Seismic and Geotechnical

Updates
2013 California Building Code

Zia Zafir, PhD, PE, GE

Senior Principal Engineer

San Francisco Geo-Institute Workshop, October 16, 2014

 Overview
Introduction
Background
Chapters 16 & 16 A (Soil lateral and eq.
loads)
Chapters 18 & 18 A (Soils and
Foundations)
Summary
 Introduction
2013 CBC is based on 2012 IBC, and
ASCE 7-10
Will discuss changes relevant to seismic
and geotechnical engineering
 Chapters 16 and 16A
(Earthquake Loads)
Scope: buildings, structures and
community college buildings regulated by
DSA-Structural Safety/Community
Colleges (DSA-SS/CC) and OSHPD
 Estimation of Ground Motions

Ground Motions

No Site Class F (exceptions) Yes

Yes Site-Specific Ground

For DSA & OSHPD No Motions Hazard and Site
SDC = E & F Response Analysis
Per Chapter 21 of ASCE 7-10

Code-Based
Ground Motion Chapter 1613, 1613A
Hazard Analysis Chapter 11 of ASCE 7-10
Per Chapter 21 of ASCE 7-10
As Modified by Section 1803A.6
USGS Web Application
 Major Changes
Chapters16 & 16A
(ASCE 7-10 Chapter 11)
 Major Changes
Table 1604.5: Occupancy Category ⇒ to Risk Category
MCE is defined in two ways
Geometric Mean (MCEG)
Risk-Targeted (MCER)
PGA is associated with MCE and ≠ SDS/2.5
New table for factor FPGA to estimate site modified PGA
consistent with MCE
Long-period transition period (TL) maps
Risk coefficients maps
Site-specific ground motion analysis is required for Seismic
Design Category E &F for OSHPD and DSA-SS/CC
Dynamic earth pressures for retaining walls supporting more
than 6 feet of fill
Engineering Geologic Reports ⇒ Geohazard Reports
Table 1604.5

Table 1604A.5 has

some additional language
Maximum Considered Earthquake
MCE is now defined in two ways

Maximum Considered Earthquake Geometric Mean (MCEG) Peak Ground

Acceleration: Geometric mean peak ground acceleration and without adjustment for
targeted risk. The MCEG peak ground acceleration adjusted for site effects (PGAM) is
used for evaluation of liquefaction, lateral spreading, seismic settlements, and other
soil related issues. General procedures for determining PGAM are provided in Section
11.8.3; site-specific procedures are provided in Section 21.5.

Risk-targeted Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCER) Ground Motion

Response Acceleration: Ground motions for the orientation that results in the
largest maximum response to horizontal ground motions and with adjustment for
targeted risk. General procedures for determining the MCER Ground Motion values
are provided in Section 11.4.3; site-specific procedures are provided in Sections 21.1
and 21.2.
 Risk Targeted – MCER
Mapped values of SS and S1 are for maximum
rotated motions with adjustment for targeted risk
The geometric mean spectral acceleration
values from USGS have been factored by 1.1 for
0.2s or 1.3 for 1.0s to convert (approximately) to
max direction.
Site Class definitions – use Chapter 20 of ASCE
7-10
Fa and Fv values are same as before
SMS, SM1, SDS, and SD1 equations are same as
before
Background
Geometric Mean vs. Maximum
Rotated Motions
All GMPEs are based on geometric mean
(GM) values of 2 orthogonal horizontal
motions
GM = √ (h1 x h2)
NGA is based on GMRotI50
GMRotI50 is defined as the 50th percentile
value of a set of geometric means computed
from the as-recorded orthogonal horizontal
motions rotated through all possible period-
independent non-redundant rotation angles
(Boore et al., 2006).
Geometric Mean vs. Maximum
Rotated Motions
OSHPD and DSA adopted maximum
rotated motion concept for site-specific
ground motion hazard analysis in 2010
CBC
Duzce Earthquake – Bolu Station
Loma Prieta Earthquake – LGPC
Landers Earthquake – Joshua Tree
 Maximum Rotated Motions
NGAs are based on GMRotI50
For true maximum rotated motions, new
relationships are needed using the
MaxRotI50
Alternatively, there are ratios of MaxRot to
GMRotI
Beyer & Bommer (2006)
Watson-Lamprey & Boore (2007)
Huang, Whittaker, & Luco (2009)
USGS used 1.1 and 1.3 ratios
Maximum Rotated Motions
Period (sec) ln(SAmaxRot/SAGMRot) SAmaxRot/SAGMRot
0.01 0.184 1.202
0.05 0.181 1.198
0.10 0.178 1.195
0.15 0.187 1.206
0.20 0.196 1.217
0.25 0.204 1.226
0.30 0.212 1.236
0.40 0.219 1.245
0.50 0.225 1.252
0.75 0.225 1.252
1.00 0.237 1.267
1.50 0.237 1.267
2.00 0.240 1.271
2.50 0.244 1.276
3.00 0.247 1.280
4.00 0.256 1.292
 Maximum Rotated Motions
ASCE 7-10 Supplement No. 1
If the spectral response accelerations predicted by the
attenuation relations do not represent the maximum response
in the horizontal plane, then the response spectral
accelerations computed from the hazard analysis shall be
scaled by factors to increase the motions to the maximum
response. If the attenuation relations predict the geometric
mean or similar metric of the two horizontal components, then
the scale factors shall be: 1.1 for periods less than or equal to
0.2 sec; 1.3 for a period of 1.0 sec., and, 1.5 for periods greater
than or equal to 5.0 sec., unless it can be shown that other
scale factors more closely represent the maximum response, in
the horizontal plane, to the geometric mean of the horizontal
components. Scale factors between these periods shall be
obtained by linear interpolation.
 Comparison - Probabilistic
1.8

1.6
Probabilistic Spectra for 2% in 50 Years
Spectral Acceleration (g)

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Period (sec)

NGA-max rotated NGA

 Risk Target Adjustment
Probabilistic ground motions are adjusted for targeted risk in the
following manner
Risk-Targeted GM = 2% in 50 years UHS x risk coefficient

Risk coefficient maps are provided (Figures 22-17 and 22-18)

Risk Targeted – Design Spectrum
 SS
Figure 22-1
 S1
Figure 22-2
 TL
Figure 22-12
 Chapter 16
Seismic Design Category
 Chapter 16A
Seismic Design Category
 Site Class E Issues
Be Careful for the Site Class E
Sometimes the SM1 value exceeds the SMS value

Example:
Site in Rialto –
Latitude: 34.083N Longitude: 117.400W
SS = 1.628 S1 = 0.707
Site Class E:
Fa = 0.9 Fv = 2.4
SMS = 1.465 SM1 = 1.697 ≤ SMS
To = 0.232 Ts = 1.16
Code-Based – Site Class E
 Site Class E Issues

Site Class
E
ASCE 7-10 using USGS Web USGS-Report Sections 11.4.5 and
Application My Calculations 11.4.6 (Page 3-4 of the printout)
Site No. Latitude Longitude SS S1 Fa Fv SMS SM1 Ts T0 SMS SM1 Ts T0

1 32.7651 -117.2258 1.219 0.468 0.9 2.4 1.097 1.123 1.024 0.205 1.081 1.097 1.015 0.203
2 33.7444 -118.2776 1.699 0.660 0.9 2.4 1.529 1.583 1.035 0.207 1.498 1.529 1.021 0.204
3 33.7606 -118.2359 1.722 0.663 0.9 2.4 1.550 1.592 1.027 0.205 1.527 1.550 1.015 0.203
4 33.969 -118.446 1.528 0.638 0.9 2.4 1.375 1.530 1.113 0.223 1.290 1.375 1.066 0.213
5 37.4098 -122.0203 1.500 0.600 0.9 2.4 1.350 1.440 1.067 0.213 1.301 1.350 1.038 0.208
6 37.5835 -122.3191 1.777 0.823 0.9 2.4 1.600 1.976 1.235 0.247 1.417 1.600 1.129 0.226
7 37.7672 -122.39 1.500 0.600 0.9 2.4 1.350 1.441 1.067 0.213 1.301 1.350 1.038 0.208
8 37.8129 -122.3128 1.500 0.600 0.9 2.4 1.350 1.440 1.067 0.213 1.301 1.350 1.038 0.208
9 37.954 -122.491 1.500 0.600 0.9 2.4 1.350 1.440 1.067 0.213 1.301 1.350 1.038 0.208
10 38.2285 -122.615 1.677 0.662 0.9 2.4 1.510 1.588 1.052 0.210 1.467 1.510 1.029 0.206
Geometric Mean MCEG and PGAM
PGAM is used for liquefaction, lateral spreading, and seismic
settlement

PGAM is associated with MCE and not 2/3 MCE

Can be estimated either using site-specific methods of Chapter 21

or the following equation
PGAM = FPGA PGA
where PGA is the mapped value
FPGA is the site coefficient (same as Fa)
MCEG - PGA
Figure 22-7
Geometric Mean MCEG and PGAM
 Impacts on Liquefaction

PGA is about 40 – 70% higher

Results for high seismicity areas will not be

impacted significantly

For low to moderate seismicity areas, the

results in terms of liquefaction-induced
settlements could be 20-50% higher
Impacts – Liquefaction

2010CBC 2013CBC
 Impacts on Seismic Design
Parameter

Depending on the location, SDS and SD1 may

increase or decrease

For low to moderate seismicity areas, SDS

and SD1 will be probably higher
Impacts – Ground Motion

2010 2013 % Change 2010 2013 % Change

SDS 0.459 0.534 16.3 SDS 1.000 1.000 0
SD1 0.285 0.318 11.6 SD1 0.630 0.601 -4.6
PGA 0.184 0.302 64.1
PGA 0.400 0.529 32.3

2010 2013 % Change

2010 2013 % Change
SDS 0.918 1.000 8.9
SDS 0.524 0.568 8.4
SD1 0.499 0.553 10.8
SD1 0.311 0.355 14.1
PGA 0.367 0.500 36.2
PGA 0.210 0.309 47.1
 USGS Web Application
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/designmaps/usdesign.php
 Chapter 16 & 16A

Section 1614 and 1614A have been changed

to 1615 and 1615A
Section 1615 and 1615A have been changed
to 1616 (Additional requirements for DSA-
SS/CC) & 1616A (Modifications to ASCE 7)
Section 1616.10.2 & 1616A.1.3
(New)

Modify ASCE 7 Section 11.4.7 by adding the

following

For buildings assigned to Seismic Design Category E

and F, or when required by the buildings official, a
ground motion hazard analysis shall be performed in
accordance with ASCE 7 Chapter 21, as modified by
Section 1803A.6 of this code.
 Section 1616.10.11 &
1616A.1.12 (New)

Replace ASCE 7 Section 12.8.1.3 by the following

12.8.1.3 Maximum SS value in determination of CS.

For regular structures five stories or less above the
base, as defined in Section 11.2 and with a period, T, of
0.5 s or less, CS is permitted to be calculated using the
larger of either SS = 1.5 or 80 percent of the value of SS
determined per Section 11.4.1 or 11.4.7
 Major Changes
Chapters18 & 18A
Section 1803.5.11 & 1803A.5.11
2010 CBC
For structures assigned to
Seismic Design Category C,
D, E or F in accordance with
Section 1613, a geotechnical
investigation shall be
conducted, and shall include
an evaluation of all of the
following potential geologic
and seismic hazards:
1. Slope instability.
2. Liquefaction.
3. Differential settlement.
4. Surface displacement due
to faulting or lateral spreading.
2013 CBC
For structures assigned to
Seismic Design Category C,
D, E or F in accordance with
Section 1613, a geotechnical
investigation shall be
conducted, and shall include
an evaluation of all of the
following potential geologic
and seismic hazards:
1. Slope instability.
2. Liquefaction.
3. Total and differential
settlement.
4. Surface displacement due
to faulting or seismically
induced lateral spreading or
lateral flow
 Section 1803.5.12 & 1803A.5.12
2010 CBC
1. The determination of lateral
pressures on foundation walls and
retaining walls due to earthquake
motions.
2.The potential for liquefaction and soil
strength loss evaluated for site peak
ground accelerations, magnitudes and
source characteristics consistent with
the design earthquake ground
motions. Peak ground acceleration
shall be permitted to be determined
based on a site-specific study taking
into account soil amplification effects,
as specified in Chapter 21 of ASCE 7,
or, in the absence of such a study,
peak ground accelerations shall be
assumed equal to SDS/2.5, where SDS
is determined in accordance with
Section 1613.5.4.
2013 CBC
1. The determination of lateral
pressures on foundation walls and
retaining walls supporting more than 6
feet (1.83 m) of backfill height due to
design earthquake ground motions.
2.The potential for liquefaction and soil
strength loss evaluated for site peak
ground accelerations, earthquake
magnitudes and source characteristics
consistent with the maximum
considered earthquake ground
motions. Peak ground acceleration
shall be determined based on:
2.1 A site-specific study in accordance with
Section 21.5 of ASCE 7; or
2.2 In accordance with Section 11.8.3 of
ASCE 7.
 Section 1804.3.1 (New)
2013 CBC

[HCD 1] Construction plans. Construction plans shall

indicate how the site grading or drainage system will
manage all surface water flows to keep water from
entering buildings in accordance with the California
Green Building Standards Code (CALgreen), Chapter 4,
Division 4.1
 Section 1803A.1
2010 CBC
General. Geotechnical investigations
shall be conducted in accordance with
Section 1803A.2 and reported in > I I
accordance with Section 1803A. 7.
The classification and investigation of
the soil shall be made under the
responsible charge of a California
registered geotechnical engineer. All
recommendations contained in
geotechnical and engineering geology
reports shall be subject to the approval
of the enforcement agency. All reports
shall be prepared and signed by a
registered geotechnical engineer and
an engineering geologist where
applicable.
2013 CBC
General. Geotechnical investigations
shall be conducted in accordance with
Section 1803A.2 and reported in > I I
accordance with Section 1803A. 7.
The classification and investigation of
the soil shall be made under the
responsible charge of a California
registered geotechnical engineer. All
recommendations contained in
geotechnical and engineering geology
geohazard reports shall be subject to
the approval of the enforcement
agency. All reports shall be prepared
and signed by a registered
geotechnical engineer, a certified
engineering geologist, and a registered
geophysicist, where applicable.
 Section 1803A.2
2010 CBC
Exception: Geotechnical reports are
not required for one-story, wood-frame
and light-steel-frame buildings of Type
II or Type V construction and 4,000
square feet (371 m2) or less in floor
area, not located within Earthquake
Fault Zones or Seismic Hazard Zones
as shown in the most recently
published maps from the California
Geological Survey (CGS). Allowable
foundation and lateral soil pressure
values may be determined from Table
1806A.2.
2013 CBC
Exception:
1. Geotechnical reports are not
required for one-story, wood-frame
and light-steel-frame buildings of Type
II or Type V construction and 4,000
square feet (371 m2) or less in floor
area, not located within Earthquake
Fault Zones or Seismic Hazard Zones
as shown in the most recently
published maps from the California
Geological Survey (CGS). Allowable
foundation and lateral soil pressure
values may be determined from Table
1806A.2.
2. A previous report for a specific site
may be resubmitted, provided that a
reevaluation is made and the report is
found to be currently appropriate.
 Section 1803A.6
2010 CBC
Exceptions:
Reports are not required for one-story,
woodframe and light-steel-frame
buildings of Type II or Type V
construction and 4,000 square feet
(371 m2) or less infloor area, not
located within Earthquake Fault Zones
or Seismic Hazard Zones as shown in
the most recently published maps from
the California Geological Survey
(CGS); nonstructural, associated
structural or voluntary structural
alterations and incidental structural
additions or alterations, and structural
repairs for other than earthquake
damage.
2013 CBC
Exceptions:
Reports are not required for one-story,
woodframe and light-steel-frame
buildings of Type II or Type V
construction and 4,000 square feet
(371 m2) or less infloor area, not
located within Earthquake Fault Zones
or Seismic Hazard Zones as shown in
the most recently published maps from
the California Geological Survey
(CGS) or in a seismic hazard zones as
defined in the Safety Element of the
local General Plan; nonstructural,
associated structural or voluntary
structural alterations and incidental
structural additions or alterations, and
structural repairs for other than
earthquake damage.
 Section 1803A.8 (New)
2013 CBC

Geotechnical peer review. [DSA-SS and DSA-SS/CC]

When alternate foundations designs or ground
improvements are employed or where slope stabilization
is required, a qualified peer review by a California-
licensed geotechnical engineer, in accordance with
Section 3422, may be required by the enforcement
agency. In Section 3422, where reference is made to
structural or seismic-resisting system, it shall be
replaced with geotechnical, foundations, or ground
improvement, as appropriate.
 Section 1807A.2.2
2010 CBC 2013 CBC
Design lateral soil loads. Retaining Design lateral soil loads. Retaining
walls shall be designed for the lateral walls shall be designed for the lateral
soils loads determined by a soils loads determined by a
geotechnical investigation in geotechnical investigation in
accordance with Section 1803A. accordance with Section 1803A and
shall not be less than eighty percent of
the lateral soil loads determined in
accordance with Section 1610A.
 Section 1809A.15 (New)
2013 CBC

Grade beams: [DSA-SS, DSA-SS/CC] For structures

assigned to Seismic Design Category D, E or F, grade
beams in shallow foundations shall comply with Section
1810A.3.12
 ASCE 7-10 Overview
Introduction
Chapter 21
Chapter 16
Summary
 Introduction
ASCE 7-10 is the basis for IBC 2012 and
CBC 2013
CBC 2010 already adopted some of the
ASCE 7-10 provisions for DSA and
OSHPD
Chapter 21 – Site-Specific Ground Motion
Procedure for Seismic Design
Analysis is needed if required by Section 11.4.7 of ASCE 7-10

ASCE 7-10 Section 11.4.7

A site response analysis shall be performed in accordance with Section 21.1 for
structures on Site Class F sites, unless the exception to Section 20.3.1 is
applicable. For seismically isolated structures and for structures with damping
systems on sites with S1 greater than or equal to 0.6, a ground motion hazard
analysis shall be performed in accordance with Section 21.2.
Exception in Section 20.3.1
For structures having fundamental periods of vibration equal to or less than 0.5 s,
site response analysis is not required to determine spectral accelerations for
liquefiable soils. Rather, a site class is permitted to be determined in accordance
with Section 20.3 and the corresponding values of Fa and Fv determined from
Tables 11.4-1 and 11.4-2.
Chapter 21 – Site-Specific Ground Motion
Procedure for Seismic Design
2013 CBC Section 1616.10.2 and 1616A.1.3
Modify ASCE 7 Section 11.4.7 by adding the following
For buildings assigned to Seismic Design Category E and F, or when required by
the buildings official, a ground motion hazard analysis shall be performed in
accordance with ASCE 7 Chapter 21, as modified by Section 1803A.6 of this code.
2013 CBC Section 1803A.6 Modification
The three Next Generation Attenuation (NGA) relations used for the 2008 USGS
seismic hazard maps for Western United States (WUS) shall be utilized to
determine the site-specific ground motion. When supported by data and
analysis, other NGA relations, that were not used for the 2008 USGS maps shall
be permitted as additions or substitutions. No fewer than three NGA relations
shall be utilized.
Section 21.1 – Site Response Analysis

The requirements of Section 21.1 shall be satisfied

where site response analysis is performed or required by
Section 11.4.7. The analysis shall be documented in a
report.
Section 21.1 – Site Response Analysis
o Base ground motion for MCER for bedrock or equivalent using
GMHA
o Site model. For deep soil sites, at least to Site Class D
o Site response using nonlinear or equivalent-linear methods
o At least five recorded or simulated scaled time histories
o Ratios of surface ground motions to input ground motions
o Recommended MCER spectrum shall not be less than MCER
spectrum of the base motion multiplied by average surface-to-
base ratio
Section 21.2 – Risk-Targeted Maximum Considered
Earthquake (MCER) Ground Motion Hazard Analysis
The requirements of Section 21.2 shall be satisfied
where a ground motion hazard analysis is performed or
required by Section 11.4.7.
Section 21.2 – Ground Motion Hazard Analysis
MCER is based on both probabilistic and deterministic
Based on the direction of maximum horizontal motion
Probabilistic = 2% probability in 50 years
Deterministic = 84th percentile from the controlling fault and
should not be less than Deterministic Lower Limit
Adjustment to probabilistic for targeted risk using one of the two
methods
Site Specific MCER = lesser of probabilistic and deterministic
Deterministic Lower Limit
 Site Specific – Risk-Targeted
Methods
Method 1: At each spectral period MCER is taken as
MCER = Probabilistic MCE x CR
where CR is the risk coefficient and shall be obtained using the values
of CRS and CR1 from Figures 22-17 and 22-18
CR = CRS for periods ≤ 0.2 s
CR = CR1 for periods ≥ 1.0 s
CR = linearly interpolated for 0.2 s < period < 1.0 s

Method 2: Based on iterative integration of a site-specific hazard

curve with a lognormal probability density function representing the
collapse fragility
 Risk Target Adjustment
Probabilistic ground motions are adjusted for targeted risk in the
following manner
Risk-Targeted GM = 2% in 50 years UHS x risk coefficient

Risk coefficient maps are provided (Figures 22-17 and 22-18)

Caution ASCE 7-10 wrongly mentions that maps are Figures 22-2
and 22-3
Risk Coefficient Maps
Risk Coefficient Maps
Section 21.3 – Design Response Spectrum
Design spectral acceleration at any period shall be taken
as
Sa = 2/3 SaM
Where SaM is spectral response acceleration obtained
from Section 21.1 or 21.2.
Sa shall not be less than 80% of Sa determined from
Section 11.4.5
For Site Class F requiring site response analysis, Sa
shall not be less than 80% of Sa for Site Class E
determined from Section 11.4.5
Section 21.4 – Design Acceleration Parameters

SDS shall be taken as the value at 0.2 s but should not be

less than 90% of spectral acceleration at any period
larger than 0.2 s.
SD1 shall be taken as larger of the value at 1 s or two
times the value at 2 s.
SMS and SM1 shall be taken as 1.5 times SDS and SD1
SMS and SM1 shall not be less than 80% of values
obtained from 11.4.3
SDS and SD1 shall not be less than 80% of values
obtained from 11.4.4
 Section 21.5 - MCEG PGAM
Site specific MCEG PGAM = lesser of probabilistic and
deterministic
Probabilistic = geometric mean 2% probability of
exceedance in 50 years
Deterministic = geometric mean 84th percentile motions
from the controlling fault
Deterministic should not be less than 0.5FPGA where
FPGA is estimated using Table 11.8-1 with value of PGA
is taken as 0.5g
Site specific PGAM should not be less than 80% of the
value using equation 11.8-1
 Chapter 16 – Seismic Response History
Procedure
Not less than 3 suites of motions
When 7 motions are used, take the average response
When less than 7 motions are used, take the maximum
response
For 2D analysis, motions should be scaled such that the
average value of the response spectra of scaled motions
shall not be less than the design response spectrum of
the site for periods between 0.2T and 1.5T where T is
fundamental period of the structure
 Chapter 16 – Seismic Response History
Procedure
For 3D analysis, the ground motions shall consist of pairs of horizontal
motions. For each pair of horizontal ground motion components, a square
root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) spectrum shall be constructed by
taking the SRSS of the 5 percent-damped response spectra for the scaled
components (where an identical scale factor is applied to both
components of a pair). Each pair of motions shall be scaled such that in
the period range from 0.2T to 1.5T, the average of the SRSS spectra from
all horizontal component pairs does not fall below the corresponding
ordinate of the response spectrum used in the design
At sites within 3 miles (5 km) of the active fault that controls the hazard,
each pair of components shall be rotated to the fault-normal and fault-
parallel directions of the causative fault and shall be scaled so that the
average of the fault-normal components is not less than the MCER response
spectrum for the period range from 0.2T to 1.5T.
 Summary
Ground motion parameters are based on Risk-targeted
Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCER)
Spectral accelerations are in the direction of maximum
horizontal ground motions
PGA is associated with the maximum considered
earthquake with geometric mean motions and are much
higher than before
Site Class shall be established using Chapter 20 of
ASCE 7-10
Ground motion parameters have increased or decreased
based on the location
Dynamic earth pressures are required for retaining walls
with backfill height of 6 feet or more
Note changes in ASCE 7-10 especially in Chapter 21
 ASCE 7-16
New tables for Fa, Fv, and Fpga
Additional exceptions for Site Class F in
Chapter 20
Complete overhaul of Chapter 16 which
allows spectra matching and conditional
mean spectrum and additional
requirements for near-fault sites
Will take care of the issue where SM1 > SMS
Procedure to develop vertical spectrum in
Chapter 12
Questions?