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The Impact of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on

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The Impact of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on Performance and
Emissions of a Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine
Timothy Jacobs, Dennis Assanis, and Zoran Filipi
Copyright © 2003 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
ABSTRACT
This work studies the complex interactions resulting from
the application and control of Exhaust Gas Recirculation
(EGR) on a production heavy-duty diesel engine system,
and its effectiveness in reducing NOx emissions. The
coupling between EGR, the Variable Geometry
Turbocharger (VGT) and the EGR cooler critically affects
boost pressure, air/fuel ratio (A/F), combustion efficiency
and pumping work. It is shown that EGR provides an
effective means for reducing flame temperatures and
NOx emissions, particularly under low A/F ratio
conditions. However, engine thermal efficiency tends to
decrease with EGR as a result of decreasing indicated
work and increasing pumping work. Combustion
deterioration is predominant at higher load, low speed
and low boost conditions, due to a significant decrease
of A/F ratio with increasing EGR. For conditions allowing
the VGT to maintain high enough boost and hence A/F
ratio, efficiency losses with increased EGR are largely
attributed to increased pumping work. Finally, the total
system heat rejection increases significantly due to EGR
cooling.
INTRODUCTION
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR), has long been of
interest to engine designers, researchers, and
regulators. EGR was originally considered as a method
to alter combustion [1]* and suppress knock in spark
ignition engines [2]. Considerable interest in EGR for
gasoline engines developed shortly after 1955 when
Haagen-Smit [3] successfully demonstrated the
dependency of smog on combustion-generated
hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen. Five years later,
Kopa and other researchers, demonstrated that EGR
could in fact lower the concentration of NOx in the
exhaust gas [4,5]. Recently, EGR has emerged as a
necessary means to meet the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) nitric oxide
(NOx) regulations for heavy-duty diesel engines.
*Numbers in brackets indicate references included at the end of the paper.
2003-01-1068
Automotive Research Center
The University of Michigan
EPA started imposing air emission regulations on heavy-
duty engines in 1985, to take effect in 1991, and then
more stringent regulations in 1994. However, these
initial regulations could be met with optimized
combustion strategies, and improved combustion
chamber design. EGR became a necessary component
on heavy-duty diesel engines with the implementation of
the 2004 regulations (accelerated to 2002 for six major
manufacturers affected by the Consent Decree) where
NOx release is restricted to 2.5 g/bhp-h. Nevertheless,
introducing EGR effectively into the combustion chamber
of a multi-cylinder engine remains a considerable
challenge.
External EGR, using piping to route the exhaust gas to
the intake system where it is inducted into the
succeeding cycles, has emerged as the preferred current
approach. However the high efficiency of a state-of-the-
art turbocharger often establishes conditions where the
intake manifold pressure is higher than the exhaust
manifold pressure. Consequently, an auxiliary device,
such as the Variable Geometry Turbine (VGT) is needed
to increase the backpressure above the intake manifold
pressure and allow flow in the proper direction. The
work presented here is motivated by the need to better
understand the issues associated with practically
coupling an EGR system with a VGT on a heavy-duty
diesel engine.
While EGR’s ability to alter combustion and reduce
diesel engine emissions has been previously
demonstrated [e.g., 6-8], the experimental research was
conducted with highly controlled introduction of typical
combustion products (not actual exhaust) into the intake
stream. Therefore, other engine parameters, such as
air-flow, boost pressure, and exhaust pressure could be
held constant during the studies. In current practical
applications of EGR on production engines, these
variables are not constant with changing levels of EGR.
In particular, the issues related to applying EGR in a
multi-cylinder engine rather than a laboratory single-
cylinder, are much more complex, due to the coupling
between events in the cylinder and the performance of
the turbocharging system.
This work examines the interactions resulting from the
application and control of EGR on a practical heavy-duty
diesel engine system, with the aim of understanding their
impact on reduction of NOx emissions, as well as
reasons for potential negative side-effects. Since both
(EGR and VGT) impact the “intake charge side” of the
engine considerably, altering one or the other (or both)
will have dramatic and sometimes surprising effects on
engine performance and combustion. In particular,
EGR’s effect on combustion can differ, depending on
other system issues, such as the ability of the
turbocharging system to preserve the desired A/F ratio,
or the effectiveness of EGR cooling. There might be a
fuel economy penalty associated with deteriorated
combustion. The pumping work associated with driving
the EGR flow might be as significant or more dominant
under certain conditions.
The goal of this experimental study is to distinguish
between in-cylinder processes and system effects
related to EGR, and to assess their respective
contributions to potential performance and efficiency
penalties. The nitric oxides trends will be examined
carefully to determine the primary factor/factors
responsible for their reduction, such as thermal, dilution
and dissociation effects. Furthermore, videoscope
images obtained in the combustion chamber will be used
to assess the effects of decreased flame temperatures
with increasing residual. Other emissions, such as CO
and unburned hydrocarbons (HC), will also be studied in
the light of VGT’s ability (or inability) to maintain a
constant air / fuel ratio.
Finally, practically utilizing EGR in a production engine
has implications on the engine/vehicle heat rejection.
Cooled EGR, versus non-cooled EGR, improves fuel
economy and performance, but considerably increases
engine system heat rejection. Distinguishing between
the system heat rejection and combustion chamber heat
rejection allows better interpretation of combustion
trends, as well as better assessment of possible
durability implications. To this end, both system energy
balance and detailed wall surface temperature
measurements will be analyzed.
This paper begins with a discussion of current methods
to drive EGR using VGTs, and describes the method
studied in this work. The subsequent section provides
details about experimental methodology and engine
instrumentation. This is followed by a thorough
experimental analysis of the performance and fuel
economy implications associated with practically
implementing EGR with VGT. Next, the emissions
trends are examined and the primary factors responsible
for reduction of nitric oxides are identified based on a
combination of traditional measurements and in-cylinder
temperature contours extracted from flame images.
Finally, the paper addresses issues of total system heat
rejection with EGR and offers conclusions of the
experimental study.
METHODS FOR RECIRCULATING EXHAUST
GAS IN A TURBOCHARGED CI ENGINE
One of the more challenging aspects of EGR is
introducing it into the combustion chamber of a multi-
cylinder engine. There are two “types” of EGR; internal
and external. Internal EGR uses variable valve timings
or other devices to retain a certain fraction of exhaust
from a preceding cycle. External EGR uses piping to
route the exhaust gas to the intake system, where it is
inducted into the succeeding cycles. While internal EGR
provides very short response time, its practical
application is not possible until camless technology
becomes widely available. Furthermore, internal EGR
cannot be cooled, whereas external EGR can. Cooling
the residual improves fuel economy and engine
performance and enables further reduction of NOx.
Therefore, external EGR has emerged as the preferred
type of EGR for heavy-duty diesel engines and is used in
this study. However, application of external EGR opens
up several system issues that need to be addressed. In
particular, the high efficiency of state-of-the-art
turbochargers often establishes conditions where the
intake manifold pressure is higher than the exhaust
manifold pressure. If residual is to be flown from the
exhaust manifold directly to the intake manifold (the so
called short-path EGR), the exhaust backpressure must
be higher than the intake. Hence, an auxiliary device is
needed to increase the backpressure above the intake
manifold pressure.
Figure 1 illustrates an engine system configured for
short-path external EGR through the use of a VGT
auxiliary device, commonly used in North America. The
reader is referred to Arnold, et al. [9] for more
information on VGTs. In general, the VGT is capable of
changing its geometry to obtain different turbine flow
areas, and thus different boost pressures. Vanes in the
nozzle upstream of the turbine open (or close) enhancing
(or restricting) the flow. Originally conceived to reduce
turbocharger lag in transients, the VGT also has the
ability to assist or enable the external EGR flow, since
changing its flow characteristics will affect the pressure
ratio between the exhaust and intake sides.
Other methods of flowing external EGR include piping
the EGR after the turbine into the fresh air intake
upstream of the compressor (long-path EGR). This
method would prevent excessive back pressure of the
exhaust to flow EGR. However, although EGR
fundamentally contains CO2 and H2O, in reality its
composition includes soot, as well as SO2, SO3, and at
certain temperatures and pressures, sulfuric acid. The
aluminum components of the compressor and
intercooler would probably not sustain long life if exposed
to contamination with corrosive compounds and
particles. Other variations involve extracting the exhaust
downstream of the VGT and using an EGR pump. While
these alterations appear attractive from a performance
standpoint, complications regarding control, durability,
and packaging are discouraging wider application.
In te rc o o le r
E n g in e
P am b T C
F re s h A ir
EGR
C o o le r
Figure 1: Layout of the short-path EGR System with a VGT and an
EGR Cooler.
Figure 1, illustrating the system studied in this work,
helps identify the control issues associated with using the
VGT to drive EGR. The engine’s Electronic Control
Module (ECM) can effectively respond to a single
feedback signal (e.g. residual flow rate); however, two
goals must be met related to controlling the EGR rate.
The primary goal is to flow enough EGR to adequately
reduce NOx emissions. The secondary goal is to
maintain high enough boost required for the engine’s
efficient operation, while preserving desired EGR flow.
Therefore, a considerable amount of knowledge must be
built regarding the total system operation and control to
properly use a VGT to drive EGR. One particular
publication by Pfeifer, et al. [10] attempts to develop a
simulation-based model to predict a suitable control
algorithm for optimizing boost pressure and EGR rate.
The experimental research presented in the following
sections offers insight into the system issues and
consequences of complex interactions between intake
and exhaust components.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
The experimental data were acquired at the University of
Michigan’s Automotive Research Center on a heavy-duty
Detroit Diesel Series 60 CI engine rated for 1580 ft-lbs
torque at 1200 RPM, and 440 hp at 1500 RPM (constant
to 1800 RPM). The engine has six in-line cylinders, and
a total displacement of 12.7 L. It was retrofitted with a
VGT, turbine-mounted EGR valve, EGR cooler, EGR
mixer, and upgraded ECM capable of controlling both the
VGT and EGR flow rate.
Engine tests were conducted at 1200 RPM, mid load (to
simulate a moderate acceleration in urban driving
conditions), 1200 RPM, low load (to simulate low speed
steady urban driving), and 1800 RPM, mid load (to
simulate high speed steady driving). Each operating
point was tested as a steady-state condition. The EGR
valve acted solely as an on-off valve. At each condition,
the VGT vane position was altered to adjust the pressure
difference across the engine required for obtaining the
desired EGR rate (as measured with an orifice in the
EGR pipe). As a result, the boost pressure altered as
vane position changed. The fuel rate and the injection
timing remained unchanged. However, A/F changed
with changes of both the air flow and EGR flow. As
exhaust pressure, boost pressure, and A/F changed, the
torque level changed.
Several variables were measured on a time basis, in
particular: speed, torque, intake manifold pressure,
exhaust manifold pressure, air flow, fuel flow, coolant
flow, intake manifold temperature (controlled by air to
water intercooler), exhaust manifold pressure, engine
coolant temperature difference, exhaust CO/CO2 (NDIR
analyzer), exhaust O2 (paramagnetic analyzer), NO and
NOx (chemiluminescence analyzer), and gaseous
hydrocarbons (hot FID). Signals measured on a quarter-
degree crank-angle basis were: cylinder pressure
(cylinders 1, 3, and 6), fire-deck surface temperature and
corresponding reference temperature (heat flux probe in
cylinder 3), and strain on the cylinder 6 unit injector
rocker arm (for post-processing fuel injection pressure
and timing). EGR rate was measured and provided as
output by the ECM.
The video images were collected at different engine
operating conditions from cylinder 6 with an AVL 513D
engine videoscope. The images show an 80 degree
view field, looking straight into the combustion chamber
(through the cylinder head) near the outer bowl region of
the piston. Figure 2 illustrates the viewing angle of the
videoscope more clearly.
Front
Back
Port
Port
Injector
Piston at TDC
Cylinder
Figure 2: Schematic illustrating the view angle of the videoscope
probe installed in cylinder 6 of the heavy-duty Diesel engine.
The temperature profiles have been processed by the nearly constant, indicating little degradation of
AVL 513D Thermovision software. The flame images combustion. However, for both of the latter cases, Net
were recorded using the two-color pyrometry method, IMEP steadily decreases with increased EGR, indicating
with a CCD camera. The Thermovision software an increase in pumping losses.
analyzes the wavelengths of the two colors, and based
on the radiation intensity of these wavelengths, 0.41
determines a corresponding flame temperature.
0.4 1200, 50%
1800, 50%

Thermal Efficiency (%)

EFFECTS OF EGR ON FUEL ECONOMY AND 0.39
1200, 20%
PERFORMANCE
0.38

Previous studies [11,12] have shown that using EGR in 0.37

order to reduce NOx emissions generally degrades
0.36
engine performance. This section quantifies the effect of
EGR on the fuel economy and performance of a 0.35
representative heavy-duty diesel engine through 0 5 10 15 20 25
EGR Rate (%)
experimental measurements. All results pertain to three
reference conditions: 1200 RPM - 50% load, 1200 RPM - Figure 3: Brake Thermal Efficiency versus EGR Rate for three
20% load and 1800 RPM - 50% load. Results are operating conditions.
analyzed to determine the specific physical reasons for
degraded performance.
11

Engine System Performance and Distribution of 10

Efficiency Losses 9

IMEP (bar)
8

Figure 3 illustrates a decrease of engine thermal 7 Gross IMEP 1200, 50%

efficiency as a function of the amount of EGR for all 6 Net IMEP 1800, 50%
1200, 20%
three cases investigated. 5
4
Clearly, the deterioration of brake thermal efficiency with 3
increasing EGR is non-negligible, and it is more 0 5 10 15 20 25
pronounced at 1200 rpm / mid load conditions than at the EGR Rate (%)
other two sets. The two main causes for decreasing Figure 4: Indicated Mean Effective Pressures versus EGR Rate for
brake thermal efficiency are attributed to decreased three operating conditions (both gross and net are shown).
combustion work (i.e. indicated work) and increased
pumping work (assuming that friction remained
constant). The decreased combustion work is the To further quantify the effect of pumping work, Figure 5
consequence of combustion degradation due to lower shows the Pumping Mean Effective Pressure (PMEP)
combustion temperatures and changes in A/F ratio. plotted versus EGR Rate. Note that negative PMEP
Flowing EGR reduces the concentration of oxygen, refers to the piston doing work on the gas.
hence directly affecting fuel-air mixture composition in a
CI engine. This is in contrast to a premixed SI engine,
0
where EGR replaces a unit of air and fuel with an equal 1200, 50%
-0.1
unit of burned exhaust products, hence keeping the 1800, 50%
-0.2 1200, 20%
oxygen to fuel ratio unaltered. The increased pumping
-0.3
PMEP (bar)

work results from VGT settings increasing exhaust

-0.4
manifold pressure in order to force the flow of residual
-0.5
from the exhaust to the intake side. -0.6
-0.7
Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) trends, shown -0.8
in Figure 4, allow better understanding of the relative -0.9
contribution of each of the factors (decreased 0 5 10 15 20 25
combustion work versus increased pumping work). The EGR Rate (%)
Gross IMEP and the Net IMEP shown in Figure 4 are Figure 5: Pumping Mean Effective Pressure versus EGR Rate for
obtained by processing cylinder pressure data. For the each of the three operating conditions.
1200 RPM - mid load case (highest IMEP level), both
Gross IMEP and Net IMEP decrease with increasing
PMEP increases drastically with the increase of EGR, as
EGR. The decreasing Gross IMEP indicates a decrease
the direct consequence of turbine geometry changes
in combustion work. For the 1800 RPM case, as well as
required to provide adequate flow of residual. Figure 6
the 1200 RPM - low load case, Gross IMEP remains
provides more details, illustrating variations of both the
intake manifold pressure and the pressure difference For the 1200 RPM - mid load condition, over 60% of the
between the exhaust and the intake manifold, as a decrease in thermal efficiency is due to degraded
function of exhaust manifold pressure. combustion, with the balance attributed to the increased
pumping work associated with driving the EGR. In
contrast, for the 1800 RPM and 1200 RPM - low load
238 40
cases, more than 75% of the thermal efficiency reduction
Intake Manifold Pressure (kPa)

1200, 50% EGR Flow Rate 35

Manifold Pressure Difference

218 is attributed to increased pumping work.
1800, 50%
1200, 20% 30
198
25 Figure 8 shows a similar histogram, but for the increase
178

(kPa)
20 in the EGR rate from 10% to 20%. Contrasts are even
158
15 more pronounced then in the previous comparison. The
138
10 drop in thermal efficiency at 1200 RPM - mid load is due
118 5 almost entirely to degradation of combustion, whereas
98 0
almost the entire loss of thermal efficiency at 1200 RPM
98 118 138 158 178 198 218 238 - low load and 1800 RPM- mid load can be attributed to
Exhaust Manifold Pressure (kPa) increased pumping work.
Figure 6: Intake Manifold Pressure versus Exhaust Manifold
Pressure. Also shown is the pressure difference between the
1
exhaust manifold and the intake manifold.
0.9

Fraction of Net Work Loss

0.8
For all three operating conditions, variations of VGT 0.7
settings provide steady increase in pressure difference 0.6
Pumping Loss
across the engine. In other words, exhaust manifold 0.5
Combustion Loss
pressure is higher than the intake manifold pressure, and 0.4

the increased difference between the two allows higher 0.3

flow of EGR. Boost pressure increases as well, but the 0.2

rate of increase is significantly smaller than the rate of 0.1

0
increase of exhaust back pressure. In addition, the
1200, 50% 1800, 50% 1200, 20%
boost pressure curve for the 1200 RPM - mid load case
tapers off, and actually starts to decline for higher levels Figure 8: Fraction of net work loss contributed to either an
of EGR. increase in pumping work or a decrease in combustion (gross) work
when increasing EGR from 10% to 20%.

While Figures 4 and 5 have illustrated changes in gross

and net work, further analysis is required to assess the
In summary, the behavior of the system and the
relative contributions to the loss of engine thermal
distribution of losses contributing to the reduction of
efficiency. Hence, changes in gross IMEP and PMEP
thermal efficiency with elevated EGR are markedly
were calculated as EGR rate increased. Dividing the
different at 1200 RPM - mid load, than at other two
difference in gross IMEP by the decrease in net IMEP
operating regimes. To explain this, one must consider
indicates the percentage of thermal efficiency loss due to
interactions in the engine system, i.e. the relationship
degraded combustion. Similarly, dividing the difference
between in-cylinder processes and manifold conditions
in PMEP by the decrease in net IMEP indicates the
driven by the VGT’s operating characteristics.
percentage of thermal efficiency decrease due to
increased pumping work. Distributions of losses, as
In-Cylinder Processes
EGR is changed from 0% to 10%, are given in Figure 7.
EGR routes exhaust gas from preceding engine
1 combustion cycles into the combustion chamber for
0.9 succeeding combustion cycles. Therefore, the initial
Fraction of Net Work Loss

0.8 composition of the succeeding cycle’s mixture contains

0.7 concentrations of burned combustion products, i.e.
0.6 residual. These products primarily include carbon
Pumping Loss
0.5
Combustion Loss
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), and much smaller
0.4 concentrations of carbon monoxide, nitric oxides,
0.3
hydrocarbons, particulates, sulfur dioxides, sulfates, etc.
0.2
As the concentrations of the exhaust species in the
0.1
intake charge increase, the concentrations of oxygen
0
1200, 50% 1800, 50% 1200, 20%
decrease. The ultimate effect on in-cylinder composition
and total mass depends on the system response,
Figure 7: Fraction of net work loss contributed to either an examined in the previous sub-section. A closer look at
increase in pumping work or a decrease in combustion (gross) work
when increasing EGR from 0% to 10%.
Figure 6 reveals that boost actually decreases for 1200
RPM mid-load as EGR rate increases from 10% to 20%,
due to insufficient enthalpy of the exhaust gas. This is
expected to significantly alter the A/F ratio and
combustion. In contrast, boost does maintain an
increasing trend for the same level of EGR increase at
1800 RPM. Increased boosting comes with its price in
terms of pumping work, but should provide better
conditions for combustion.
Figure 9 illustrates changes of A/F ratio for the three
reference operating points. The slopes of the two lines
obtained at 1200 RPM are similar, leading to overall
reduction of A/F ratio of 24% (low-load operation) and
31% (mid-load operation) over the complete EGR range.
However, the curve corresponding to mid load operation
is at the much lower level, and the A/F ratio drops to only
20 for 20% EGR. This near-rich A/F ratio is a major
factor contributing to the deteriorated combustion
efficiency with EGR at 1200 RPM - mid load. Boost
pressure trends at 1800 RPM - mid load allow
maintenance of higher A/F ratio values throughout the
range, thus preventing deterioration of combustion.
50
45
40
A/F Ratio
35
30
25
1200, 50%
31% Decrease
20
1800, 50%
1200, 20%
15
0 5 10 15 20
EGR Rate (%)
Figure 9: Variations of Air / Fuel Ratio with EGR for each engine
operating condition.
When EGR in a diesel engine displaces a unit of fresh
air with an equal unit of burned exhaust products, it not
only alters A/F ratio, but causes a dilution effect, as
described by Ladommatos, et al. [6-8]. By reducing the
oxygen concentration, the mixing time between the
direct-injected fuel and the fresh oxygen increases. This
is expected to increase the ignition delay and reduce the
burn rate once diffusion combustion starts, in case all
other parameters are kept constant. However, variations
of ignition delay as EGR increases, given in Figure 10,
show no apparent increase in ignition delay for any of the
tested conditions. These measurements contradict the
general expectations described above and results
published by Nitu, et al. [13] and Ladommatos, et al. [14].
The apparent insensitivity of ignition delay to the residual
fraction is the consequence of realistic conditions
occurring in the multi-cylinder engine. Firstly, the gas
temperature in the cylinder increases somewhat with
increasing EGR. This is the consequence of increased
intake temperature (due to residual flow not being cooled
down enough to match the air temperature after the
intercooler), as well as increased internal residual
fraction (due to increased exhaust manifold back
pressure, see Figure 6). A sense of increased initial
temperature can be obtained from Figure 17.
6.5
6
Ignition Delay (deg)
5.5
5 1200, 50%
1800, 50%
4.5
1200, 20%
4
3.5
3
0 5 10 15 20 25
EGR Rate (%)
Figure 10: Ignition delay for each engine condition versus EGR
Rate.
Increased gas temperature has a tendency to shorten
ignition delay. Secondly, the A/F ratio decreases with
increasing EGR. This is confirmed by Figure 9 for all
operating conditions. A decreasing A/F ratio has a
tendency to shorten ignition delay, as discussed by
24% Decrease
Assanis et al. [15] and Xia et al. [16]. Other effects, such
as cylinder pressure also impact ignition delay, but to a
18% Decrease
lesser extent. In summary, the increased temperature
and reduced A/F ratio seem to offset the dilution effect
on ignition delay observed by Ladommatos et al. [14],
hence the ignition delay remains generally unchanged
with increasing EGR.
25
Finally, the combined effects of flowing EGR in the multi-
cylinder engine system on in-cylinder pressure histories
for 1200 RPM and 1800 RPM - mid load operation are
presented in Figures 11 and 12, respectively.
At 1200 RPM – mid load, as EGR rate increases from
10% to 20%, the peak pressure, as well as the integrated
area of the high-pressure loop, decreases significantly
(see Figure 11). In contrast, at 1800 rpm – mid load,
Figure 12 shows that as EGR rate increases, the boost
pressure and the peak pressure increase as well,
resulting in high-pressure p-V loops that appear to be
almost identical in shape and just translated upwards.
Consequently, negative side-effects of increased EGR
on indicated efficiency appear closely related to the
overall A/F level. In other words when the engine
operates with overall low A/F ratios, relative changes of
mixture composition due to EGR have much more
impact. If the turbocharging system is able to provide
sufficiently increased boost, e.g. at 1800 RPM, hence
maintaining higher A/F ratio levels, the combustion
deterioration is practically negligible. This observation,
as well as apparent insensitivity of the ignition delay to
EGR variations, seems to indicate that the dilution effect
of EGR has a much smaller role.
 Compared to the other two conditions, the initial
100
0% emission level and the rate of NOx reduction are much
90 10%
20% greater at 1200 RPM - mid load. Hence, low A/F ratio
80 conditions are more sensitive to EGR, and both
Pressure (bar)

70
Increasing EGR
efficiency and nitric oxides emission trends would benefit
60 Decreasing Boost from improved boosting technology at low speed - mid
50 load.
40

30
The traditional assumption is that increasing engine
boost, and subsequently peak cylinder pressures results
20
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
in increased NOx emissions. The curves given in Figure
Volume (cm^3) 13 show that the effect of residual far exceeds the
potential impact of increased boost on NOx.
Figure 11: Pressure versus Volume for 1200 RPM, mid load Furthermore, the slopes of the trend-lines corresponding
condition with varying levels of EGR, and boost pressure. to engine operation at 1800 RPM - mid load and 1200
RPM - low load are almost the same, thus indicating that
there is no apparent relationship between increased
100 pressure in the cylinder at 1800 RPM and changes in
Increasing EGR, Increasing Boost NOx emissions.
90
20%
80 EG
10%
Pressure (bar)

1600
70 0%
60 1400
1200, 50%

Nitric Oxides (ppm)

50 1200 1800, 50%
40 1200, 20%
1000
30
800
20
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600
Volume (cm^3)
400

Figure 12: Pressure versus Volume for 1800 RPM, mid load
condition with varying levels of EGR and boost pressure.
In conclusion, careful optimization of system parameters
timing is required in order to minimize fuel economy
penalties associated with the application of EGR on
realistic, multi-cylinder turbocharged diesel engines with
VGT. Combustion deterioration is the predominant
reason for efficiency losses under low speed - mid load
conditions where relatively low boost pressure levels
might lead to critically low A/F values. For conditions
characterized by higher overall A/F ratio, e.g. low speed -
low load and mid speed (and high boost) - mid load,
most of the fuel economy deterioration can be attributed
to the increase in pumping work resulting from restrictive
VGT setting required to produce desired pressure drop
across the engine. Careful matching and optimized
variable geometry turbine control should be considered
concurrently in order to effectively address both of the
issues. In addition, re-optimized injection timing can
alleviate part of the penalty stemming from low A/F ratio
operation.
EFFECTS OF EGR ON EMISSIONS
200
0 5 10 15 20 25
EGR Rate (%)
Figure 13: Nitric Oxide emissions versus EGR Rate.
Discussion of NOx Reduction Mechanisms and Modeling
Guidelines
Published literature [6-8] cites three mechanisms via
which EGR affects combustion, and hence NOx:
formation and reduction:
• Dilution Mechanism: The potentially increased mixing
time and longer burn duration caused by EGR’s
dilution effect result in lowered flame temperatures.
• Thermal Mechanism: The increased heat capacity of
an EGR-laced mixture results in lowered flame
temperatures.
• Chemical mechanism: Increased dissociation from
the more complex EGR molecules (such as CO2 and
H2O) result in lowered flame temperatures.

Effectiveness of EGR on NOx Reduction In our study, combination of classical measurements,

such as pressure-based diagnostics, and advanced in-
The trends of NOx emissions with EGR rate are shown in cylinder visualization techniques, such as the videoscope
Figure 13. For all three operating conditions, NOx and two-color pyrometry, has been used to assess the
concentrations decrease with increasing EGR. relative importance of those flame temperature reducing
mechanisms, and also to guide future modeling efforts.
In turn, the mechanisms associated with NOx formation
and destruction strongly depend on flame temperature
[17]. In addition, for NOx formation to occur, high
concentrations of nitrogen and oxygen must also be
present. The combustion inside a diesel engine provides
both these essential conditions. Figure 14 illustrates the
very heterogeneous burning environment in the heavy-
duty DDC diesel engine combustion chamber, with bright
flame regions naturally bordering dark regions containing
mostly air (i.e. oxygen and nitrogen). This image was
obtained at 1200 RPM - 30% load using the AVL
videoscope, and it was captured at four degrees CA after
TDC. Based on the rate of heat release analysis
corresponding mass fraction burned was roughly 65 %.
The flame temperature contour plot, shown in Figure 15,
was obtained by processing the videoscope image using
the two-color pyrometry method. The plot corresponds
to a different combustion cycle compared to the flame
image shown in Figure 14, but at the same crank angle
and under the same operating conditions. The hottest
spots are close to the periphery of the flame region, thus
being in contact with the unburned charge with the
highest concentration of nitrogen and oxygen, resulting in
high NOx formation.
The sets of flame temperature contours shown in Figure
16 corroborate the dependence of flame temperatures
on EGR rate. Each set contains a sequence of five
images collected in the interval between 1 deg CA BTDC
and 3 deg CA ATDC. Four sets are presented,
corresponding to operation with no EGR, and 10%, 20%
and 35% EGR. Comparison of the sets of flame images
in Figure 16 clearly shows that, as the EGR rate
increases, flame temperatures decrease significantly.
As an example, peak flame temperature at TDC without
EGR is 2700 K, while recirculation of 20% of the residual
reduces the peak flame temperature to only 2400 K.
Hence, EGR does have a critical impact on lowering the
temperature of burning. It should be noted that the effect
of EGR on flame temperatures should not be confused
with bulk gas temperature trends, as will be shown in the
latter part of this section.
Clearly, the thermal EGR mechanism plays a dominant
role in the observed reduction in flame temperatures,
and hence NOx emissions, with increasing EGR rate.
Residual contains increased concentrations of carbon
dioxide and water. Both these molecules have higher-
than-air heat capacities at typical combustion
temperatures (with H2O being much higher than CO2).
During the combustion process, these molecules must
attain the same temperature as that of the flame front,
which requires pre-heating by the flame. With the higher
heat capacity of the mixture, more energy is required to
pre-heat the incoming mixture, thus lowering the flame
temperature. Ladommatos et al. [18] demonstrated that,
although CO2 concentrations are roughly twice that of
water vapor, the increased H2O contributes the largest to
the thermal effect due to its significantly higher heat
capacity (on a mass basis).
On the other hand, lower concentrations of nitrogen and
oxygen could alter the NOx formation rates. Durnholz et
al. [19] indicated that the reduced probability that fuel and
oxygen molecules meet (EGR dilution effect) and the
higher heat capacity of the working fluid (EGR thermal
effect) influence the reduction of NOx. However, the
significance of the dilution effect of EGR remains an
open question. Does the reduced temperature caused
by the dilution effect of EGR reduce NOx more than the
reduced oxygen caused by the same effect? Our results
indicate a very small effect of dilution on ignition delay
(see Figure 10) and a very strong effect of EGR on flame
temperatures, thus suggesting the predominance of the
thermal effect. This is in agreement with Mitchell et al.
[20], who argued that the flame temperature has more
influence on NOx formation than the available oxygen.
Note that the chemical mechanism involving dissociation
of EGR species ultimately lowers the flame temperature,
as well. Again, EGR increases the concentrations of
CO2 and H2O, and energy is required to dissociate these
molecules during the combustion process (particularly
H2O, which has a highly endothermic dissociation
mechanism). The energy is naturally obtained from the
high temperature flame front. Although the dissociation
effect is non-negligible, it is considerably less influential
than the thermal effect [18].
Even though this work focuses on an experimental
investigation, modeling issues are considered by
assessing how valuable the measurements are for
model development. A predictive, physically-based
model for NOx formation, implemented in the engine
system simulation, could contribute significantly to the
advanced development and evaluation of strategies for
reducing NOx emissions. A particular aspect that seems
to be critical in any analysis of NOx emissions is the gas
temperature during combustion. Previous discussion in
this section and results shown in Figure 16 indicate the
strong dependence of NOx emissions on local flame
temperatures. However, engine cycle simulations often
utilize the bulk gas temperature to predict NOx
emissions. However, the bulk mean gas temperature
and flame temperature do not necessarily correlate very
well.
 Figure 14: Flame image from a heavy-duty Diesel engine Figure 15: Flame temperature contours extracted from a
operating at 1200 RPM – 30% load. Bright regions flame image obtained in a heavy-duty Diesel engine
indicate flame areas. operating at 1200 RPM – 30% load.
0%
10 %
EGR Rate
20 %
35 %

-1 0 1 2 3
Engine Crankangle (deg aTDC)

Figure 16: Flame temperature images obtained using the two-color methodology indicating decreasing flame temperature with increasing EGR rate
at 1200 RPM.
As an illustration, the bulk gas temperature profile at the
1200 RPM, mid-load condition is shown in Figure 17 for
the two extreme EGR cases studied (0% and 20%).
Clearly, the mixture temperature actually increases as
EGR increases. Since this temperature calculation was
based on the ideal gas law (pV=mRT), this could only
happen if either cylinder pressure increased, or cylinder
trapped mass decreased, or initial temperature
increased. Based on Figure 11, pressure decreased
with increased EGR. However, as indicated in Figure 18,
intake temperature increased as EGR increased beyond
7%, due to the inability of the EGR cooler to lower EGR
temperature below the coolant temperature (which is
generally 80° to 90° C). The initial slight decrease in
intake temperature is the result of decreased boosting
and improved EGR cooling when the flow rate of residual
is low. The trapped mass did indeed decrease by 16%
for the extreme case of 20% EGR.
2100
Mixture Temperature (K)
The higher bulk gas temperatures during combustion
seem to contradict the NOx reduction measured with
20% EGR. This finding could incorrectly suggest that a
reduction in oxygen supply drives the NOx reduction,
while in fact flame temperatures which decrease
significantly with 20% EGR (see Figure 16) are
responsible. Consequently, a proper NOx formation
modeling approach must be based on flame temperature
computations and not bulk mean gas temperatures.
Furthermore, advanced diagnostic techniques, such as
two-color pyrometry or laser diagnostics, are required for
model development and validation.
Effect of EGR on Other Emissions
In addition to NOx, emissions, unburned hydrocarbon
(HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions were also
measured and plotted as a function of EGR rate in
Figure 19. In accordance with Figures 7 and 8, only the
1200 RPM - mid load condition clearly indicates
Increasing EGR
combustion degradation, with dramatically increased CO
Decreasing Trapped Mass and HC levels above 10% EGR. The other two

1900 20% EGR

1700 conditions, characterized by higher overall A/F levels,
0% EGR
1500 demonstrate almost no change in HC or CO levels with
1300
EGR.
1100
900 Trapped Mass decreases 16% as 70 0.6
EGR rate increases 20% 1200, 50%, HC
700
Unburned Hydrocarbons (ppm)

60 1800, 50%, HC 0.5

Carbon Monoxide (% vol)

500
50
1200, 20%, HC
300 350 400 450 500
1200, 50%, CO 0.4
Crank Angle (deg)
40 1800, 50%, CO
Figure 17: Mixture temperature at 1200 RPM, mid load for two 0.3
30
1200, 20%, CO
extreme EGR conditions versus engine crank angle.
0.2
20

The continuous decrease in the trapped mass with 10 0.1

increasing EGR in Figure 18 is related to the fact that at 0 0

1200 RPM - mid load, the VGT cannot provide enough 0 5 10 15 20 25
boost pressure to compensate for the effect of the EGR Rate (%)
residual mass replacing the air (this is effectively
Figure 19: Unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide versus
confirmed by Figure 9). In summary, increased intake
EGR rate for the three studied operating conditions.
temperature leads to increased gas temperatures during
compression, while reduced trapped mass and A/F ratio
explain the high fluctuation in the bulk gas temperature EFFECTS OF EGR ON SYSTEM HEAT
during combustion.
REJECTION

21 60 One of the secondary, and yet important aspects of

20.5
55
applying cooled EGR on a heavy duty diesel engine, is
Trapped Mass (g/cycle)

Intake Temperature (C)

20 the increased heat rejection from the engine. In order to

19.5
50 withstand the corrosive nature of diesel exhaust, the
19 45 cooler should be constructed of corrosion-resistant
18.5
material, such as stainless steel. Hence, both packaging
40
18
and cost considerations require that the cooler be made
35 as small and efficient as possible. The easiest and most
17.5
widely considered way to implement cost-effective EGR
17 30
0 5 10 15 20 25
cooling is to use the engine coolant to reduce the
EGR Rate (%)
exhaust gas temperature. The high flow rate of engine
coolant coupled with its high heat capacity allow for the
Figure 18: Trapped Mass and Intake Temperature versus EGR
design of a compact EGR cooler. However, more heat
Rate for 1200 RPM, mid-load condition.
must be rejected from the vehicle’s radiator, which
necessitates a larger radiator and more “under-the-hood”
airflow.
In order to better understand the system heat rejection
issues, an energy balance was performed and wall
temperatures were measured for various EGR levels.
Figure 20 illustrates the engine energy balance versus
EGR rate. The y-axis indicates the fraction of total fuel
energy attributed to the power at the flywheel, heat
rejection, and exhaust energy. The power is determined
from brake torque and speed measurements. The heat
rejection to coolant is calculated by measuring the
coolant temperature difference across the engine and
the coolant flow rate. The exhaust energy is calculated
by speciating the exhaust, measuring the exhaust
temperature (out of the turbocharger), and measuring
the exhaust flow rate (assumed as mass of air plus mass
of fuel). The enthalpies of the exhaust species are
determined from a lookup table. The combustible
constituents of EGR (such as HC or CO) were neglected
decrease, due to lower combustion temperatures. In
some other cases, the increased mixture temperature
throughout the cycle due to insufficient residual cooling
will prevail and cause increased convection to
combustion chamber walls.
As an example of decreased heat transfer to the walls,
Figure 21 shows surface temperature measurements at
the fire-deck under 1200 RPM - mid load operation with
both 0% and 20% EGR. The fire deck surface
temperature decreases as EGR rate increases. The
amplitude of the temperature fluctuation due to
combustion is lower as well, indicating lower rates of
heat transfer to the wall. This can be correlated with the
previous discussion of combustion degradation under
these particular operating conditions.
225
220

Surface Temperature (C)

in the computation of fuel energy input. 215
0% EGR
210
20% EGR
1 205
0.9 200
Exhaust Energy
0.8
Fraction Total Energy

195
0.7
0.6 190
0.5 Heat Rejection
185
0.4 550 600 650 700
0.3 Cylinder 3 Crank Angle (deg)
0.2 Power
Figure 21: Cylinder 3 Fire Deck Surface Temperature at 1200
0.1 RPM, mid-load for 0% EGR and 20% EGR.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 The surface temperature behaves differently at 1800
EGR (%)
RPM - mid load, as shown in Figure 22. While
Power Power + Qcool Power + Qcool + Qexh
introducing 20% EGR still reduces the amplitude of the
Figure 20: Energy Balance of Diesel engine versus EGR Rate for
temperature fluctuation during combustion, the peak
1200 RPM, low-load operation.
temperature is practically the same as in the case of no
As EGR rate increases, the relative mechanical energy EGR. This is the consequence of higher surface
at the flywheel decreases. This decrease is the result of temperatures during compression, driven by increased
less efficient energy conversion. The heat rejection boost, as well as higher temperatures of the coolant
fraction increases as a direct consequence of using leaving the EGR cooler and entering the cooling jackets.
engine coolant to cool the residual, as illustrated by the Hence, system effects are more than offsetting the
increasing gap between the bottom and the middle lines. impact of somewhat deteriorated combustion on heat
The exhaust energy also decreases with increased EGR, transfer and leading to overall higher combustion
primarily as a result of lower exhaust flow rate, since a chamber wall temperatures.
fraction of exhaust energy is recirculated. This is often 176
complemented with a decrease of exhaust temperature.
174
However, under certain conditions the exhaust back
Surface Temperature (C)

172
pressure may actually lead to higher exhaust
170
temperatures, partly offsetting, but not reversing the
168
main heat rejection trend. Finally, heat losses to 20% EGR
166
unknown sources, indicated by the gap between the top 0% EGR
164
curve and the limit (1 or 100%) increase slightly with
increasing EGR. This is possibly due to increased 162

losses to surroundings from the piping that routes hot 160

residual to the cooler. 158

550 600 650 700
Cylinder 3 Crank Angle (deg)
It is important to emphasize that, while the total system
heat rejection increases with EGR, the heat rejection Figure 22: Cylinder 3 Fire Deck Surface Temperature at 1800
from the combustion chamber does not necessarily RPM, mid-load for 0% EGR and 20% EGR.
increase. In fact, under certain conditions it might
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
An experimental study was conducted to investigate the
practical application of EGR on a production-type heavy-
duty diesel engine, and its effect on performance,
emissions and heat rejection. The study addressed EGR
effects on in-cylinder processes, such as combustion
efficiency, flame temperatures and NOx formation, as
well as system level effects, such as the variations of
pumping work due to changing VGT flow characteristics
or the impact of EGR cooling on heat rejection.
Quantification of the sources of system inefficiencies
shed an improved understanding of the fuel economy
penalty associated with EGR, thus providing direction for
future work on optimizing the engine charging system
design and its control.
In particular, the study examined in detail operation with
various levels of EGR under three characteristic
operating conditions: low speed/low load, low speed/mid-
load and mid speed/mid-load. The following conclusions
can be drawn:
• The rate of NOx reduction with increased EGR is
much steeper under low A/F ratio conditions.
Increased boost provided by VGT at higher engine
speed does not appear to have a negative effect on
NOx emissions.
• In-cylinder flame temperature contours, obtained
through application of videoscope technology and
two-color pyrometry, reveal a distinct decrease in
flame temperature as EGR increases. This happens
despite the fact that bulk gas temperature may
actually increase with increasing EGR, due to
increasing intake charge temperature and
decreasing trapped mass. Hence, significant
reductions of nitric oxides with increasing EGR can
be correlated with flame temperatures effects.
Correct modeling and validation of the combustion
flame temperature is therefore a prerequisite for
accurate predictions of NOx formation, as opposed to
using bulk gas temperature.
• Engine thermal efficiency tends to decrease with
EGR as a result of decreasing indicated work and
increasing pumping work. However, re-optimized
injection timing could offset part of the negative
impact of changing EGR rates.
• Combustion deterioration is predominant at higher
load/low speed and low boost conditions, due to a
significant decrease of A/F ratio with increase of
EGR. This is accompanied by increased CO and
unburned HC emissions.
• For conditions allowing the VGT to maintain high
enough boost and hence A/F ratio, combustion
deterioration with increased EGR is minimal and
efficiency losses are largely attributed to increased
pumping work. Increased pumping work is the result
of VGT’s actions necessary to maintain the pressure
drop across the engine required for driving the EGR
flow. Hence, there are significant opportunities for
reducing the fuel economy penalty through
optimization of design and control of the
turbocharging and EGR system.
• The somewhat increased temperature and reduced
A/F ratio seem to offset the dilution effect on ignition
delay, hence the ignition delay remains generally
unchanged with increasing EGR for given test
conditions.
• The total system heat rejection increases
significantly due to EGR cooling. However, the heat
rejection from the combustion chamber may
increase or decrease. The former is attributed to
increased bulk gas temperatures. The latter is
observed in cases with deteriorated combustion,
leading to reduced peak combustion temperatures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the technical and
financial support of the Automotive Research Center
(ARC) by the National Automotive Center (NAC), and the
U.S. Army Tank-Automotive Research, Development
and Engineering Center (TARDEC). The ARC is a U.S.
Army Center of Excellence for Automotive Research at
the University of Michigan, currently in partnership with
the University of Alaska-Fairbanks, Clemson University,
University of Iowa, Oakland University, University of
Tennessee, Wayne State University, and University of
Wisconsin-Madison. Dr. Walter Bryzik and Dr. Peter
Schihl of TARDEC provided valuable guidance and
significantly influenced the scope of this research.
Additionally, the authors wish to thank Detroit Diesel
Corporation, and in particular Tim Schafer and Nabil
Hakim for their financial, hardware and technical support
throughout this study. Finally, Kevin Morrison and Pin
Zeng of the University of Michigan are thanked for their
assistance in the engine test cell.
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