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Review article
Mechanisms of Disease
IgG4-Related Disease
John H. Stone, M.D., M.P.H., Yoh Zen, M.D., Ph.D.,
and Vikram Deshpande, M.D.
IgG4 is a unique antibody in both structure and function.10,11 This molecule ac-
counts for less than 5% of the total IgG in healthy persons and is the least abundant
IgG subclass.10 In contrast to IgG1, IgG2, and IgG3, serum IgG4 concentrations
among ostensibly healthy people vary by a factor of more than 100 (normal range,
0.01 to 1.4 mg per milliliter), but IgG4 concentrations within individual persons are
generally stable.11,12 Although the constant domains of IgG4 heavy chains share
A
* B
C D
E F
immunostaining. Moreover, there are subtle vari- with more than 30 IgG4-positive cells per high-
ations among some organs. For example, the oblit- power field and a ratio of IgG4 to IgG that is
erative phlebitis is always present in the pancreas higher than 50% provides compelling evidence
and the submandibular glands but is observed of IgG4-related disease, particularly in conjunc-
much less often in the lacrimal glands. tion with the characteristic histopathological ap-
The inflammatory infiltrate is composed of an pearance. A lower cutoff point for IgG4-positive
admixture of T and B lymphocytes. Whereas cells is acceptable in cases with the characteristic
B cells are typically organized in germinal cen- morphologic features. The clinical significance of
ters, T cells are distributed diffusely throughout isolated elevations in tissue and serum IgG4 con-
the lesion. All immunoglobulin subclasses may centrations, such as those observed in primary
be represented within involved tissue, but IgG4 sclerosing cholangitis, inflammatory bowel dis-
predominates. The presence of IgG4-bearing ease, and Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, remains un-
plasma cells is required for a diagnosis of IgG4- certain, but these disorders do not appear to be
related disease, but IgG4-positive cells are found part of the spectrum of IgG4-related disease.
in a wide variety of inflammatory infiltrates, and
the detection of substantial numbers of IgG4- Pathoph ysiol o gic a l Mech a nisms
positive plasma cells is therefore not diagnostic
of IgG4-related disease. Multiple immune-mediated mechanisms contrib-
Semiquantitative analysis of IgG4 immuno ute to the fibroinflammatory process of IgG4-
staining helps to distinguish IgG4-related dis- related disease (Fig. 3). We divide the following
ease from other conditions. A variety of cutoff discussion into two sections: one focused on po-
points, ranging from more than 10 to more than tential initiating mechanisms, and the other on
50 IgG4-positive plasma cells per high-power specific disease pathways.
field, has been proposed.34-36 The ratio of IgG4-
bearing plasma cells to IgG-bearing plasma cells Potential Initiating Mechanisms
further assists in confirming the diagnosis of Genetic Risk Factors
IgG4-related disease: a ratio higher than 50% is Genetic studies of IgG4-related disease are in
very suggestive of the diagnosis. IgG4-related their infancy. Among several of the genetic sus-
disease is more difficult to diagnose in the late ceptibility factors for IgG4-related disease, the
phase of organ involvement, when fewer plasma HLA serotypes DRB1*0405 and DQB1*0401 in-
cells are present and fibrosis may predominate in crease the susceptibility to IgG4-related disease in
some tissues (e.g., the retroperitoneum). The pat- Japanese populations, whereas DQβ1-57 without
tern of fibrosis and the ratio of IgG4 to total IgG aspartic acid is associated with disease relapse in
provide crucial information in this context. Korean populations.37,38 Non-HLA genes in which
The closest histopathological mimickers of single-nucleotide polymorphisms are involved in
IgG4-related disease are lymphomas. Clonality disease susceptibility or recurrence encode pro-
studies are necessary to rule out these cancers. teins that include cytotoxic T-lymphocyte–associ-
An early clue to the diagnosis of B-cell lymphoma ated antigen 4, tumor necrosis factor α, and Fc
is the presence of a predominantly B-cell infiltrate. receptor–like 3.39-41
In contrast, the lymphoid inflammatory infiltrate
in IgG4-related disease is composed primarily of Bacterial Infection and Molecular Mimicry
T cells. A thornier issue is the distinction between Substantial homology exists between human car-
infiltrates caused by IgG4-related disease and bonic anhydrase II and the α-carbonic anhydrase
other inflammatory infiltrates, such as those adja- of Helicobacter pylori.42 The homologous segments
cent to neoplastic lesions. Tissues from patients contain the binding motif of the HLA molecule
with IgG4-related disease show diffuse infiltrates DRB1*0405.42 Homology also exists between the
of IgG4-bearing plasma cells, in contrast to the plasminogen-binding protein of H. pylori and the
focal aggregates of IgG4-bearing cells that are ubiquitin-protein ligase E3 component n-recognin
detected in most other inflammatory mimickers 2, which is expressed in pancreatic acinar cells.43
of this condition. A diffuse plasma-cell infiltrate One study showed that a majority of patients with
other conditions, as well as larger infiltrates of but these reports include no more than several doz-
CD4+CD25+ Treg cells at affected sites and in- en cases.61,62 This male predominance contrasts
creased numbers of CD4+CD25high Treg cells in starkly with other autoimmune diseases that mimic
the blood.52,57 In addition to interleukin-10, IgG4-related disease, such as Sjögren’s syndrome
which can be produced by Treg cells as well as and primary biliary cirrhosis, which have mark-
by Th2 lymphocytes, transforming growth fac- edly female predominance.63
tor β (TGF-β) appears to be overexpressed in Few data exist on the global incidence and
IgG4-related disease.50,52 TGF-β may play a cen- prevalence of IgG4-related disease. Virtually all
tral role in the promotion of fibrosis in IgG4- studies pertaining to the epidemiology of the dis-
related disease (Fig. 3).50 These cytokines may be ease come from Japan and focus on autoimmune
also produced by other cell populations, includ- pancreatitis. The estimated prevalence of autoim-
ing regulatory B cells. mune pancreatitis is 0.8 cases per 100,000 per-
sons in Japan,60 where this disorder is believed to
Role of IgG4 Antibodies account for up to 6% of all cases of chronic pan-
There are two possible explanations for the over- creatitis.64-66 In a Mayo Clinic series of 245 pa-
abundance of IgG4 antibodies. First, the antibod- tients who underwent pancreatic resection for be-
ies may behave as tissue-destructive immunoglob- nign indications, autoimmune pancreatitis was
ulins. Second, the excess of IgG4 may simply be found in 11% of the patients.67 Challenges in di-
an overexpression of these antibodies in response agnosis stemming from a lack of familiarity with
to an unknown primary inflammatory stimulus. IgG4-related disease have probably led to under-
The purported tendency of IgG4 antibodies to estimates of its prevalence.
fulfill antiinflammatory functions and the fact that
disease-specific IgG4 autoantibodies have not been Cl inic a l Fe at ur e s of Org a n-
identified in IgG4-related disease suggest that they S ys tem In volv emen t
are a response to an inflammatory stimulus.
A major gap in the understanding of IgG4- The major symptoms and differential diagnoses
related disease pertains to the extent of Fab-arm of each organ lesion are summarized in the table
exchange in patients with this condition. The high in the Supplementary Appendix, available with
percentage of IgG4 antibodies that have become the full text of this article at NEJM.org. Some of
bispecific immunoglobulins through the Fab-arm the major clinical presentations are shown in Fig-
exchange would render such antibodies unlikely ure 4. IgG4-related disease usually presents sub-
to participate in a tissue-destructive immune re- acutely, and most patients are not constitutionally
sponse. However, the degree to which this bi- ill. Fevers and elevations of C-reactive protein levels
specificity is fulfilled in patients with active IgG4- are unusual. The disorder is often identified inci-
related disease is unclear. It is possible that a high dentally through radiologic findings or unexpect-
percentage of IgG4 antibodies retain monospeci- edly in pathological specimens.
ficity and hence retain their potential to bind anti- Some patients have disease that is confined to
gens and contribute to destructive inflammation. a single organ for many years. Others present with
either known or subclinical involvement of other
Epidemiol o gic Ch a r ac ter is t ic s organs, in addition to the major organ involve-
ment. Patients with autoimmune pancreatitis may
Few population-based studies of IgG4-related dis- have pancreatic disease as the major focus of their
ease have been performed, and the epidemiology illness, but additional examination reveals that
of the disease remains poorly described, but cer- 30% also have tubulointerstitial nephritis, indicat-
tain striking demographic features are evident. ed by a distinctive radiologic appearance and the
The majority of patients are men (62 to 83%) and presence of mild proteinuria and nonglomerular
older than 50 years of age.43,59 A national study hematuria.62-68
of autoimmune pancreatitis in Japan suggested a Multiorgan disease may be evident at diagnosis
ratio of male to female patients of approximately but can also evolve metachronously, over months
2.8:1.60 Even more striking male predominance to years. Spontaneous improvement, sometimes
(nearly 90%) has been reported for IgG4-related leading to clinical resolution of certain organ-
disease involving the kidney and retroperitoneum, system manifestations, is reported in a minority
A B
C D
of cases.69 A condition identified in the 1960s damage and can lead to organ failure, but it gen-
as multifocal fibrosclerosis70 is now regarded erally does so subacutely. Untreated IgG4-related
more appropriately in most cases as IgG4-related cholangitis can lead to hepatic failure within
disease. months.73 Similarly, IgG4-related aortitis can cause
Two common findings in IgG4-related dis- aneurysms and aortic dissections and is believed
ease are tumefactive lesions and allergic disease. to be associated with between 10 and 50% of cases
IgG4-related disease appears to account for a of inflammatory aortitis.74-76 The natural history
substantial proportion of tumorous swellings in of IgG4-related tubulointerstitial nephritis has not
many organ systems.4-6,33,71,72 Many patients with been defined comprehensively, but substantial
IgG4-related disease have allergic features such as renal dysfunction and even renal failure can en-
atopy, eczema, asthma, and modest peripheral- sue.62,68 Destructive bone lesions that mimic gran-
blood eosinophilia.56 Up to 40% of patients with ulomatous polyangiitis (formerly Wegener’s gran-
IgG4-related disease have allergic diseases such as ulomatosis) or tumors in the sinuses, head, and
bronchial asthma or chronic sinusitis.56 middle-ear spaces have been reported,31 but less
IgG4-related disease often causes major tissue aggressive lesions are the rule in most organs.
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