the company producing high quality goods. Since
that manufacturer is identified with high quality goods or services, consumers usually patronize
their products even without testing. The registration of a trademark prevents another
manufacturer from attempting to market its inferior product under the same name. thus two
manufacturers may manufacture the same specification of tyre but the trademark on the tyre
differentiates them form each other.
Trade Secrets
Another way to protect an intellectual property is to keep the idea behind it secret. This can of
course apply to only some products. Wheras in Trademarks, copyright and patent, the inventor
discloses the details of his invention, in the case of Trade secrets, no disclosure is made. Examples
of this are many in the food, beverages and computer industries. The actual mixture of Bournvita
or coca cola products is a trade secret, just as the actual code for Word Perfect Computer
software. The problem with Trade Secrets is that they can be stolen by industrial espionage or
disclosed by disgruntled staff of the company.

Standardization and Quality Control in Engineering Practice

A critical look at the way most engineering products and machines operate will reveal the
usefulness of standardization. If a car owner’s spark plugs get bad, he simple goes to a auto-parts
dealer and gets a replacement. If the windscreen of a car gets smashed, the owner can easily go to
the auto-dealers and buy a replacement which will fit without any problem. These are possible
because of standardization. Manufacturers produce their products according to standards and
strict quality control makes it possible to have spare parts that are uniform.
Standardization in general is any activity providing solution for respective application to problems
essentially in the sphere of science, technology and economies aimed at the achievement of
optimum degree of order in a given context. It is usually a document established by consensus and
approved by a recognized body that provides for common and repetitive use, the specifications,
rules or guideline for characterizing materials, processes, products, tests, testing procedures, and
performances criteria and their results in an effort to achieve certain specified goals at optimum
degree of order in a given context (Verma, et al., 1989).
The aims of standardization include:
1. To reduce the variety of manufactured products of the same kind by ensuring that each
product conforms to specification;
2. To provide a means of assuring the consumer that the product is of high quality since the
manufacturer produces to specified standards;
3. To achieve economy in labour and materials of manufacture;
4. To safeguard life and property; and
5. To eliminate barrier in trade among nations as a machine made in Japan can use a spare
part made in Germany.
Standardization at the global level is organized by the International Organization for Standards
(ISO). In Nigeria, standardization activities are controlled by the Standards Organization of Nigeria
(SON). This body which was established in 1971 is an arm of the Federal Ministry of Industries. The
organization is set up to standardize methods and produces in industries throughout Nigeria and
to ensure compliance with Federal Government policy on standardization and quality control of
both locally manufactured and imported products.
Some of the functions of SON were spelt out in Decree No 51 of 1971 to include:
1. To compile Nigerian Standard specifications in respect of metrology, materials,
commodities, structures and processes for the certification of products in commerce and industry
throughout Nigeria;
2. To organize tests and do everything necessary to ensure compliance of industries with
standards so designated and approved by its governing body;
3. To undertake investigations as necessary into the quality of facilities, materials and
products in Nigeria and establish quality assurance system including certification of factories,
products and laboratories;
4. To develop methods for testing of materials, supplies and equipment including items
purchased for use by government department;
5. To foster interest in the recommendation and maintenance of acceptable standards by
industry and the general public.
From the above, it is clear that without a functional standards organization, engineering practice
will be buried in confusion. It would be difficult for one to request for a 2.5 cm nail or a 60W light
bulb and get exactly what he asked for.

Most established industries know the importance of standards and ensure that it is maintained in
their products. However, makers of new products often forget that standards exist since they are
preoccupied with getting their product to the market. It is therefore very important that engineers
involved in developing new systems and machines should make sure that they conform to
standards.

SAFETY IN ENGINEERING PRACTICE

Occurrence of Accidents in Industries

Industrial safety is very important because of what accidents have done in some sensitive
industries. Such industries include the oil industry, chemical industry, electrical industry and heavy
power plant based industries.

Oil Industry

A visit to any oil industry in Nigeria such as Shell, Chevron, Schlumberger will reveal a conscious
effort towards maintaining industrial safety. Most of the operations are carried out in dangerous
environments such as off-shore drilling rigs, swampy areas, deep wells and refineries with crude
petroleum products to the economy, the need for industrial safety and harmony is very high. It is
common practice to observe the high safety consciousness of staff in these industries. This can be
seen in the use of helmets, seat belts for drivers, good communication systems, work boots,
protective clothing, gloves, etc.

Chemical Industry

There are many chemical industries in Nigeria. A few examples include National Fertilizer
Company. These and other companies deal with dangerous chemicals which are used as raw
materials. Personnel and machines are therefore exposed to fumes coming from these chemicals.
In addition, when these chemicals come in contact with human body and machines they may
cause corrosion and burns.

Electrical Industry

Many industries in Nigeria use electricity. They, therefore, use heavy duty electric motors which
power industrial machines. When these machines are not properly handled, fires or electrocution
may occur. In addition, companies like National Electric Power Authority (NEPA) deal with very
high voltage lines which can cause disaster when handled improperly. Such industries are
therefore very safety conscious to prevent industrial accidents which can be costly when they
occur.

Causes of Accidents in Engineering Practice

In general, the causes of accidents can be grouped into two, namely: unsafe acts and unsafe
condition.

The unsafe acts are those actions of a person or persons in a workshop/factory that may result to
an accident. Such acts may be unintentional or in some cases intentional. An example of unsafe
acts is smoking in a room where petrol or inflammable substances are stored. It is an unsafe act
for a student to put sharp tools or instruments inside his pocket.

Unsafe conditions in the workshop/factories are very dangerous. An unsafe condition is such a
condition which may cause accident. The unsafe conditions range from the physical conditions of
the factory to the orderliness of the working equipments.

Working with faulty equipment is a great risk. It is quite unsafe for instance to work with a grinding
machine without the usual protective guard. This act is very dangerous to the worker and can
cause such accidents as throwing of some particles into the user’s eyes.

Another example of an unsafe condition is the accidental flow or discharge of industrial oil or
water on the floor of the factory. This could cause slippery conditions which can cause one to fall
to the ground with broken ankles or serious injuries.

In every engineering practice, materials, machines and human beings interact to produce goods
and services. In order to reduce costs and optimize production, serious attention must be paid to
safety of workers, machines and materials. Safety engineering is the reduction, control or
elimination of all hazardous conditions which pose a threat to life and property. There are several
sources of hazardous conditions in an engineering establishment such as a factory, construction
site, dam. These include fire, machines, human behavior, electricity, floor conditions/plant layout,
environmental conditions and use of chemicals.

Fire

Fire is the most dangerous source of hazard in an industrial set up. The source of fire can be from
any section of the factory. Most industries have boilers for steam generation, some have
processes that require cooking the raw material while others require items using some form of
heat. These activities expose the industry to risks of fire outbreaks when they are not properly
handled. In some engineering applications, inflammable items are used in the process of
manufacturing. There may even be the need to store petroleum products on the site. These are
items that can easily catch fire with little carelessness. Fire can also start from natural
phenomenon such as earth quakes, lightening, rain or storm. Safety engineering seeks ways of
minimizing the possibility of these risks converting to actual fires and how to combat the fire if it
eventually starts.

Machines

Machines are not human beings who are capable of thinking and taking intelligent decisions. They
are designed to perform specific functions which they do religiously baring any malfunctioning of
the components. It therefore means that if any material that is not meant to enter the machine
does so, that material is regarded as the normal thing and this can result to unsafe conditions.
Machines are made of moving parts. In most indoor machines, these are covered to avoid contact
with human beings. In outdoor machines, this is hardly the case. Thus at construction sites, it is
common to see cranes with moving parts that are not guarded. Even in some industrial set ups,
belts, chains and moving shafts are sometimes left exposed. In other situations, the production
machines themselves are mobile on the factory floor or above. Examples include construction
equipment that movements can create unsafe environments for both workers, materials and the
production machines themselves.

Human Behaviour

Human activities can create unsafe environment in many ways. In most cases this is through
negligence and ignorance of safety practices. One of the requirements for working in an
engineering environment is proper dressing which must fit the nature of work being done. For
example an operator of machines on a factory floor should be dressed in overall, work boots,
helmet, gloves and sometimes eye shields or goggles. If proper work boots are not used, the
worker may step on scraps of sharp metal or on hot liquid which may cause accidents. In operating
machines, the worker’s individual attention is required. If proper attention is not given, it may not
be possible to detect when a machine is about to get stuck or break down. This can also be linked
to the problem of adequate maintenance which has to be recommended by the operator in
addition to routine maintenance schedules.
Power Sources

Most industrial machines are powered by electric or hydraulic motors. These are usually either
from the national grid or from stand-by generators installed in the factory premises. Unsafe
conditions can be created by intermittent power supply which is common with the public power
supply system in Nigeria. Such sharp cuts in power supply can cause machines to cease, thereby
initiating sparks which can cause fires. The facts that stand by generators are now common place
in industrial establishments in itself constitutes unsafe condition. This is because such
environments are characterized by storage of petroleum products which are very volatile. Most
power sources produce power in electrical form. This ultimately has to be converted to mechanical
power through electric motors. Such power conversion involves the use of chains, sprockets, belts
etc. These power conversion devices create unsafe conditions because they can interfere with
movement of machines and workers.

Use of Chemicals

In many engineering production facilities, chemicals are used. The chemical may be a product of
the enterprise, a raw material for production or an additive that is required in the process of
production. Whatever the use, the chemical needs to be handled carefully. If the handling is not
properly done, it can cause problems. It can affect the workers either by being inhaled or by
entering their eyes. The chemicals can also damage production machines by causing wear and
rust. When finally disposed of, the chemicals can pollute the environment by getting into
underground and surface waters as the case may be.

Effects of Accidents

The effects of accidents can be grouped into three: human injury or death, time loss, and material
or equipment damage.

The most common effect of accident is human injury. This can vary from simply loss of finger to
the extreme situation of death. The ultimate effect of this is economic loss, as the staff has to be
treated in hospital at the company’s expenses. If the injury is serious, damages are usually claimed
by the worker. If the accident does not involve a human injury, it may result in the damage of raw
material or machines. These raw materials and machines are expensive and eventually result in
loss of revenue for the factory. Sometimes, accidents do not involve damage or injury. Workers
tend to neglect the time lost in work stoppages due to accidents and in rescheduling production.
For example, a carpenter who is working on the roof of a building lost grip of the hammer.
Although the hammer may not hit anybody or material on the ground, the carpenter has to go
down to pick his hammer or some other person may have to leave his job to send the hammer to
him. Whichever way this is done, time is lost and it can be translated to loss of money.

Prevention of Accidents in Engineering Practice

Accidents in the workshops and factories do not just occur. Rather, they are caused by people. The
categories of people concerned with the accidents include those who are ignorant of the rules that
make for safety and peaceful relationship between man and machinery; and those who are over-
confident, care-free and do not expect the unexpected during the use of workshop tools,
machines and equipment. To avoid accidents, the following must be observed.

1. Obeying all safety rules and signs.

2. Follow instructionsof operations. If not sure of the safety procedure, ask somebody who
knows and don’t guess.
3. Correct all unsafe conditions or make them known to the person(s) responsible for their
correction.
4. Use the right protective equipment for the job and wear safe clothings.
5. Use, adjust and repair equipments only if you are sure of how to do it.
6. Use the right tool for each job, and use it correctly and safely.
7. Avoid horse play on the job.
8. Keep your work area clean and uncrowded.
9. Don’t wear rolled-up sleeves or loose fitting floppy Shirt, pocket flaps or loose apron
strings; shoes with worn out soles or rundown heels. Wear overalls and work boots.
10. Do not wear anything hanging from around the neck, long tie, watch, chains, rings, pins or
any other jewelry that might catch-up easily with the machine tool or hinders proper hand-
gripping of tools.
11. Avoid smoking around all inflammable areas, checial industries and petroleum storage
sections of the workshop/factory.
12. Avoid putting sharp and dangerous tools into pocket.
13. Avoid using your hand to remove cut metals or chips from a machine while the machine is
still rotating.
14. Make it a duty to keep everything in the workshop in their proper and safe places.
15. Ensure a good working environment in the work area for the workers and for the easy
flow of materials for the operation.
16. Make a provision for storing or keeping the raw materials, finished products, the wastes
and tools.
17. Remove all the wastes as soon as they are formed and do not allow oily liquids to flow on
the floor of the workshop.
18. Provide a pathway for the incoming raw materials or the exit of finished products and for
the workers. Also provide free exit in case of any eventuality.
19. Provide protective guards for all moving components and machines e.g. grinding
machines, belt-driven machines and very importantly, electric fans and blowers should be
protected with wire mesh.
20. Ensure proper ventilation of the workshop especially in areas where fumes and smokes
are produced so that the fumes will go out as soon as they are produced. Good ventilation reduces
high temperature normally generated in busy workshops and factories.
21. Provide fire-fighting equipment, ensure regular checks of their performance and ensure
all staff has the fire fighting procedure.
Health and Safety Regulations and their Administration

Health and safety regulations are generally inscribed in the factory Acts wheich is the responsibility
of the Ministry of Labour. The Acts are based on the recommendations of Trade Unions,
Employees’ Associations, Ministry of Health and Industries. In general, the Factory Act as it affects
the health and safety of workers are enforced by factory Inspectors. These Inspectors can enter
any factory premises if it is felt that the Acts are being neglected.

In the case where the Act has been violated, the Inspector can prosecute the factory owner or he
may be asked to correct the faulty safety equipment, otherwise activities of production in the
factory could be stooped and the premises declared unsafe and dangerous for industrial
production. In other cases, the inspector can order for the seizure of the dangerous equipment in
the factory or work them “out of use.” The Factory Act also lists the responsibilities of the
employers and the employees.

The most important factory Act in Nigeria is the Nigerian Factories Decree of 1987 and other
subsidiary legislations under it. These are administered by the Factory Inspectorate Department
(FID) of the Federal Ministry of Labour and productivity. This Department has the statutory
responsibility for safety, health and welfare of persons employed in factories and similar
engineering establishment throughout Nigeria. The Factory Inspectorate Department enforces
these provisions through regular inspection of factories, docks, wharves, rail and other work places
that fall within the definition of a factory under the Decree.

A factory by the definition of the Decree is any premise in which one or more persons are
employed in any process of manufacture, repair, altering or adapting of any article. The decree
spells out in general terms, minimum standards to be met by all factory occupiers in Nigeria in
order to ensure safety, good health and welfare of their workers employed in factories and similar
industrial establishments.

The FID has two main branches namely:- the Occupational Safety and Occupational Health. The
Field Inspectors are assigned to the Labour Offices in each of the state capitals and Abuja. The
functions of the FID include:

1. Registration of new factory premises, amendment and revocation of existing certificates

of registration.
2. Inspection of all factories and such related industrial establishments thereby ensuring
safety, health and welfare of all categories of workers and every person who has cause to be inside
the factory premises.
3. Investigation of accidents, dangerous occurrences and cases of occupational diseases.
4. Correcting recalcitrant occupiers by warnings and later prosecutions.
5. Preparation of draft safety and Health legislations, codes of practice, guidelines for
various operations and processes as well as amendments of old ones, when necessary.
6. Conducting research in occupational health and safety in every hazardous industry and
providing health education and advisory services where necessary through lectures, seminars,
workshops and symposia.
7. Co-operating with other national and international bodies in promoting safety and health
in every workplace in Nigeria.
8. Servicing the National Industrial Safety Council of Nigeria (NISCN), a voluntary tripartite
professional body. The Council, whose secretariat is located in the Department, organizes lectures,
and other educative programmes to enhance safety and health at work. A Senior Factory Inspector
serves as the General Secretary of the Council while state branches of the council.

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN ENGINEERING

Computer Applications in Different Areas of Engineering

As noted earlier, computers are increasingly being used in different areas and disciplines of
engineering. Some of these applications are outlined as below:

a. In structural analysis for the design of building and other engineering structures,
computers are used to execute complex calculations.
b. Computers are used for inventory and stores management in many engineering projects
including industries, construction sites and ware houses.
c. Many engineering firms such as NEPA, NITEL, water Corporation recover their operating
funds by billing customers. Because of the large number of customers involved, these billing
system are now computerized.
d. In many industries such as breweries, construction sites, assembly plants many repetitive
tasks are handled by micro computers which are used to drive machines.
e. In the past, physical models are built to verify the behavior of new engineering systems
and machines. Such tasks are now handled by computers through simulation.
f. Irrigation system, flood control system and dams are sometimes operated by micro computers
which are programmed to control the system as designed.
g. Control of environmental conditions in a building can be achieved through the use of
computers.

Introduction to Computer Hardware

A computer is made up of two inseparable sections – the hardware and the software. Computer
hardware refers to the physical components of the system while the software refers to the
programmes.

Since the invention of the first computer by Charles Babbage in 1871, different types and makes of
computers have been introduced into the market (Garetz, 1985). The first sets of computer were
Analogy computer. Such computers operate on data which is continuously variable physical
quantities (temperature and speed). Most present day computers digital because they deal with
data which are discrete in nature. There is a third type of computer called hybrid computer which
combines both digital and analog computers in one unit. Digital computers are far the most
popular and if you bought your computer in the past ten years, chances are that you are using a
digital computer.
Digital computers are further classified into three – mainframe, minicomputers and
microcomputers. Mainframe computers are those very large and powerful computers which are so
fast and can handle so much data that a large number of users from a wide network of locations
can simultaneously use the machine, usually through intelligent terminals. A minicomputer is not
as large as a mainframe and its Central Processing Unit (CPU) is operated by a single
microprocessor. Micro-computers can further be classified into Personal Computers, PC (desk top),
lap tops, palm tops etc. Personal or desktop computers are those computer small enough to be
placed on our desks. For some, they are so small that they can be placed on our laps while in
operation (lap tops). Some are yet so small that you can hold them on one palm and operate with
the other – palm tops. Any microcomputer can be used for machine or process monitoring and
control provided it has the necessary peripherals and components.

Components of a Microcomputer

The memory unit consists of devices for temporary or permanent storage of information or data.
Memory types include the Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM)
depending on the type of computer and are measured in bytes. The RAM of a computer must be
large enough to accommodate data. There are more permanent storage devices such as the hard
disk and floppy disk and floppy disks. The hard disk is very important for situations where a large
quantity of data need to be acquired and stored. If it is necessary to move the data from one
computer to another, they must be transferred to floppy disks. Both hard disk and floppy disks are
made of magnetic disks but while hard disks are fixed in the computer, floppies can be move
above.

The CPU is the actual microprocessor that does all the computations in a computer. In some
situations, they are referred to as mother boards. The computers system moves back and forth
from the CPU to I/C devices, to memory and so on. The movement is accomplished in a very
orderly manner maintained by the control unit of the computer, usually driven by an operating
system.

Introduction to Computer Software

By itself, computer hardware cannot do anything. It needs a set of instructions and data which it
executes step by step in order to achieve the desired objective. These instructions are referred to
as software or programmes. Different software systems are required which can be written in
different language.

The languages can be grouped into two – low level and high level languages. The low level
languages are languages which reflect the internal features of the machine and usually consist of
binary digits or a sequence of 1s and 0s. As good example of such a language is the Assembly
Language. It needs no translation by the computer and is used when it is desired to achieve very
high sampling rates for monitoring a control system. For example, in one application, we wrote the
same programme in Assembly Language and in a high level language. In the former, we were able
to achieve up to 25kHz sampling rate but with a high level language, the maximum sampling rate
was 2.5kHz (Onwualu and Watts, 1989a). However, writing Assembly Language Programme
demands specialized knowledge and is cumbersome for engineers. It should however be noted
that standard software for data acquisition and control exist which can be called by a high level
language.

High level languages provide simpler communications interface for the user. They are more easily
understood and easier to write and within the reach of most application engineers. Such
languages include FORTRAN, COBOL, and BASIC. By far the most popular language for data
acquisition and control is BASIC in different versions. This is probably because most measurement
and control equipment companies use BASIC can as such commands are direct. As noted earlier,
the main drawback with the use of a high level language is that speed is reduced. This is because
such languages need interpreters called compliers.

It is not necessary for the engineer to understand many languages to be able to use a computer.
This is because in addition to the software which can be developed using the languages mentioned
above, there are a large number of commercial software packages which can be used. These are
called application packages. Examples include those for word processing (e.g. Word Perfect),
design (eg. AutoCAD), graphs (LOTUS), Statistical analysis (Statgraphics, Minitabs). All that is
required is for one to learn how to use the packages!

CAD/CAM/CAE Systems

Traditionally, design and production machines and processes in engineering practice are controlled
by human beings using their judgment and the requirements of the job. With the introduction of
computers, a lot has changed.

Computer Aided Design (CAD) is the use of computers to design engineering machines, processes
and systems. Although the engineer still has the responsibility of conceptualizing the machine,
processor system, the computer assists him by taking care of the routine aspects of the design.
These include materials selection, drawings, stress analysis, size selection and design of standard
components such as spring, bolt, nut, pipe, structural sections, Key ways etc. the computer assists
the engineer by enabling him to quickly generate alternative designs which can be shown on the
computer screen. It can also assist in deciding on the optimum design CAD systems have been
used in design of buildings, mechanical devices, bridges, ships, aircrafts etc.

In automated factories, computers are used to control numerical machines and robots which in
turn take the place of workers in a production line. The process of using such computers in a
manufacturing company is referred to as Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM). In such cases,
working drawings and procedures are fed into the computer as part of software which then issues
instructions to the robot. Such instructions enable the robot to pick the correct tool for each job
and to do its work, accurately.

When an engineering job is executed through the use of CAD and CAM, then Computer Aided
Engineering (CAE) is at work.
Computer Control of Machines and Engineering Processes

Basically, a machine is equipped with switches such that an operator can control it based on
information supplied by his eyes. Such a machine can be changed to an intelligent piece of
equipment by replacing the human being with a computer. For the computer to be able to take
intelligent decisions, it must be provided with real time information (data) on the status of the
machine. Thus a computer based measurement and control system consists of two arms –
measurement and control.

COMPUTER

COMPUTER COMPUTER

COMPUTER

Concept of a computer based measurement and control system.

The computer measures the process and uses the information to control the process in a closed
loop system.

For the computer to be able to accomplish this task a number of input/output (I/C) cards (circuit
boards) must be sandwiched between it and the process to be controlled. The computer
communicates with the rest of the system through an interface board. The process is controlled
through the interface, a digital to analog converter (DAC), switches, electro hydraulic valves and
actuators. The reason for this is that the computer can only issue out commands in form of digital
words which can be simply understood as 1 or  on or off, true or false. For the digital word to be
converted to a real world signal (such as voltage), a DAC is used. Such signals are accepted by
electrohydraulic valves, solenoids, switches etc which control actuators such as hydraulic motors
and cylinders in rice combine, electric motors in grinders, irrigation pumps and heaters in poultry
houses.

The information for controlling the process is acquired from relevant instrumentation which
produces real world signals such as voltages or currents. After signal conditioning, the signals are
passed through Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) or counters which convert the real world
signals to digital words which can be used by the computer through the interface.
In general, the real world signals produced by these transducers can be grouped into three –
analog, digital and pulse (Hadzima 1984). Analog signals are continuous with respect to time and
amplitude. In other words, there is an infinite number of instantaneous amplitude values. Digital
signals exist in only one of two states – on or off, true or false, 1 or 0. Digital signals are produced
by switches that inform the irrigation system, it is only important to know whether the pump is on
or off. Pulse signals are similar to digital signals except that the interest is on how often a device
changes its status and not its actual status. For example is monitoring an automatic conveying
system for bottles in a brewery, the interest may be on how often the material is dropped on it
and not on the weight of the material.

“The factors to consider in selecting transducers include accuracy, precision, operating range,
speed of response, ease of calibration, reliability and cost.

Actuators

Actuator in a control system includes motors, pumps, heaters, hydraulic cylinders. The control of
such devices can either be in analog or digital form or both. For some situations, the interest is to
turn the equipment on or off. For such a simple on-off system, all which is required is for the
computer to change the state of the input channel from the switch connected to the
current/voltage line to the actuator. When the status changes, the switch closes or opens to either
cut off the current or voltage (Reuber and Curham, 1989).

A good example is a hydraulic cylinder which can be used to move a load from one position to the
other. Such cylinders are powered by hydraulic oil which can be controlled by electro hydraulic
valves. When a switch connected to the solenoid is closed, it is energized and it opens the valve,
thus allowing oil pressure to push the shaft of the cylinder out, thereby moving the load. Hydraulic
motors also operate on the same principle.

In some cases, proportional feedback control is required. In this case, a proportional elector
hydraulic valve can be controlled by a case, a proportional electro hydraulic valve can be
controlled by a programmable controller receives digital words form a computer and uses it to
generate analog signals which are sent to the solenoids on the valve. This then opens the valve
spool in proportion to the magnitude of the analog signal. Once the value opens, pressurized oil
then pushes to drive the hydraulic motor or cylinder Retardation is achieved in the opposite sense.

Process Data Conversion and Signal Conditioning

Two basic things happen in a computer based control system of the closed loop type. The software
gives a command which leaves the computer as digital pulses or signals. For these to be
understood by the controllers and hence the actuators, they must be changed to real world signals
which are usually voltages or currents. For the computer to understand these, they have to be
changed to digital signals. These functions are performed by a host of devices usually positioned
between the computer and the process depending on the nature of the signal handled. These
devices include an interface, analog to digital converter (ADC), digital to analog converter (DAC),
Input/ Output (I/O) devices and counters (Rembold et al., 1983).
In a typical computer control set up, more than one I/O devices are connected to computer.
Obviously, the computer can only “listen” or “talk” to only one device at a time. In practice, all
wires coming from all the other boards are connected to an interface board which is connected to
the computer. The card can be connected through a parallel or serial port depending on the
situation. By addressing specific channels or locations on the interface board, the software can
open the relevant channel for the computer. Thus in most software, before issuing a control
command or acquiring data, the relevant channel must be addressed.

The choice of an interface is very important in putting together a control system. This is because it
is the first link between the computer and real world. There are standard interface boards
available commercially. The most important consideration is whether it is a series or parallel
system. The choice will depend on the required speed of data transmission. If high speed data
transmission is required, a parallel interface is recommended and each channel is dedicated to a
particular data line. If it is not required to transmit data at a relatively fast rate, a cheaper series
system should be used. Speed is compromised in this case since the data has to go through a
multiplexer and the data is acquired by the computer through the same data line.

The ADC converts real world signals to digital words that can be used by the computer. There are
different types of ADC converters. These include (i) counter type (ii) Parallel (flash) type, (iii)
Successive Approximation Register (SAR) type and (iv) Tracking type. By far, the most common is
the SAR type. Even for one type, there are many manufacturers and for one manufacture, there
are many models with different specifications. What should guide your selection then?
Considerations should include number, of bits (8, 12, and 16), resolution, conversion speed, and
compatibility of your computer (Mitchel, 1983).

Simulation of Engineering System

One of the most important uses of computers in engineering practice is simulation. In this case, an
engineering system is described and represented by mathematical relationships. Based on this, the
performance of the system can be predicted under varying operating conditions without actual
measurements.

For example it is possible to predict the temperature distribution and hence stress distribution in
an engine which can be used to predict the overall performance of the engine. It is also possible to
simulate the behavior of a tall building under a storm or the behavior of an oceanliner subjected to
turbulence in an ocean.