Transmission of Electric Power at Ultra-High

Voltages: Current Status and Future

Prospects

I n v i t e d Paper

The ability t o transmit larger amounts of electricpower over likely to determine the timing of future application of UHV
longer distances increases with the transmission voltage. Histori- transmission technology.
cally, this relationship-in conjunction with its associated econe
mies of scale-provided the basic impetus for the technological
In any discussion of UHV transmission, and of the factors
drive to utilize increasingly higher voltages for the transmission of that are likely to motivate its development, it is appropriate
electric power: from “high voltage“ (HV) transmission at 100, 138, -by way of general background-to consider the role that
161, and 230 kV t o “extra-high voltage” (EHV) transmission at 345, transmission in general does play in electric power supply.
400, 500, and 765 kV. For the past several years, research has been Accordingly, the sections that follow discuss the basic func-
under way-in this country and abroad-to bring about transmis-
sion of electric power at “ultra-high voltage” (UHV), ;.e., voltage in
the range of IGCO t o 1 6 0 3 kV.
This paper reviews the present status of UHV transmission r e
search and development and discusses current prospects for the
introduction of UHVtechnology in the commercial transmission of
electric power.

I. INTRODUCTION

Since the beginnings of the electric power industry ap-

proximatelyonehundred yearsago, thecontinuous ad-
vances in electric power transmission technology made it
possible to meet the increasingdemands for transmission of
ever larger blocks of electric energy over longer and longer
distances.Paramount in theevolutionofelectricpower
transmission systems has beenthedevelopment of trans-
mission at increasingly higher voltages, making it possible
to achieveincreasingly greater economiesof scale.The
highest voltage class presently in operation in the world for
alternating current (ac) transmission is 765000 V (765 kV).
The next generation of transmission voltages is expected to
exceed 1 million volts (1000 kv). Voltage levels in excess of
IO00 kV are known as ultra-highvoltage(UHV). Fig. 1
showsthe trendin transmission voltages in theUnited
States over the past ninety years.
This paper presents a state-of-the-art discussion of UHV
transmission. It deals withthe technical,economic,and
environmentalconsiderationsapplicable in thedevelop-
ment of UHV transmission, as well as with factors that are

YEAR
Manuscript received December 6, 1984; revised April 15, 1985.
The authors are with the American Electric Power Services Corpo- Fig. 1. Maximum electricpower transmissionvoltages in
ration, Columbus, OH 43216-6631, USA. the U.S.A.

00l8-9219/85/08Xl~l252$01.00 01985 IEEE

1252 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL 73, NO. 8.AUGUST 1985

tionsofelectricpower transmission,and the keyfactors
that influenced theevolutionoftheexistingtransmission
networks in the United States.
A. Basic Functions and Characteristics of Electric Power
Transmission
Fundamentally,theelectricpower systemcanbechar-
acterized as containing three interrelated ingredients-the
consumers who impose the power demands on the power
system and utilize the electric energy delivered; the gener-
ating resources which producetheelectric energy de-
manded by the consumers; and the transmission (as well as
the distribution) system which provides the mechanism to
transport power from the point of generation to the point
of consumption. Thetransmission network is the integrat-
ingmediumofthe powersupply system, providingthe
electricalconnectionsbetweenthe many geographically
separated parts of the system.
Anelectricpower transmission network is a complex
assemblage of individual elements, consisting of transmis-
sion lines, transformers, switching equipment, and a multi-
tude of specialized devices necessary to assure the safe and
reliabledeliveryofelectricpowertotheconsumer. Each
elementofthetransmissionnetworkmust be carefully
coordinatedwith all otherelements so thattheentire
network can function as an integrated whole.
The voltage level of a transmission line is the key factor
thatdetermines its power-carryingcapability. The power
that flows on a giventransmissionline is directly propor-
tional to the square ofthevoltageandinverselypropor-
tionaltothe impedanceofthe line. Since impedances
(measured in ohms) of transmission lines operated at vari-
ous voltage levels are of similar magnitude, the power-car-
ryingcapabilityof transmission linesofthe same length
varies approximately as the square of their operating volt-
ages.Thus a 345-kV line can carry,over a given distance,
approximately as muchpower as six 138-kV linesand a
765-kV line as much as five 345-kVlinesor thirty 138-kV
lines. Similarly, a 1500-kV transmission line would be capa-
ble of carrying approximately four times as much power as
a 765-kV line.
B. Factors that Influence the Development of Transmission
Networks
The evolution of the existing transmission networks has
been shaped by a number of issues. Similar factors are likely
to determine the timing and location of future UHV trans-
mission.The basicfactors governingtransmission system
development have been addressed extensively in the tech-
nicalliterature. In particular, [I]-[3] have detailedthe fac-
tors leading to the introduction of the 765-kV class on the
American Electric Power (AEP)System. Although the elec-
tric utility environment has undergone dramatic changes in
the past 15 years, the basicissues to be considered remain
unchanged.
The first andforemostfactor influencingthe develop-
ment of electricpowertransmission is theneedfor in-
creased transmission capability. Periods ofrapid
load
growth, such as experienced in the US. in the 1960s and
early 197oS, called for the installation of large amounts of
new generation to meet the anticipated increases in cus-
SCHERER A N D VASSELL TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC P O W E R AT ULTRA-HIGH VOLTAGES
tomer demand. Because of the economies of scaleassoci-
ated with large generating unit sizes and larger concentra-
tions of generating units at the same plant site, the need to
transmiteven larger amountsofpowerfromgenerating
stations toload centers has increased steadily since the
beginning of the electric power industry. More recently, the
lack of suitable plant sites close to major load centers has
increased the requirementsfortransmission over longer
distances. The needfor increased transmissioncapability
across longer distances has, in manyinstances, motivated
the introduction of transmission at higher voltages.
Inadditionto geographiclimitationsonthesitingof
power plants,increasinglypronounced lack ofsuitable
transmission line rights-of-way calls for better utilization of
available land resources. Higher transmission voltages pro-
vide one means to achievegreatertransmission capability
per right-of-way.
Economic factors have been a major driving force for the
development of higher voltage transmission. With the cost
of transmission lin,es increasing, with higher voltages, at a
lower rate than the transmission capability, higher voltage
transmissionlines can usuallybeeconomicallyjustified
whenever the need for their higher transmission capability
is anticipated within a reasonable period of time.
A very important factor influencing the development of
electric power transmission is the issue of reliability. In the
instance of bulk transmission of electric power, reliability is
usually defined as the freedom from cascading and wide-
spreadoutages regardless ofthe initiating cause.Because
electric power has become suchanessential ingredient in
the functioning of our society, widespreaddisruptionsof
electric powersupply are bound tohave very serioussocietal
impactsrangingfrompossible loss ofhuman life to high
economic losses due to curtailedindustrialproduction,
reduced commercial activity, and lost wages. The reliability
of present-day electric power systems is, therefore, of ut-
most importance.
C. Historical Development of Transmission Networks in the
u.s.
The electric power transmissionsystem development in
the United States has been shaped-over the years-by the
technicalandeconomic factors relevant to thespecific
needsand conditions oftheindividual areas andregions
being served. For many years, transmission requirements in
the US. wereprimarilyfilled by networks inthe 100- to
161-kV range, with 115 and 138 kV among the more widely
used voltages. The need for increased transmission capabil-
ity, coupledwith theavailabilityofthestate-of-the-art
technology, determined the timing of the introduction of
higher transmission voltages.
Several distinct families of voltage classes have evolved in
the US. The specific voltage class introduced as an overlay
on a given power system was usually selected such that the
increment in transmission capability would be compatible
with thatofthe existingnetwork. This consideration is
particularly important to assure reliable system performance
following outages of the new higher voltage lines. During
such contingencies, a portion of the interrupted power flow
originally carried by the higher voltage line will have to be
carriedby the existinglowervoltagenetwork.Sufficient
emergency capability must be available in the existing net-
1253
work to accommodate these conditions. Systems with 100-
or 115-kVtransmission generally developed 230-kV over-
lays, later followed by 500 kV. Systems with 138- or 161-kV
transmissiongenerally utilized 345-kVoverlays, although
some areas have utilized 500 kV. O n severalsystems, the
345-kV network has now been overlayed by 765 kV. Fig. 2
shows the predominant transmission voltage classes across
the US. and Canada.
U commercially throughout the world that could be overlayed
Fig. 2. Predominant transmission voltage classes in the U S
and Canada.
Inthe first forty years oftheelectricpowerindustry,
pioneering installationsofnewvoltage levels have taken
place throughout the United States. The first 230-kV trans-
mission intheUS. was introduced in 1923 to transport
hydroelectric power some 390 km (240 mi) from Big Creek
to Los Angeles, CA. Another early application of the 230-kV
transmission provided linkage among three power systems
in eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey. The result was the
creation of the Pennsylvania-New Jersey power pool, pre-
decessor ofthe presentPennsylvania-NewJersey-Mary-
land (PJM) pool.
The next higher voltage level utilized in the US., 287 kV,
was introduced in the mid-l930s, connecting Hoover Dam
hydrogenerationtothe Los Angeles area. However,the
287-kV class was not widely used, and only a few hundred
miles remain in service. The next higher transmission volt-
ageclasswas not introduced until the early 1950s, when
345-kV transmission was placed in operation on the AEP
System, so as to further enhance the integrated operation of
the AEP operating subsidiaries serving portions of Kentucky,
Indiana,Michigan,Ohio, Tennessee, Virginia,and West
Virginia.
In the I%@, 500-kVtransmission was introduced as an
overlay on the existing 161-and230-kV transmission net-
works, so as to meet the increasing need to transmit larger
amounts of power over longer distances. Early installations
of 500kV included an interconnection between the Ten-
nessee Valley Authority and the South CentralElectric Com-
panies, to permit utilization of seasonal diversity between
these areas, and lines linking the Virginia Electric and Power
Company’s Mt. Storm mine-mouth generating plant in
1254
northeasternWestVirginia with theRichmond, VA and
Washington, DC load centers.The first US. 765-kV circuit
was placed in serviceby AEP in 1%9.The AEP 765-kV
system now includesapproximately 2975 km (1850 mi) of
linecompletely integrated with theunderlying 345- and
138-kVnetworksandinterconnected with the 345- and
500-kV networks of the neighboring power systems.
It is important to note that the strong, highly integrated
and interconnected EHV transmission networks have played
a major role in the ability of the U.S. electric utility industry
to accommodate the major economic, environmental, and
regulatory changes which have taken place since the mid-
1970s. For example, the benefits availableto the AEP system
because of i t s strong transmission network have been de-
scribed in [4]. The UHV research now under way across the
country will insure that the technology required to imple-
ment the next increase in voltage, probably to
the
1000-1100-kV range for 500-kV systems and1500kV for
765-kV systems, will be available when needed.
11. SYSTEM PLANNING ISSUES
In thissection,technicalandeconomic issues that are
relevant to comparisons between UHV and EHV transmis-
sion systems are discussed in some detail. Typical 500- and
765-kV EHV transmission systems are compared with 1100-
and 1500-kV UHV systems, respectively. 500 and 765 kV are
the highest EHV transmission voltages presently utilized
by UHV transmission at the 1100-and1500-kVlevels, re-
spectively,
[5]-[IO]. The
discussion of technical issues
focuses on a comparison of transmission line characteristics
and key system considerations. The economic comparison
of EHV andUHV systems includes a discussionofthe
relative costs of components and of the cost of firm trans-
mission capability.
A. Comparison of Transmission Line Characteristics
The basic electrical parameters of a transmission line are
resistance ( R ) , inductance (L), capacitance (C), andcon-
ductance (C). At EHV and UHV voltage levels, the principal
significance of resistance is its major influence on the line’s
power loss. Othercontributorstopower losses-corona
and insulator leakage-are related to the conductance.Since
insulator leakage and corona losses are usually small, the
conductance of an overhead line can often be neglected, as
in the remainder of this discussion.
Inductance, which is characteristic of all ac power lines,
is the primary factor in EHV and UHV lines determining the
distribution of power flows in a transmission network. This
parameter also influences voltage dropsand stability margins
at the EHV and UHV level. These concepts will be discussed
in greater detail in Section 11-6.
The capacitance between line conductors and ground is
analogous to the capacitance established between the plates
of a capacitor. in the case of transmission lines, the current
produced by the alternatecharginganddischarging of a
line due toan alternating voltageis called the line charging
current. Charging current flows in a transmission line even
when open-circuited at oneend. This currentaffectsthe
line’s voltage drop as well as its efficiency and power factor.
7) Line Parameters: For many analytical studies, a trans-
mission line can be modeled by resistance ( R ) and induc-
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE. VOL. 73, NO. 8.AUGUST 1985
 Nominal-TRepresentation o f aTransmissionLine

1.2 7 r 12

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

500 700 900 110c 1330 1530

L lliE Si1

LI5l.I
Parameter
No. 1 s i z e o f
500 765 1100 1500

conductors wt- phase 2-2049 MCM 4-1351 HCM 8-1781 HCM 12-1351 KM
Bundlediameter

Phase separation
(cm )
(m )
I 45.7
9.2
€4.8
13.9
106.9
22.0
127.0
23.b

'R 0.00110 0.00033 0,00007 0.00003

(1.0) (0.3) (0.0636) (0.0282)

XL* 0.02370 0.00918 0.00389 0.00212

(1.0) (0.3873) (0.1642) (0.0896)

8C 1 A1030 4.65920 10.87423 20.19633

(1.0) (2.5737) (11.1563) (6.0069)
*Per U n i t on100 MVA base f o r 161 km (100 m i l e ) l o n g l i n e
( Values i n Darantheses are i n per u n i t o f the 500 kV l i n e parameters

Fig. 3. Comparison of basic electrical parameters of EHV and UHV transmission lines.

tive reactance ( X , = Z n f L ) in series, and capacitive suscep-
tance (Bc = 2 s f C ) in shunt. All EHV and UHV ac transmis-
sion lines are three-phase, and for many types of analyses,
these lines can be represented by a single-line equivalent
with lumped R , X,, and B, parameters per phase, as shown
in Fig. 3. For more exactcalculations, it is important to
model all parameters uniformly distributed along the line.
In Fig. 3, typical parameters of EHV and UHV lines are
compared. In this figure as well as throughout the paper,
various electrical parameters are expressed in per unit (P.u.)
or percent o f a selected base or reference value. The per
unit value of any quantity is simply the ratio of the quantity
to its base value expressed as a decimal. The same ratio in
percent is 100 times the value in per unit. Power engineers
often use these ratios because they simplify many calcula-
tion methods and facilitate comparisons [Ill.
The parameters at the UHV level presented in Fig. 3 are
based on possible UHV line designs [ 1 2 ] , [13]. As can be
seen from Fig. 3, R and X, decrease rapidly as the kilovolt
rating of the line increases.Thisexplains the rapid reduc-
tion of electrical distances withtheaddition of higher
voltagelines. Line charging, on the other hand,increases
quickly with kilovolt rating, and warrantsincreased atten-
tion in designing higher voltage systems.
2) Losses: Transmlssion line losses canbe categorized
into resistance loss, corona loss, and leakage loss. The latter
two categories have negligible economic impact compared
with the resistance loss.
Although the transmission efficiency of EHV and UHV
lines is very high, the resistance loss for large power trans-
fers can be considerable, representing a significant operat-
ing cost. Also, part of the installed generating capacity is
utilized to supply resistancelosses, makingthe capacity
unavailable to supply customer loads.Therefore,a reduc-
tion in resistance loss results in decreased operating and
capital expenditures.

SCHERER A N D VASSELL: TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC P O W E R AT ULTRA-HIGH VOLTAGES 1255

 Resistance loss is a functionof transmission distance, flows through this same line, the inductive reactance of the
conductor resistance,and transmissionvoltage.Reduction line results in inductivepower losses ( / ' X ) . The levelof
in resistance loss canbe accomplishedby: a) raisingthe inductive losses depends on the level of current flow, i.e.,
transmission voltage; and b) reducing the conductor resis- thelineloading. If theinductive losses are less than the
tance. It can be shown through elementary circuit analysis, capacitivereactivepowerproduced by the line charging,
that for a givenlevelofpower transfer, power losses are the excess reactivepowerproducedbythe line mustbe
inversely proportionaltothe square ofthetransmission absorbed bythe system. Wheninductivepower losses
voltage and directly proportional to the line resistance. exceedthecapacitivereactivepower,the system must
In Fig. 4(a) and (b), resistancelosses for a transmission supply the difference. In every case, a reactive power bal-
distance of 161 km (100 mi) as a function of power trans- ance must exist. This concept will be expanded upon later
in this section.
200r Linecharging megavar, as a functionofline length, is

t
plotted in Fig. 5 for EHV and UHV lines. The line charging
megavars created by 1100- and 1500-kV lines are 6.0 and 4.3
160

5-500 kV
/
6-500 kV
times greater than those created by 500- and 765-kV lines,

644 km
20007 (400 miles) /

u)
u)

40 - 2-1100 kV

-m

500
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Power Transmilled in MW

(a)
' 600 750 900
1500
1350
1200
1050
Line kV

Fig. 5. Line charging megavarsversus line kilovolts

160 t respectively. Clearly, theeffectoflinecharging

more pronouncedat higher transmissionvoltages.
becomes

Fig. 6 is a plot of net reactive powerof the line versus real

power transfer for various kilovolt lines 161 km (100 mi) in
2
-
7
6
5
/ length. Net reactivepower is thedifferencebetweenthe
reactive powerproduced bythe shuntcapacitance and

11-5-
- 2-1500 kV 25001 161 km (100 Mile) Uncompensaled Line

2000 4000 6000

Power Transmitted in MW
8000 10000
a
2
f
2oo
1500

(b)
Fig. 4. Transmission line loss versus power transmitted for
a transmission distance of '161 km (100 mi). (a) 1100 kV
versus 500 kV. (b) 1 5 0 0 kV versus 765 kV.
Power Transmitted in MW

mitted are comparedfor 500- and 1100-kV lines, and for

765- and 1500-kV lines, respectively. As can be seen from
Fig. qa),aboutfour times as muchpower canbetrans-
mitted by a single 1100-kV line, relative to a single 500-kV
line, without anyincrease in transmission losses. Similar
increases in power transmittedby a single 1500-kV line
relative to a single 765-kV line can be observed in Fig. qb).
3) Line Charging The conductors of a transmission line,
together with the ground plane, behave like a large capaci-
tor. When the transmission line is energized, capacitive line
chargingcurrent is generated.This current, in turn,pro-
duces capacitive reactive power. When alternating current
Fig. 6. Net reactive power versus real power transmitted
consumed in the series inductive reactance. Thepoint where
a perfect balance exists between reactive power production
and consumption is defined as the surge impedance load-
ing (SIL) oftheline. A t SI1 theline appears as apurely
resistiveload.Power systemengineers often express the
power transfer capability of EHV and UHV lines in terms of
multiples of the line's SIL.
Fig. 7 shows the change in SIL as a function of voltage.

1256 PROCEEDINGS O F THE IEEE, VOL. 73, NO. 8.AUGUST 1985

 1000Or

500 1000
Line k V
1500 kV -QOO[
-1200 \
Fig. 7. Comparison of surge impedance loading, Fig. 8. Effect of shunt compensation on net reactive power

For a typical 500-kV transmission line, SIL is 875 M W and
increases to 9750 M W for a 1500-kV line, i.e., an eleven-fold
increase in SIL for a three-fold increase in transmission
voltage.
A reactive power surplus existsat loadings less than SIL,
and a deficiency exists at loadings above SIL. This surplus or
deficiency, which is absorbed or supplied by the rest of the
system,cancause wide variations in voltage. These varia-
tions are especially significant in a bulk transmission system
because ofawide variation in loadingsresultingfrom
changes in internal loads, interconnection transactions,
generation dispatches, and system contingencies.
As can be seen from Fig. 6, a 5W-kV line experiences a
deficiency of about 750 Mvar at a loading of 2000 MW. The
network to which this line is connected must balance this
reactivepower deficiency with thereactivepower from
shunt capacitors, generators, synchronous condensers, and
lightly loaded transmissionlines. O n theother hand, the
765-,1100- , and 1500-kVlinesexperience, at the same
loading, surplus of about 100, 9 0 0 , and 1900 Mvar, respec-
tively. This surplus reactive power must be absorbed by the
network, and means must be provided for this to be accom-
plished without excessive variations in voltage levels. As the
loading level increases, the surplus decreases gradual-
ly, becomeszero at SIL, andthen becomes a deficiency.
The surplus of reactive power becomes more pronounced
throughoutthe expected range oftransmissionlineload-
ings for a 1500-kV line.
In order to provide electric power to the ultimate con-
sumer at voltage levels within an acceptable range, the
bulkpowernetwork is designedandoperated so as to
maintainvoltage levels ateach station within a defined
band.Therefore, anadequate amountofreactivepower
control is required at all voltage levels in each load area.
This practice minimizes the transmission of reactive power
across the bulk power system.At EHV and UHV voltages,
shunt reactors provide the principal means of compensating
for surplus megavars under light loading conditions and can
be switched out during heavy loading conditions.
The effect of shunt reactor compensation is shown in Fig.
8 for a 1100-kV line with 75-percent reactive compensation.
The net reactive power characteristic of the uncompensated
line shifts downward when compensation is added. If the
reactivecompensation is switchable,the bestfeatures of
uncompensatedandcompensatedcharacteristics canbe
utilized depending upon the lineloading.
8. System Considerations for UHV
I) Stability: The termstabilitywhen used with respect
to a power system is thatattributeofthe system,or its
parts, which enables it to develop sufficient restoringforces
between synchronous generators following a disturbance
so that a new state of equilibrium is achieved and all gen-
erators remain in synchronism with one another. As power
flow increases or line outages occur,therestoring forces
tend to decrease. The maximum power flow condition that
justpermitssufficientrestoringforcefollowing a dis-
turbance is referred to as the stability limit.
Neglectingthe resistance, shunt capacitance, andcon-
ductance of a transmission line, the powertransfer between
any two points in a transmissionsystemcanbe approxi-
mated by the expression
€7 €2
P = - sin S,,
x
where
E, voltagemagnitude at point 1
E, voltagemagnitude at point 2
SI, phase anglebetweenvoltage phasors E? and E,
X total reactance betweenthepoints 1 and 2 includ-
ingmachine internal reactance and any external
reactance.
Therelationshipbetween P and a,, known as the
power-angle curve, is shown in Fig. 9. The maximum power
transferoccurs atan angular displacement of 90° and is
given by
Two categories of stability are of importance in compar-
ing EHV and UHV transmission systems. The first is steady-
state stability, which is the ability of synchronous machines
to remain in synchronism after a small disturbance.such as
gradual changes in load, manualor automatic changes of
excitation,andswitchingoflines. The other is transient
stability, which is the ability of synchronous machines to

SCHERER A N D VASSELL: TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER A T ULTRA-HIGH VOLTAGES 1257


90
E ect-:caI k r , g i r l a r S e p a r a t ' o n 61,
Fig. 9. Poweranglecurve.
remain in synchronism after a sudden, severe shock such as
a fault or an abrupt large load change.
Inthe case of steady-state stability,thesynchronous
reactance of the generators is used in computing the volt-
ages and the total value of X . The corresponding P, is
called the steady-state stability limit.
For transient stability studies, a generator is represented
bya voltage source behind its transient reactance. Using
thismodel,themaximumpre-faultpowerthat canbe
transfered from a generator to the rest of the system without
losing stability after a sudden, severe disturbance is called
the transientstability limit. This limit is dependent upon
several factors, including the type of fault, location of fault,
and fault clearing time. The transient stability limit is usu-
ally lower than the steady-state stability limit.
In general, the determination of power system transient
stability after a disturbance is made by inspecting individual
machine swing curves, which show the variation of rotor
angles with time. If the angles between every possible pair
of machines reach maximum values and then decrease, it is
probable,althoughnotcertain,thatthe systemisstable;
otherwise, the system is unstable. Analysis of system tran-
sientstability can often be performedbyapplyingthe
power angle curve to a simplified system model reduced to
t w o machines. In performing suchananalysis, it is im-
portant to recognize that the post-contingency power-angle
curve shownin Fig. 9 has a lower peakvalue thanthe
system normalcurve,indicatingthatthe loss of a line
results in lower power transmission capability.
The effect on stability of losing a line is more critical for
UHV systems than for EHVsystems. This can be illustrated
byconsideringthesimplified 500- and 1100-kV systems
shownin Fig. 10 where IOOOO M W ofpower is to be
transmitted over a distance of 161 km (100 mi). As shown in
Fig. 11, which is discussed in the next subsection,the
loadabilities of typical 500- and 1100-kV lines 161 km (100
mi) in length would be1630 and 6100 MW, respectively.
Therefore,a minimum of seven500-kV lines are required
fortransmitting IOOOO MW. Inthe case of an1100-kV
system, two lines would be sufficient to meetthe same
power-transfer requirements. However, in order to account
for contingencies, eight lines are used for the 500-kV sys-
tem and three lines are needed for the 1100-kV system if a
single contingency reliability criterion is applied. From the
viewpoint of stability limits, the outage of an 1100-kV line
1258
would result in a greater increase in reactance and hence a
greater percentage reduction in stability margin than would
be the case in the event of anoutage of a single 500-kV
line. Therefore, in designing an UHV system, the strength of
theunderlyinglower voltagenetworkmust be carefully
evaluated. If the underlying system is not well developed,
additional UHV lines or reinforcement of the lower voltage
system may be required.
2) Power-TransferCapability: Three majorfactorsthat
can limit the power-transfer capability of a transmission line
are: a) thermalconstraints, b) line voltagedrop, and c)
steady-state stability margin.
The thermal limitation is related to the ampacity of line
conductors and rating of terminal equipment. The thermal
limitation is critical primarily in the case of lower voltage
lines, 80 km (50 mi) or less in length. ForEHV andUHV
lines, several large conductors are generally used for each of
the three-phase wiresin order to produce acceptablesurface
gradients as described in greater detail in Section Ill. Conse-
quently, the thermal capability of typical bundled-conduc-
tor (two or moresubconductors in eachphase)arrange-
ment at EHV and UHV voltage levels generally exceeds, by a
significantmargin,networkrequirementsfor transfer of
power through a given line. In such cases, line terminating
equipment and substation facilities present a more restric-
tive thermal limit than the line itself.
Thus for EHV and UHV transmission lines, practical limi-
tations to line loadability are imposed by line voltage drop
and steady-state stability margin considerations.The steady-
state stability limitation is usually defined in terms of the
desired margin between the maximum power transfer capa-
bility of the system (P,,,) and the operating level (Pop) as
k a x - Pop
% stability margin = x 100
Pmax
This margin is chosen so as to provide for stable oper-
ation following a variety of credible contingencies which
may cause steady-state and/or transient increases in a given
lineloading. Suchchanges in loading maybecaused by
line-switching operations, bychanges in generationdis-
patch,and by transientdisturbances such as temporary
faults or loss of generation.
10,000 MW
I
I
10,000 MW'
An 1100 k V System
Load
Fig. 10. C o n c e p t u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of systemstability.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE. VOL 73. NO. 8.AUGUST 1935
 Dunlop et a/. [I41 give the details of a conceptual study tages, up to and including 345 kV. This situation is aggra-
ofUHV transmissionlineloadabilities. In that study, the vated by the superpositionof a highervoltageUHV net-
voltage drop limitation wassetat 5 percent, which should work. Increases in short-circuitdutiesontheunderlying
adequatelyrepresent a linecarrying heavyloads without network can be met by the following procedures:
encountering unusualoperatingproblems. A steady-state a) Replacing existing breakers with equipment of higher
stabilitymarginof 30 percent, which corresponds to an rating.Initially, such replacements canbe justifiedonly
angular displacement of about 44' across the system, was whennoother remedy is possible. Eventually,extensive
used to represent typical heavy line loading conditions. breaker replacements cannot be avoided.
The lineloadability, as a multipleof SIL, versus line b) Changingthelowervoltagecircuitconfigurations at
length is shownin Fig. 11 fora 1100-kV line. It is the some locations and by avoiding UHV/EHV transformations
between the two networks at locations of high short-circuit
4.0. 1100 k V Transmisslon Llne
currents.
c) Installing series reactors at major UHV/EHV step-down
stations, so as to limit short-circuit fault currents that other-
2 \Steady S t a t e Stablllty
wise would exceed the capabilitiesof
lowervoltage
breakers. It should be noted, however, that the installation
of series reactors-except in very special situations-is un-
desirable, because ofthe cost involved as well as the
- . counterproductive effect of series reactors on the strength
n
rn
and flexibility of a transmission network.
:1.0 .
0
2

C. Economics
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Economics is, of course, one of the most importantaspects
Lme Length In km
to be considered in evaluating higher voltage transmission
Fig. 11. Line loadability in per unit of SILversus line length overlays. In this section, the costs of EHV and UHV trans-
mission equipment and thevariation in transmission cost
permegawatt as a function of transmissionrequirements
compositeof two loadability-limiting curves-one corre-
are discussed.Also, theconceptofeconomicbreakeven
sponding to thevoltage drop limitation and the other based
regions as defined by the combined consideration of trans-
on steady-statestabilitymargincriterion-intersecting at
missiondistanceandpowertransmissionrequirements is
point X . To the left of X is the region of line voltage drop
presented for EHV and UHV systems. The costs used in this
limitation, where the voltage drop criterion is more restric-
analysis are representative values available in the literature
tive than the stability limitation curve. To the right of X is
and are used to illustratetheeconomic analysis to be
the region of steady-state stabilitylimitation.
conducted to determine breakeven regions [15]. Therefore,
The lineloadabilitiesof 1100- and 1500-kV lines as a
function of line length are shown in Fig.12.For compari- this analysis should not be expected to apply directly to any
particular EHV or UHV system to be installed in the future.
I ) Component Costs: The design and developmentof
12000

10000 1
r
\
UHV equipment is in its infancy. Therefore, it is difficult to
comparespecific costs ofUHVequipment.While
costs of EHV equipment are available, they canvary from
actual

one system to another. For these reasons, the cost formulas

*I
E
8000

t available in [I51 were used to compare equipment costs on

a consistent basis. These formulas provide costs in 1975 U.S.
dollars, which have been escalated to July 1984 using the
Handy-Whitman Index. In applying the
formulas,
the
short-circuit current levels for EHV and UHV systems were
assumed to be 25 and 12.5 kA, respectively.

I
1
200 400 600 800 1000
Costs of major EHV and UHV equipment are compared in
Table 1. As thetableindicates,theratioof cost
kilovolt-ampere favors UHV for such items as transmission
per
Line Length in Km
lines, circuit breakers,and shunt reactors; while generator
Fig. 12. Loadability versus linelength,
step-up transformers appear to be more economical at the
EHV level. There is no clear advantage for autotransformers.
son, loadability curves for 500- and 765-kV lines are also 2) Cost of FirmTransmission: A meaningfuleconomic
showninthisfigure. As illustrated,higher limits canbe comparison of transmission systems of varying voltage level
obtained at higher kilovolt ratings for any given line length. is possible by examining the cost per kilowatt transmitted.
Itshouldbenoted thatthereceivingandsendingend Simplified system configurations used for such comparisons
reactive power limitations, which are not considered in this are shown in Fig. 13. This simplemodel is based upon a
analysis, also could influence the line loadability. scenario involving the overlay of 1100-kV lines on a well-
3) Short-circuit Currents: Fault current levels are rarely a developed 500-kVsystem. In this scenario, the 1100kV is
problem on a new, higher voltage overlay. Short-circuit cur- applied to further integrate and reinforce the existing bulk
rents, however, frequently become a problem at lower vol- transmission capacity and any increase in generating capac-

SCHERER A N D VASSELL: TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER AT ULTRA-HIGH VOLTAGES 1259

 Table 1 Equipment Cost Comparison: UHV versusEHV
1100 versus 500 kV 1500 versus 765 kV
Cost
Capacity
Ratio of Cost
CapacityRatio of
Equipment Ratio Factor Cost/kVA Ratio
Factor Cost/kVA
Transmission 3.4 6.1 0.6 2.9 4.3 0.7
lines
Circuit 3.1 6.1 0.5 2.9 4.3 0.7
breakers*
Shunt 4.6 5.0 0.9 4.3 5.0 0.9
reactors
Generator 1.5 1.0 1.5 1.4 1.0 1.4
step-up
trans-
formers
Step-up or 3.0 3.0 1.0 2.1 2.0 1.o
step-down
auto-
transformers
'Includes bay cost.

1100 k V 1100 k V when to adopt a highervoltageleveland in thespecific

1
design of the UHV lines.
50° k V - -- - - - --- 500 kV
Fig. 14 relates the investment per kilowatt in 500- and
---------
- -- - - -- -- 1100-kV facilities for various firm transmission capabilities
over a distance of 322 km (200 mi). These curves exhibit a
UHVTransmissionSystem generalpattern of declining investment per kilowatt with
(a) increasedtransmissioncapabilityand a tendency to level
500 kV 500 kV

4 - - - --- -- -
---------
----_-_--
EHV Transmission System

(b)
Fig. 13. Models for an economic analysis of EHV and UHV
transmission systems. (a) UHV model. (b) EHV model.
50 1
322 km (200 Mile)TransmissionLine

ity or 500-kV step-down transformer capacity is common to

both the 1100- and 500-kV alternatives. Therefore, the only
new transformation to be included in the analysis is the
- 500 kV

1100 kV
2000 4000 6000 6000 10000
step-up and step-down autotransformercapacityrequired
to tie the1100- and 500-kV systems together. Firm TransmissionCapability in MW

For the purposesofthis analysis,500-or1100-kV lines
wereaddeddepending uponthe transmissioncapability
required and theloadabilityof these lines.Intermediate
switching stationswerenotconsidered. The sendingand
receiving end stations with six or fewer outlets used ring
bus configurations. Otherwise, one-and-a-half breaker con-
figurations were assumed. Reactive compensation equal to
75 percent of line charging was included and evenly distrib-
uted at both ends ofthelineusingshuntreactor banks
rated at 150 Mvar for the 500-kV system and 750 Mvar for
the 1100-kV system. All step-up or step-down transformers
were assumed to be single-phase autotransformers rated at
IO00 MVA.Right-of-way costs were also included in the
analysis.
This analysis ignoresthe cost of losses, whichwillbe
quite different for the 500- and 1100-kV alternatives.De-
spite this simplification, the concept illustrated by the anal-
ysis remains valid. Determining and evaluating these losses
is very system dependent. Therefore, losses were not in-
cludedin thissimple example. In actualpractice,the
evaluation of losses is an important ingredient in deciding
Fig. 14. Cost of firm UHV versusEHV transmission
off at higher megawatt transfer levels. The point of intersec-
tion of the 500- and 1100-kV curves is the breakeven power
transferlevelbeyond whichthe 1100-kVsystem is more
economical. As can be observed from Fig. 14, the economic
breakeven power transfer levelforthe sample1100-kV
system is about 2400 MW. This calculation can be repeated
for several different transmission distances to establish a
series ofbreakevenpoints which relatetransmission re-
quirements and transmissiondistances.
Whenthe costof losses is considered,thebreakeven
point will move to lowertransfer levels and/ortransmis-
sion distances because losses on UHV lines will be lower
than the losses on the alternative EHV system. This shifting
of the breakeven point can be quite significant if losses are
assigned a high economic value.
Fig. 1 5 showstheeconomicbreakevenrelationship be-
tween EHV and UHV levels for various combinationsof
transmissioncapabilityand distance.Specific capabilities
have not been shown on this figure since these quantities

1260 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE. VOL. 73. NO 8,AUGUST 1985


1100 k V
Economical
500 k V
Economical
c-
TransmissionDistance
Fig. 15. Effect of transmission distancesand firm transmis-
sion requirements on economical breakeven points.
are dependent on specific system configurations.Qualita-
tively,thisfigure shows thatincreasingtransmissiondis-
tances result in the higher kilovolt system becoming more
economical at correspondingly lowerpowertransmission
requirement levels.
111. ENGINEERING AND DESIGNISSUES
A. Key Electrical Phenomena
Based on experience to date with the design and oper-
ation of EHV transmission systems, on results of preliminary
research in UHV transmission, and on the probable socio-
economic environment for future expansion of transmission
systems, it appears that atleast three key technical issues
must be addressed. These are: 1) Corona Effects, 2) Insula-
tion Requirements, and 3) Electric and Magnetic Fields and
their Effects.
I ) Corona: Similar to EHV lines, UHV lines will produce
corona at theconductor surface under adverse weather
conditions. Corona occurs when the high electric field at
the surface of conductors ionizes the surrounding air mole-
cules yielding positive- and negative-charged particles. The
consequence is twofold: a) A corona energy loss since
electrical energy is transformed into thermal energy which
dissipates into the air, and b) the generation of waves that
possess audible, radio, and TV frequencies and which prop-
agate outward. Corona is undesirable yet cannot be pre-
ventedin a practicallinedesignbuttheeffectsmust be
minimized. Corona effects have been the dominant factor
in conductor selection for EHV transmission lines and indi-
cations are that they will continue to be a major factor at
UHV.
AEP utilizes two conductorconfigurationsfor 765-kV
transmission lines. Both are square four-conductor bundles
with 45.7-cm separation between conductors. Mean values
of corona loss for these configurations are as follows:
kW/km
Foul Weather Fair Weather
4 X 29.6-mm conductors 84 2
4 X 35.2-mrn conductors 49 2
Foul weather conditions usually prevail during rain, snow,
or fog. Average annual corona loss canbe estimated with
the knowledge of the ratio of foul weather to fair weather.
SCHERER A N D VASSELL: TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER AT ULTRA-HIGH VOLTAGES
Assuming 15 and 85 percent,for example, the average
annual corona loss becomes, approximately,
4 X 29.6-mmconductors14 kW/km
4 X 35.2-mmconductors9 kW/km
The power transfer capability of transmission lines is often
characterized by SIL. 765-kV lines possess a SIL about 2250
M W . Thus for a 160-km line, thecorona loss amounts to
0.06 to 0.1 percent of the transfer capability.
It is possible,althoughnot necessarily desirable, to de-
signaUHVtransmissionlinewherethecorresponding
corona loss to power transfer capability ratio stays more or
less the same. At 1500kV, for example, the SIL has a
magnitudeof IOOOO MW. At0.06 percent and with the
same foul weather to fair weather ratio, the corresponding
foul weather and fair weather mean corona losses become
some 218 and9kW/km,respectively,andthe average
annual loss becomes 37 kW/km.
With suchsimilarrelationshipbetweenpower-transfer
capability and corona-loss level, foul weather power loss in
the range of hundreds of kilowatts per kilometer can result
in a significanteconomicpenalty.However, it should be
recognized that the economic evaluation of corona loss is
not a precise technique. The cost of losses is usually broken
downintothe cost of energyand theinstalled cost of
system capacityrequired to supplythecorona losses.En-
ergy costs can be determined with reasonable accuracy but
it is difficultto preciselycalculate a demand charge to
allocate system capacity costs to corona loss.
UHV,in contrast to EHV,has inherent advantages to
minimize corona loss. Because of other constraints such as
audible noise, UHV lines will be composed of some two to
four times more conductors per phase. This reduces corona
loss because it negates the assumed constant ratio between
SIL and corona loss, to the point that corona loss becomes
more nearly proportional to voltage rather than to power.
Thus although corona loss for UHV transmission can be of
economic significance, line designs which meet other
criteriaofacceptability may automaticallyrestrictcorona
losses to manageablelevels. In fact, UHV designs which
incorporate asymmetrical bundle conductors with an opti-
mized bundle diameter may yield a corona-loss level com-
parable to that of EHV lines.
Audible noise (AN), radio interference (RI), and television
interference (TVl) caused by conductor coronaare phenom-
ena common to both EHV and UHV transmission. However,
due to differences in the generation, propagation, and at-
tenuation characteristics of the acoustic, radio, and televi-
sion frequencies, the relative impact of AN, RI, and TVI on
the line designforUHV is notidentical to thatfor EHV.
Consequently,UHVline design cannot follow a simple
voltage extrapolation rule scaling from EHV line designs.
As an example of the effects of changes in line design,
consider some possible EHV and UHV configurations with
similar size subconductors:
765 kV 4conductors/bundle R/W width 60 m
UHV 9-18 conductors/bundle R/W width 90-120 m
As a roughapproximation, within thenormaloperating
range, audible noise (AN) tends to increase by 1 to 2 dBA
for every increase of 1 kV/cm of surface gradient (electric
field) and is proportional to the logarithm of the number of
1261

unv Bundl.
100O/llOOkV
Fig. 16. Exampleconductorsforpossible EHV and UHV
transmission lines.
subconductors.Field testsalso show thataudible noise
attenuates by some 3 dBA for every doubling of the lateral
distance. Using the example conductor geometries of Fig.
16 together with voltage levels and surface gradients calcu-
lated to keep the audible noise marginally below thecorre-
sponding EHV level, the followingbecomes apparent:
Distance
from
Bundle
Surface Net Change
Voltage Gradient
Configuration
Centerline in A N
765 kV 17-18 kV/cm4-conductor 30 m
UHV 15-1 6 kV/cm9-conductor 45 m
Change in
A N from
765-kV
base case - 3 dBA +4dBA
-2dBA -1
Neither the attenuation rate nor the surface gradient is a
linear function of its respectivevariables. The above table
illustrates the need for operating the UHV conductors
lower surface gradient than EHV conductors, sinceat the
same gradient the increase of the audible noise level due to
the increase of the number of conductors cannot be offset
by a reasonable extension of the R/W width.
Radio and television interference can be examined in the
same manner. The salientfeatures of radio and television
frequency interference are that they are not very sensitive
to number of subconductors and that lateral attenuation is
greater than that for audible noise. Given the same geome-
try as examinedfor the audible noise, R I and n/l pose a
significantly lesser problem at the edge of R/W. Indeed,
comparing UHV testresults and EHV operating data, de-
signs that achieve an acceptable audible noise criterion
unequivocally result in more satisfactory performance at 1
and 75 MHz, the R I and NI frequencies.
To summarize, the design of UHV lines will be dictated
by a satisfactory audible noise performance. UHV lines will
be operated at lower surfacegradients and corona losses
must be minimized.
2) Transient Overvoltages: Whenever an alternating cur-
rent electrical circuit having energystoragedevices com-
prised of capacitance and inductance is forced to change
state by switching or by the occurrence of a short-circuit or
open-circuitcondition, transient changes in voltage and
current will result. Maximum magnitudes generated during
the transient change of state may reach levels far in excess
1262
of steady-state values existent before and after the change
of state.
Digital
computer programs and transient network
analyzersare used to predictthe magnitudes and wave-
shapes of these transients and have achieved an acceptable
level of accuracy. Insofar as inaccuracies exist, they tend to
be in the direction of overestimating insulation stresses. In
addition,operating experience at the EHV level has pro-
vided comprehensive information on the types of system
events which initiate transients.Thus it is highlyunlikely
thatunanticipated transients willbe experienced at the
UHV level.
System transient overvoltages are recognized as being the
dominant factor in selecting insulation systemsat the EHV
and UHV levels. As insulation directly influences structure
size, and consequently line cost, the magnitudes of tran-
sient overvoltages must be controlled to the lowest possi-
b l e 1evels.e sensitivity study for a hypothetical UHV system
showed that transient overvoltages have a very significant
impact on UHV costs, particularly at 1500 kV or higher. In
the IOOO- to 1600-kVrange, UHV designs i n a number of
countries generally call for control of transient overvoltages
to a targetlevel of about 1.6 p.u. (1.6 times peak system
line-to-ground voltage).This is to becompared with 2.0
p.u. at 765 kV and as much as 3.0 p.u. at500 kV or lower
voltages where less or no control is exercised.
This severe requirement prompts a basic feasibility ques-
tion. Can the overvoltages becontrolled to this level?
- Although transient behavior is characteristically the same at
- both EHV and UHV levels, switching overvoltages on UHV
lines, due to line energizationandreclosing operations
must be examined carefully for the specific system under
dBA study. Various means for overvoltage control must be in-
vestigated. In addition, overvoltagesassociated with fault
initiation and clearing and with load rejection can poten-
tially pose problems.
at Research to date shows the effectiveness of techniques
such as closing and openingresistors, controlled switching,
surge arresters, and shunt reactors. Worst case conditions
can be controlled either by system design or by specific
operating procedures. The 1.6 p.u. level seems achievable
by practical means.
3) Electric and Magnetic Fields: In the vicinity of single-
circuit transmission lines, the maximum ground level elec-
tric field (€,,,ax) depends strongly on the line voltage ( V , )
and the minimum clearance (H).Phase spacing and con-
ductorconfigurationconstitute less noticeable secondary
effects. These dependences are common to EHV and UHV
lines. Future UHV lines willbe designed byfollowing
closely theoperating experience of EHV lines since the
effects ofthe electric field are directlyrelated to the
ground-levelfield strengthand are independent ofthe
voltage level. Using AEP 765- and 500-kV lines as examples,
typical field strength andother associatedparametersare
tabulated as follows:
Minimum Electric Electric Fields
Voltage R/W (Edge
Height
Field of R/W)
(V,) Width (H) ( Emax 1 (
765 kV 61 m 12.2 m 12.5 kV/m 4 kV/m
500 kV 53 m 10.7 m 7.4 kV/m 2 kV/m
On cultivated land, EHV lines are constructed with larger
clearances. For clearance to large farm vehicles, 765-kV lines
PROCEEDINGS O F THE IEEE. VOL. 73, NO, 8,AUGUST 1985
have a minimum vertical clearance of 13.7 mandthe
corresponding E,, and E, are 10.5 and 4.2 kV/m, respec-
tively. Planned designs of UHV line will produce maximum
ground-level electric field and edge of right-of-way electric
field of the same order of magnitude as those encountered
atEHV levels. Preliminary estimates indicate that the con-
ductorconfigurations,conductorheights, phasespacings,
and right-of-way widths that are required to satisfy criteria
for corona effects will also result in electric field strengths
similar to acceptable EHV levels.
The magnetic field strength is strictly proportional to the
line current and line geometry. Clearances and R/W widths
are larger at UHV than at EHV. These offset possible current
increases and consequently the magnetic field strength and
its distribution is notlikelytoconstitute an important
design criterion.
The issue of environmental effects and public acceptance
of UHV transmissionlines does not appear to differ radi-
cally from that concerned with introduction of a range of
EHV transmissionlevels. For many years, environmental
effectsmanifested as radioandtelevisioninterference,
audible noise, ozone production, and induced shocks have
beensubjectsforintensive research anddevelopmentef-
forts throughout the world. Such investigations resulted in
design,construction, and operation with general public
acceptance of worldwide networks of transmission systems
rated to 800 kV. With the introduction in the late 1960s of
the highest EHV levels, there developed an
increased
awareness andconcernregardingthepossibilityof detri-
mentalbiologicaleffectsattributabletopowerfrequency
electricandmagneticfields associated with transmission
lines. This generated a plethoraofinternational research
studies to discover or to confirm allegations of biological
effectscausedbytransmissionline fields. Even nowre-
search continues at a high level and there exist differences
ofopinionconcerning whether and to whatextent bio-
logicaleffects have been orcanbe demonstrated. A rela-
tively recent World HealthOrganization publication[I61
stated “no primary effects on humans of the electric fields
underneathtransmissionlines canbe demonstratedother
thannegligiblephysiologicalstimulationeffects.”Ifthe
design criteria for environmental effects for UHVare similar
to those for existent EHV transmission, it is logical to posit
that public acceptance of UHV should not differ much from
that already demonstrated for EHV.
B. Transmission Line Design
Considerations whichinfluencethe physicaldesignof
UHV transmission lines are similar to those for EHV trans-
mission. Subject to constraints imposed by technical perfor-
mance criteria, decisions mustbemade concerning phase
conductor selection, phase configuration and spacing,
minimum air clearances andinsulationrequirements,and
conductor support systems. When considering both electri-
cal and mechanical performance, the designer is confronted
with meshing matrices of possible conductor configurations
and possible structural types and sizes to derive a techni-
cally acceptable and economic solution. There is no univer-
sal rule that governs transmission line design because each
line may be subject to a different set of constraints.
Electricalandmechanicalrequirements oftenconflict.
Excluding cost considerations, a preferred electrical design
SCHERER A N 0 VASSELL: TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER AT ULTRA-HIGH VOLTAGES
might tend toward larger conductors, larger phase spacing,
and larger heights above ground. Conversely, mechanical
considerationswould leadto smallerand moreclosely
spaced conductors supported by shorter and more compact
structures.
7) ElectricalConsiderations: Of primaryimportance in
the economics of EHV and UHV designs are the conductor
andinsulation selections.Both factors directlyaffectthe
design and costs of towers and conductors, the most signifi-
cant factors in line cost.
Conductor and phase spacing configurations: Based on
considerations of corona losses and power transfer capabil-
ity, UHV line design can be examined as follows:
The 12R loss is a power loss that depends upon the load
current,andtheadditionalcapitalinvestmentfor larger
conductors must be evaluated against the incremental loss
savings. Future UHV lines will likely use 2 to 4 times more
conductorsper phase withconductor diameters ranging
between 25 and 50 mm. This will result from a balancing of
the economicsofload losses, corona losses, andthe im-
pacts of corona-induced effects such as AN, RI, and TVI.
Unconventional conductors havealso beenconsidered
for UHV applications. Mesh wires and tubular conductors
are examples. Preliminary research to date, however, seems
to rule out these possibilities, as they do not appear to be
either technically or economically feasible.
The bundle diameter and subconductor locations in the
bundle are almostexclusivelydeterminedbythedesired
corona performance. Given a bundle with a certain number
of
subconductors uniformly spaced around the cir-
cumference of a circle, a straightforward exercise will show
thatthissymmetricalbundle’smaximum surface gradient
assumes a minimum value at an optimum bundle diameter.
Accordingly, corona effects and coronalosses would be the
lowest at thatdiameter.However, because the optimum
gradient is only weaklydependent on bundlediameter,
changes in corona effects can be expected to be relatively
small over a wide range of bundle diameters.
Nonuniform spacing promises a higher degree of corona
reduction than bundle diameter optimization. By manipu-
lating the spacing between adjacent conductors, maximum
surface gradient on each conductor canbe reduced or
enhanced as the spacing is adjusted. Preliminary research to
dateshowsthat anasymmetric bundle with a degree of
asymmetry (top spacing/bottom spacing) of 2 could de-
crease audible noise and corona loss during some weather
conditions by some 6 dBA and a factor of 2, respectively.
Experimentation with bundlediametersof 91-244 cm
and degrees of asymmetry of 1.5-3.0 for a IO-conductor
bundle of 46-mm subconductors has been conducted at the
AEP/ASEA UHV Project to optimize a possible bundle con-
figuration for use on a 1600-kV transmission system.
Phase spacingimpactsthelinedesign in two opposing
manners. Given a certain conductor bundleand clearance, a
reduction of phase spacing will result in an increase of the
conductor surface gradient but a decrease in the ground-
levelelectricandmagneticfields. The selectionof phase
spacing is also constrained by phase-to-phase andphase-
to-ground transient overvoltages.The latterdictatesthe
conductortotower steelclearances. Tower designs with
conductive structural members between phases also in-
fluence phase spacing. For 1600-kV typical structures, a
minimumof 23.8-m phase-to-phase spacing is projected,
1263
 allowing 10.7 m for phase-to-structure clearance and 2.4 m
forinterposingstructural members. Majorreductions in
phase spacing may be possible with tower designs having
no structuralmembersbetween phases.Reducedphase
spacing will also impactlineimpedance and capability,
corona effects, and electric and magnetic fields.
Insulation: As with EHV transmission line design, the
insulation requirements for UHV can be broken down into
t w o components: 1) air clearances between energized con-
ductors and supporting structures, other energized conduc-
tors, and earth and 2) solid insulation necessary to support
the energizedconductors. Minimum air clearances for
phase-to-structureandphase-to-phaseinsulation will de-
pend upon magnitudes and frequenciesofoccurrence of
switching and temporary overvoltages generated within the
transmission system.
Solidinsulationforconductorsupport will' be based
upon sustained50/60-Hzvoltage levels and exposure to
atmospheric contamination, Ratios of leakage distance over
theinsulator surface to insulatorlengthprobably will be
similar to those used for EHV linessubjected to similar
environments. However, possible nonlinearitiesin flashover
characteristics versus insulator string length for long insula-
tor strings maynecessitate an increasein the leakage/length
ratios for UHV. Porcelain and glass will probably remain the
preferred solid insulation during the near terms, but subject
to long-term performancefeasibility studies, nonceramic
plastic materials are favored for future UHV designs.
Minimum phase-to-earth clearance forUHVlines will
dependuponthe morerestrictiveof two considerations:
the air gap required to protect against flashover from phase
to earth (or object or person on the earth surface) during
anyreasonablyprobableovervoltageandthe minimum
conductorheightrequiredtolimit themaximumelectric
field strength at ground level to design values based upon
regulatory fiat, safetycodes,or allegedbiologicaleffects.
For typical UHV designs, minimum conductor height most
probably will be selected based upon electric-field criteria.
Methods for calculating ground-level electric-field strength,
using line voltage and geometry, have been widely applied
for EHV. These methods are directly applicable for UHV as
well.
2) ConductorBundle Design: Conductor motionfor
bundle conductors, aside from ice dropping activity or the
normal sideswing under wind conditions, consists of three
categories-aeolian vibration, galloping, and wake-induced
oscillation.Althoughaeolianvibrationandgalloping are
phenomena also associated with single conductors, as used
for lower voltage transmission lines, wake-induced oscilla-
tiononly occursforbundleconductors. Much has been
learned about this phenomenon through operating experi-
ence on EHV lines.
The operating experience on the EHV lines with various
bundleconfigurations and sizesis given in theliterature
[17]. Typical EHV configurations in present use can be sum-
marized as follows:
at 345 kV:two-conductor bundles, flat configuration,
with conductor diameters 30-38 mm at 460-
mm spacing (spacing to diameter ratio A/d
= 12-1 5);
at 500 kv: two-conductor bundles, flat configuration,
1264
with conductor diameters 40-46 mm at 460-
mm spacing ( A / d ratio = 10-11);
three-conductor bundles, equilateral config-
uration, with conductor diameters30-40 mm
at 460-mm spacing ( A / d ratio = 11-15);
at
765 kV:four-conductorbundles, square configura-
tion, with conductor diameters 30-36 mm at
460-mm spacing, and with a diameter of 40
mm at 610-mm spacing(A/dratio = 13-15).
The most frequently used spacing whether two-, three-,
or four-conductor bundlesare considered[I71 is 460 mm
and the conductor diameters range from 30 to 46 mm. This
results in spacing-to-diameter ratios (A/d) of 10 to 15.
Wake-inducedoscillations: Research in wind tunnels
[I81andoutdoor test stations [19]-[21] has increased the
knowledge of wake-induced oscillations of EHV and UHV
bundles. The most common denominator found between
bundle conductors that tend to oscillate and those that do
not is thespacing-to-diameter (A/d) ratio. It is reported
[22] that oscillations do not occur when this ratio is greater
than 16-18for two- andthree-conductorbundlesand
greater than 20 for four-conductor bundles. This is not in
complete accord with theoperating experiencediscussed
aboveand suggests thatthe A / d ratio limits specified in
[22] are very conservative.
In most cases, forthebundle to oscillate,the wind
conditions must be ideal-a l0-15-mi/hcomponent at
right angles to the conductor axis and the bundle must be
tiltedinthe orderof 5"-IO" to the windflow. These
conditions may be true for only certain lines or for certain
spans or sections of a line. It is unlikely that they would
prevail throughout the entire length of a practical line.
For UHV bundles, which may include six, eight, or even
twelveormore subconductors,combinationsof pairs of
conductors may exhibit critical conductor spacings and tilt
angles. A review of the technical literature discussing bun-
dle configurations and conductor sizes proposed for UHV is
presented in Table 2.
All of these bundles have lower A/d ratios than the ratios
felt to be satisfactory for various EHV lines. Thus oscillations
might be deemedlikely and this is borne out by the
experience at various test stations. ENELhas reported oscil-
lations at their Pradarena Pass test station [25]-especially
fortheasymmetrically spaced bundles.Oscillations have
been reported at BPA's station [23], at the AEP/ASEA test
station [21], and during tests on 12-conductorbundles at
Hydro-Quebec's Magdalen Islands test station [21].
Muchof thisexperience has been with spacers posi-
tioned at uniform intervals throughout the span. Unequal
or staggered intervalsbetween spacershave been found
effective in countering subspan oscillation [22]. Also it was
found that less rigid-more flexible spacers were~effectivein
reducing subspan activity [21]. It is believed that less rigid
spacers and a system of staggeredsubspan intervals will
control subspan oscillationforthe large, multiconductor
bundlesrequiredforUHV lines, but moretestingwork
seems justified beforefinaldesignconfigurations are set-
tled.
Galloping: Another form of conductor motion is called
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE. VOL. 73, NO. 8,AUGUST 1985
 Table 2 Bundles Proposed for Future UHV Lines
No. of Diameter mm A/d
Voltage
Conductors
Conductor
Bundle Ratio
Bonneville Power Administration
1100[23] kV 8 40 1067 10
CECBand EdF,
ENEL, 1050[24]* kV 6 38 - 12
1300 kV 8 38 - 12
ENEL [25] 1000/1050 kV 6 31 900 14
USSR [26] 1150 k V 8 23 - 17
Project
1050UHV [27] kV 8 33 1016 12
DOE[28] 1100 kV 6 55 9 1016
8 40 1016 10
1500 AEP (211 kV 1219
12 36 9
*EnteNationaleperI’EneraieElettrica (ENEL), Electricitede France (EdF), andCentralElectricity
Generating
Board (CEGB) -

galloping.Galloping is a high-amplitude,low-frequency clearances between pairs of conductors to avoidice

conductor motion that principally occurs in areas ofrela-
tively flat terrain subject to freezing rain. The conductors,
with ice,present a nonsymmetrical cross section tothe
wind, and a relatively uniform wind at right angles to the
span can cause an aerodynamic lift force on the conductor.
Some believe [22],[29] bundleconductors may gallop
morereadilythan singleconductors because thebundle
spacers tend to -retain the orientation of the iced conduc-
tors to the wind. They report the more rigid the spacer the
greater the tendency to gallop. However, spacers that allow
rotation of the conductor would not necessarily preclude
galloping. The tendency to gallop might more be limited to
that of a single conductor.
Galloping has been reported for UHV bundles on several
occasions [23] for the BPA Mor0 Test Line and for the AEP
tests on the IREQ Magdalen Islands test line. The ampli-
tudeswererelativelyminorbut a gallopingmode was
clearlyevident.Strength margins and clearancesmustbe
provided in the design of UHV structures to withstand the
dynamics of galloping.
There are several antigalloping devices that have been
developed[30]-[32] toinhibit thegallopingof a single
conductor and these are claimed to be effective for bundle
conductors. Much work must be done before these devices
can be accepted for UHV bundles.
Aeolianvibration: Aeolianvibration occurs when a
comparatively steady wind blows across a conductor and air
vortices are detaching from the conductor at regular time
intervals corresponding to the natural mechanical frequency
of the span or subspan. ForanEHV or UHV bundle, if the
spacer i s too rigid, the vibration activity may be trapped in
the subspan and serious wear or damage to the conductor
orthe spacermay occur [22],[33].This could be a more
significant problem for UHV bundles because of the greater
mass of the spacer and the greater mass of the conductors
attached to the spacer [32].
Spacers to dampaeolianvibrations to safe levels are
commercially available for two-, three-, and four-conductor
bundles. The operatingprinciplesof these spacers also
should be applicable to multiconductor UHV transmission
lines, and AEP tests at IREQ’s Magdalen Islands test facility
confirm that this is likely to be true.
Ice and wind loads: It is generally believed that ice and
wind loads normally are linearly related to the number of
conductors in the bundle. Multiconductor bundles, includ-
ing those with asymmetrical arrangements, need adequate
forming or bridging across pairs of conductors. Ice bridging
can cause extensive damage by leading to more ice forming
or, if associated with a wind storm, by leading to extreme
wind loads. Adequate clearance between conductors must
be provided to avoid such possibilities.
While ice bridging canlead to severedamage, icing of
theindividual subconductors alsocancausedamage. Ice
formation is generally uniform on the subconductors but as
icemelts it normally falls fromtheconductor in sections
and may not fall uniformlyfrom adjacentsubspans.This
lack of uniformity can result in severe forces on the spacer,
on the conductor at the spacer attachment point, and at the
conductor support at the tower. Designs must include pro-
visions for such occurrences.
3) UHV TowerDesign: Towers forUHVtransmission
lines will be significantly larger than those used at the EHV
level. For example, an 1100-kV line will have a phase spac-
ing of about 18.3 m and a conductor height above ground
of 33 m. The comparable dimensions for a 500-kV line are
7.2 and 23 m, respectively [28]. Since UHV line towers will
be a key cost element, many types of line support systems
needinvestigation. Broad topics to beaddressed are as
follows:
All three phases are to be placed between the support
columns, and phase spacing can be minimized (Figs. 21-24).
Or the phases can be placed both between and outside the
supportcolumns inwhich case the phasespacingmust
includetwicetheinsulation air gap plus a dimensionof
structural steel (Figs. 17-20).
The phase configuration can be flat or delta (Figs. 17 and
18). A flat configuration requires wider structures and right-
of-way whereas thedeltaconfigurationallowsnarrower
structures and right-of-way. However, the delta configura-
tion requires taller towers.
Structures can be self-supporting or guyed (Figs. 17 and
19). Becausethesestructuresmust withstand verylarge
conductor loads, a guyedstructure may utilizestructural
materialmoreefficiently,although a guyedstructure is
possibly less welcome to farmersand morevulnerable to
sabotage.
Conventionalself-supportingtowers: Themost com-
mon lattice-typestructurefor EHV construction has been
the conventional single-circuitself-supportingtower with
flat phase configuration (Fig. 17). This structure is adaptable
to almost all line angleand terrainconditions, and is a
proven reliable performer. Due to its structural redundancy,

SCHERER A N D VASSELL TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER AT ULTRA-HIGH VOLTAGES 1265


Fig. 17. Conventional self-supporting tower.
failures are rare andusuallyself-contained.ManyUHV
studies have been made using this structure type.
The U.S. Department of Energy [28] evaluated many 1100-
kVdesigns usingtheself-supportingstructure as a base
case. This study examined electrical and mechanical design
criteria,structuralconcepts, advanced electricalconcepts,
use of special conductors, aesthetics, and made cost com-
parisons. The self-supporting design was rated third in cost
effectiveness. It wassurpassed only by two designs of
guyed, three-pole structures using surge arresters to elimi-
nate the need for the groundwires.
A study [34] by AEP/ASEA of 1500-kV designs indicated
theconventionalself-supportingtower was competitive
with the guyed “V” configuration in areas of cohesionless
soil and in hillyterrain where guyed foundations are expen-
sive to construct.
The ENEL 1050-kV self-supportingdesignproduced a
52.5-m-tall structure at20.9 metric tonnes. All three phases
are supported in a flat configuration by V-typeinsulator
strings. The 87-m width and the massive appearance of the
self-supporting structure above the waist were considered
to be problems. However, the structure height was accept-
ableforItalian air safety regulations. Subsequent ENEL
efforts [35], [36] were toward weight and width reductions
by using guyed structures.
Self-supporting delta configuration towers: The Bonne-
ville Power Administration[37] has selected a delta (apex-up)
configured self-supporting tower for its proposed170-mi,
1100-kV nominal voltage line (Fig. 18). The structure is 60 m
tall and 56 mwide. Design and constructionexperience
Fig. 18. BPA 1100-kV suspension tower
1266
was obtainedby first installingthisstructure at their re-
search station.
Certain advantagesexist forthistypeofstructure. The
delta (apex-up) phase configuration produces a more uni-
form electric field over the right-of-way. Therefore, the two
outside phasescan be positionedlowerthanflat-config-
ured designs while still satisfying a givenelectric field
criterion. This design also requires less right-of-way width
than the flat configuration.
The ENEL 1000-kV design [35] ofthedeltaconfigured,
self-supporting tower produced a 58-m-tall and 46-m-wide
structure.
Guyed “V’ structures:The guyed “V” structurecon-
sists of a truss mounted as a simple beam upontwo
independently guyed masts. The masts form the characteris-
tic “V“ shape hence its name (Fig. 19). The three phases are
Fig. 19. USSR guyed “ V ” structure
supported by insulators attached to the truss.This guyed
“V” arrangement doesincrease the structure width. How-
ever, the overall result is a lightweight design with reason-
able proportions. This structure is frequently used for EHV
construction.
SAE [38],[39] designed a UHVguyed “ V ” structurefor
installation at the Suvereto UHV Experimental Stationfor
the ENEL 1000-kV Project. This tower has all three phases
supported by V-strings, which decreases the structure width
since insulator sideswing is avoided. The structure height is
44 m, and thewidth is 61 m.The structureweight is a
relatively low 11.5 metric tonnes.
AEP/ASEA UHV Project activities [40] includeddesign
comparisons of five differentstructural types for 1500-kV
nominal voltage levels.The guyed “V” was thelightest
structure with the three phases supported by V-strings in a
flat Configuration. Guy systems reduce structure weight by
supporting wind-produced loads in tension eliminating the
heaviertension-compression systems of self-supporting
towers. In cohesive soils, the guy foundations are less costly
than self-supporting tower foundations.
USSR structure design:The USSR [51]selectedguyed
structures for their UHV 1150-kV transmission system (Figs.
19 and 20). Soviet research (261, [38] indicates a substantial
savings for guyed “V” and guyed “ Y ” structures over that of
self-supporting towers.
For both USSR guyed structures, structural members are
located between the center and outside phases. The center
phase is supported by a V-type insulator string while the
outside phasesare supported by I-typeinsulator strings.
Thisarrangement is reported [26] as a superior solution
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 73, NO. 8,A U G U S T 1985
 The US. Department of Energy [28] produced a 1100-kV
chainette design. Overall heightis 45.7 m and weight is 21.3
metric tonnes. DOE cost evaluationsrankedthisstructure
typethird aftertheguyedthree-polestructuresandthe
conventional self-supporting tower.
ENEL guyed structures: ENEL, in their efforts to reduce
the
right-of-way requirements and decrease structure
silhouette and weight [38], [36], [44], [39], [45], has produced
the “Circus” and “Cluster” type structures. In these struc-
tures the normal cable system of the chainette is replaced
by an insulator system.
The ENEL “Circus” structure is one of the lightest weight
structures for their 1000-kV Project (Fig. 22). The structure is

Fig. 20. USSR guyed “ Y ” structure.

sincetheaddedinsulator expense forexternalV-string

support exceeds the savings in extra right-of-waywidth
requirements. TheSoviet design provides a higher ground
level electric field intensity than is customary in Europe or
the U.S.A. The resulting heights and widths are 44 and 46 m
for the guyed “V” and 52.5 and 40 m for the guyed “Y.”
The guyed “ Y ” design is the result of a Soviet effort to
reducestructureweight. The guyed “Y” towerweight is Fig.22. E N E L guyed ”circus”structure
18.6metrictonnes. The guyed “V” tower is 21.0 metric
tonnes.
Guyed towers-chainette designs: Several studies [28], 45 m tall, 61.9 m wide, and weighs 15.5 metric tonnes. The
conductor supports consist of an insulator string between
[41], (421 indicated that guyed structures without structural
the t w o guyed poles, with the conductor attachmentsat the
members between phases are cost effective for UHV load-
quarter and half points. Participants in the 1000-kV Project
ings. The “chainette”structure is an exampleof such a
considerthisstructure to have a minimum visual impact,
structuretype(Fig. 21).The chainettestructure has been
minimum right-of-way requirements, a high degree of com-
ponent standardization, and to be applicable to varying
terrain conditions.
The ENEL “Cluster”structure uses increased structure
heighttogain a reductioninright-of-way requirements
(Fig. 23). The insulator support system is arranged in a delta

Fig. Zl. DOE guyed chainette structure

successfully used in commercial EHV operation by Hydro-

Quebec in Canada[43]and bytheBonneville Power Ad-
ministration [42].
The concept was developed to reduced structure weight,
replacing the wide-base lattice self-supporting tower with
two slender masts which operate as highlyefficient axial
devices. The columns are supported in shear by guy wiresat Fig. 23. ENEL guyed “cluster”structure
thetopofthe columns. This eliminatesmomentsfrom
entering the columns except for wind on the structure. The (apex-down) allowing the masts to be positioned in a “V”
cantilevered lattice crossarms and heavy bridge members of shape. Guy leads are notably reduced. Phase separation is
the self-supporting towerare replaced by a system of cables maintained by three insulator strings, and the entire con-
supportingall three phases. No structural members are ductor andinsulatorload is supportedby two insulator
located between the phases. The result is a compact light- strings. The structure width becomes 37 m, theheight
weight structure with less visual intrusion on the landscape. increases to 53.8m, andweight increases to 18metric
It is structurally efficient due to the direct load distribution tonnes. This design doescreate thepossibilityof an in-
of the conductor loads through the support cables directly creased number of phase-to-phase faults which, in general,
into the guy and mast system. Groundwires are located at cancreatemore severe power system impactsthanthe
the top of the columns. more commonsingle-phase-to-ground faults.

SCHERER A N D VASSELL TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER AT ULTRA-HIGH VOLTAGES 1267


Fig. 24. Projected UHV guyed portal structure
Project UHV guyed portal structure: This structure [ 4 6 ]
was designed as a test line structure for Project UHV and
was notintendedfor an operatingline (Fig.24). It was
designed for testing conductor bundles three phase at line
voltages up to 1500 kV. It includes a provision for varying
phase spacing from 9 to 24m, which is onlyuseful,of
course,fortest purposes. However, it does provide an
exampleof the structuretypeandshould be included in
the group of possible UHV structures. It is easily visualized
that for a particular operating voltage this structure can be
designed to provide minimum phase spacing and minimum
air gap clearance.
DO€ advanced technology structure: The US. Depart-
ment of Energy study [28] produced several designs based
upon futureproposed advanced technology. One design
showing promise consists of oneguyed mast perphase
with a post-typeinsulatorsupportingtheconductor (Fig.
25). The insulators may be of ceramic or nonceramic material
Fig. 25. DOE guyedpost structure.
and probably will require supplementary tension insulator
strings to withstand the cantilever conductor loads.Since
shield wires are not planned,a surgearrester mustbe
included. Although insulator cost is expected to be high,
this maybeoffsetbytheeliminationoftheshieldwires
and the much reduced structural requirements. Right-of-way
requirements are reduced, and structureheights can be
minimized.
4) Insulators and Shield Wires:
Insulators: Today'sstandard cap-and-pininsulatorde-
signscanserve fortomorrow'sUHVlinesprovidedthe
numberof parallel strings are sufficientto carry thein-
creased mechanicalloadandthestringlengths are suffi-
cientforthe voltage stresses.Asan approximation, the
insulators for UHV will be called upon to withstand twice
the voltageandthreetimesthemechanicalload of EHV
lines.
The past practiceofsimplyincreasingthenumber of
suspensionunits may notprove to be themosteffective
1268
designfor UHV lines. The continual increase in insulator
unit mechanical rating mayhavereached a design or eco-
nomic plateau, and either multiple stringsor a new insu-
latorconcept may be needed.Work is continuing at a
number of testfacilities to determinethemost effective
solution to this insulator question.
A choice of porcelain, glass, andnonceramicinsulators
exists forUHV linesjust as has beenthe case with EHV
lines. In the United States, porcelain is normally used since
glass is very vulnerable to rifle fire. Transmission lines,
especially at the higher voltages, traverse remote areas and
invite the target practice of game hunters. In other coun-
tries, wherethe use of firearms is limited, glass is used
extensively.
Nonceramicinsulators are not as sensitive to physical
damage as porcelain or glass insulators. These insulators are
relativelynewto high-voltage transmission, havingbeen
developed during the past fifteen years, and do not have
the vast service experience of porcelain andglass. However,
nonceramic units have a very important advantage for UHV
in that high tensile strength for heavy conductor loads can
be produced with relative ease.
Anonceramicinsulator consists primarilyof two ele-
ments: a fiberglass core rodwith appropriatemetalend
connectionswhich providesthemainstructuralelement
and can withstand heavy tensile loads plusplastic sheds
that surround the fiberglass rod to provide electrical with-
stand capability.
The plastic sheds are molded from three basis formula-
tions.One, andthemostpopular, is ethylenepropylene
rubber.A second, and less popular because of cost, is
siliconrubber,andthethird is polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE). The latter has probablynotbeen used for EHV
applications.
Experience with ethylenepropylenerubber and silicon
rubber [47] has been good during the past ten or more years
with many applications at high voltage and EHV. AEP has a
numberof these unitsinstalled on a trial basis including
lines at 765 kV.Otherutilitiesthroughouttheworld[48]
have installed these designs on 400- and 735-kV lines [43].
For UHV,operatingexperience with nonceramicinsu-
lators has been limited to test lines. While Project UHV at
Pittsfield, MA, utilizesprimarilyporcelaininsulators,the
AEP/ASEA UHV Project [49] and the BPA 1200-kV Transmis-
sionLineProject[23]employnonceramicinsulators. The
ENEL 1000-kV Project [a] uses some nonceramic units. Expe-
rience has generallybeengood with only BPA reporting
problems [50]. Although there is much discussion about the
formulationofthe plastic shed material, it is universally
agreedthatshieldingmust be providedfor all EHV and
UHV applications of nonceramic insulators. The USSR de-
sign [51] provides shielding by attaching the insulator string
near the conductor bundle.
Contamination performance of insulators isan important
consideration in the design of an insulator system for UHV.
Contamination under a wet condition enhances the non-
linearity of voltage distribution alongtheinsulatorstring.
EPRl's Project UHV [52] reports"Thisnon-linearity is ap-
parently caused by the non-uniform voltage distribution on
the string.. .and bythe non-uniform drying of insulators
bythe leakage current . . . ." Pollution tests are being
performed at projectUHV [52]and at the ENEL I O - k V
Project [8].
PROCEEDINGS O F THE IEEE. VOL 73. NO. 8, AUGUST 1935
 Leakage distance is the most effective means of counter- ductorswingingunderthemaximumdesignwindcondi-
ingthe effectsofcontamination. For ceramic units,the tion. This provides for the safety of any structures or build-
leakagedistancenormally is about two timesthelength ings erected along theedge of the right-of-way.Span length,
(spacing) of the unit. For nonceramicunitsthe leakage is hence conductor sag, may affect this determination.
2.5 to 3.0 depending on the design of the unit [53]. Right-of-way width requirements for UHV lines may also
As mentioned earlier, an important advantage ofthe be affected by field strength criteria, audible noise, TVI, or
nonceramicunits is theconvenienceofdevelopingand R I . These width requirements may exceed those for electri-
producing high-strength units. In today's marketplace, units cal safety, andacceptablecriteria levelsmustbeestab-
of 45, 90, 180, and 360 kN working strength are offered. In lished.Operating experience at the EHV levelprovidesa
porcelain,units
rangingfrom 67- to 222-kN ultimate reasonable basis for this process.
strength, which translates to working strengths of 33.5 to Tentative right-of-way widths were calculated for several
111 kN, are available. This means forUHVapplication possible voltage levels using conductor configurations test-
double and triple strings of porcelain units may be required ed at the AEP/ASEA UHV test station. The edge of right-of-
where a single nonceramic unit can be applied. To extend way parameters were assumed as follows:
the strength range of porcelain units above 222 kN ultimate
Electric field 4 kV/m
would entail very special and costly designs. To extend the
Audible noise 55 dBA
strength of nonceramicinsulators above 360 kNworking
RI 69 dB
load simply means a larger fiberglass rod with appropriate
TV I 30 dB.
metal end connections.
At 500kV,34standard porcelainunits have beenpro- The results are illustrated in Fig. 26 and listed below:
posed for areas with moderate contamination[17]. For these
same conditions at 1100 kV,69 fog-typeporcelainunits Electrical
Tentative
wereproposed.Fog-typeunits have a leakage distanceof C o n d uTotal
c t o r EffectsPhase
432 mm whereas standard units have a leakage distance of SVpR
S
oalietzcaqe
in
gug
eiW
r eiRm
d/teW
hn t *
292 mm. Similar thinking would suggest up to 84 fog-type 1250 k V 9 X 30rnm/1.2 rn 24m 21 rn 90rn
unitsfor 1500-kVlines in areas oflightcontamination. 15oO k V 10 X 45 rnrn/1.2 m 27 rn 25.5 rn 105 m
1750 k V 18 X 30 rnrn/l.2 m 30 m 30 rn 120 rn
Theselarge numbersofinsulatorsfurther enhances the
incentive to develop nonceramic units. 'Maximum lateral distance to nearest phase required for the four
electrical effect conditions specified above.
Should decisions on UHV line insulators have to be made
in the shortterm, it is likelythatporcelainwould be 705 KV
selected since operating experience with EHV nonceramic
insulators is relatively brief. As operating experience accu-
mulates over time, sufficient confidence may be gained to
justify the use of nonceramic units.
Shield wires: The two most important elements in pro-
tecting a transmission line from lightning are tower footing
resistance and shield wire location. The shield wire location
is important to intercept lightning strokes in the vicinity of
the conductors and to avoid direct lightning strokes to the
conductor. Tower footing resistance must be maintained at
areasonably low level (below 50 Q ) tolimittower-top
voltages resulting from lightning surges to levels that will
not induce flashovers from the tower to the conductors.
Adetaileddescriptionofthestate-of-the-artpractices
regarding shield wires and lightning performance of trans-
mission lines is provided in [17]. It is generally accepted that
EHV practices will be satisfactory at the UHV level.
5) Right-of- WayConsiderations: Right-of-waywidth must
provide adequate clearances forelectrical safetyand for
possible nuisances associated with the electrical effects of
EHV or UHV transmission lines. Right-of-way width consists
generally of the spacing between the outsideconductors
plustheclearancerequired to satisfy electrical safetyor UHV RIOHT-OF-WAY
electrical effects requirements. Normally, the total width is
established for a particular tower configuration and is ap- Fig. 26. Electrical-fieldstrengthlevelsandaudiblenoise at
e d g e of r i g h t - o f - w a y .
plied uniformly throughout a line section until the particu-
lar tower configuration changes. Quite often, especially for
EHV and UHV lines where the tower configuration would The right-of-way width selected for any specific line will
not changefrequently,the right-of-way is uniform for an dependuponconditions particular to thatline and the
entire line or a group of lines. geographical area inwhichit is located. Based on past
For electrical safety requirements, the right-of-way width United States experience for EHV transmission and on pro-
must be sufficientto providethe necessary 60-Hzand jections for possible UHV development, the following are
switching surge withstand air-gap clearances with the con- typical ranges ofright-of-waywidths for flat configured

SCHERER AND VASSELL. TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICPOWER AT ULTRA-HIGH VOLTAGES 1269

I i nes:
Voltage Class Typical Values
345 kV 38-45 m
500 k v 45-60 m
765 kV 60-90 m
1100
kV
90-120 m (projected)
1503
kV120-1
50 m (projected)
There are many joint uses for the right-of-way that can
coexist with EHV andUHV transmission lines. Laboratory
tests, confirmed by operating experience and field studies
under EHV lines [54] indicate that such lines do not inter-
fere with farming and numerous other uses.
C. StationDesign
Substantial discussion, to thispoint, has beencentered
around UHV transmission lines, emphasizing the extensive
andtime-consuming research anddevelopmentrequired
before UHV transmission lines become a commercial real-
ity. Similar efforts are required for UHV stations. It is envi-
sioned that the first UHV transmission line will be energized
from transformerssteppingupfromexisting EHV voltage
levels (345, 500, or 765 kV) with direct transformation from
generator voltage levels (typically under 30 kV) to come at a
later date.
1) UHV StationConsiderations: UHVstations will con-
tain power transformers, circuit breakers, reactors for com-
pensation of the transmission line charging current, surge
arresters forprotection of thestationequipment,relay
systems to detect faults, overvoltages,
and equipment
failures, metering systems to monitor real and reactive power
flows, and SF, gas or air insulated UHV bus systems. Just as
we haveseen theright-of-wayfortheUHVlines to be
about twice the width for EHV lines, we would expect the
land area for UHV stations to be about 2 to 3 times that of
the EHV station. Since land areas of these proportions are
notreadily available nearmany EHV stations andpower
plant switch yards, it behooves the engineerto investigate a
variety of insulation technologies to minimize the station
area. EHV stations have been designed, built, and operated
based on open air, SF, gas, and hybrid (air and gas) insula-
tion technologies,andtestingandinvestigativework on
each has been done for UHV.
Investigationoffuture UHVstationlayouts have been
carried out by several countries. japan andItaly have favored
theUHV (1100-kV) gas insulated over air insulatedand
hybrid station layouts due to land requirements and costs.
The USSR is considering UHV air insulated stations for their
prototype 1150-kV, 270-kmtransmission line terminals. In
the USA, UHV station layouts have been investigated by the
Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) and theAmerican
ElectricPower Service Corporation (AEPSC). BPA’s pre-
liminary studies for a UHV (1200-kV) station resulted in a
hybridlayout, wherethecircuit breakers andisolating
switches and main bus will be gas insulated but connecting
buses totheUHV transformers and reactors will be air
insulated. AEPSC work in this area will be discussed in this
paper in detail as an example [55]-[58].
2) UHV Station Layouts: Studies were undertaken by the
AEPSC to investigatestationlayoutsfor a 1600/800-kV
UHV/EHVstation. Three basic approaches weretaken in
developing preliminary station layouts. The first utilizes a
1270
1.00 K V LIME
t
i
RtAKEII
800 K V
l
-
?
1
6
Tq-J c
1.00 K V LIME
(b)
Fig. 27. (a) Ring bus arrangement. (b) Single bus tie circuit
breaker arrangement.
conventional air insulated, 1600-kV design having either a
ring bus or a single bus with bus tie breaker [Fig. 27(a) and
(b)]. The second utilizes a gas insulated station in both ring
busandsinglebus tie breaker configuration. The third
approach is a hybrid design where disconnecting switches
andbreakerelements are SF, insulated while an air in-
sulated bus is used in the remainder of the station. All three
approaches arebased on afuturering bus arrangement
with two incoming UHV lines, two transformers per phase,
four 800-kV lines, and the installation ofa satellite station at
the station UHV line take-off structure. The satellite station
consistsof coupling capacitorvoltage transformers, line
traps, disconnecting switches, surgearresters, andshunt
reactors. The connection between the UHV incoming line
and the shunt reactor is made through an SF, insulated bus,
areactorswitch,and a surgearrester.This connection is
used for all three station layouts.
Three primary design parameters were considered for the
UHV station arrangements: a) a 1600-kV maximum design
voltage; b) UHV surge arrester installations at all line termi-
nals, transformers, and reactors; and c) a UHV bus thermal
rating of 5000A.The latter was selected on the basis of
UHV transmission line loads of approximately 1.5 p. u. of
the surge impedance loading.
3) Factors in Station Layout: In order to determinethe
preferred station layout, the following considerations need
to be taken into account:
Cost: Preliminary cost estimates for a single bus as well
as forring busdesignUHVstationswere madeand are
shownon a per unit basis in Table 3 [54]. While site
preparation costs are included, the actual land cost is not.
Furthermore this estimate does not include the UHV trans-
former,shuntreactor,capacitivevoltagetransformer,and
PROCEEDINGS O F THE IEEE. VOL. 73, N O 8, AUGUST 1485
 Table 3 Cost Comparisons
Insulated
Air
Single bus 1.24
1.05Ring bus1.00 1.34
wave traps.These items are assumed to have the same
effect on the three alternatives.
Land requirements: The space requirements for a UHV
station could be the determining factor in selecting a par-
ticularstationlayout [54].The conventional air insulated
layoutrequires an area 4.5 timesthe SF, layout and 2.3
times the hybrid layout. Fig. 28 indicates the space require-
mentsforthe various station designsdiscussed. As ex-
LIME LIME
I I I I
CONVENTIOWAL HYWIlD
4 2
20 x 10 m 8.8 I 10 m
Fig. 28. Fenced area requirements for 1600/800-kV station
pected, the area required for equipment and structures is
dramatically less for a complete SF, gas insulatedstation
than for an air insulated stationor hybrid station.
Future expansion: All three layouts
incorporate an
ultimate ring bus design. This switching arrangement carries
inmind that in theinitial stage ofconstructing a UHV
station, only a single bus layout may be justified. This single
buslayoutconsistsof a transformer,circuitbreaker,and
oneUHV transmissionline. In thefuturethissingle bus
layout can bedeveloped to a ring bus arrangement. The
conventional air insulatedandhybridlayout caneasily
accommodate two lines and two transformers. The SF,
layout has the flexibility to be converted to a ring bus and
accommodate more than two UHV lines.
Reliability: The choice of a ring bus or a single bus with
a bus tie breaker switching arrangement affects the station
reliability. A faulted UHV line in the ring bus arrangement
will beisolatedwithoutremovingthe otherstation ele-
ments from servicethus allowing thestation to transfer
power through oneUHV line and two transformers. Another
advantage of the ring bus arrangement is the flexibility for
performing maintenancework on substantial parts ofthe
stationwhilethe available key linesand transformers re-
main in service.
Additional advantages for the gas insulated substation are
the protection from environmental conditions such as con-
tamination,icing,andpartialwettingwhich maycause
unnecessary insulationflashover.Furthermore,forthe gas
insulated station in the ring bus configuration, the compact-
ness of the gas design easily accommodates the connection
to the ring bus of the UHV transformersand transmission
SCHERER A N D VASSELL: TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER AT ULTRA-HIGH VOLTAGES
lines on an alternating basis. Consequently, for any circuit
SF, Hybrid breaker failure, the station will still have one transmission
1.01 1.cQ
line and transformer in service. The hybrid and air insulated
ring bus arrangements make it more difficult to achieve this
result.
The preliminary indications from cost comparison studies,
theland requirements in Fig. 28, and futureUHVstation
expansioncapabilitiesindicatethatthe SF, gas insulated
station has an advantage over the air insulated and hybrid
layout.While further research anddevelopment may re-
ducethe advantage theUHV gas insulatedstation pres-
ently has in the cost and expansion capability areas, there is
little thatcanbedone to reducethe space andland
requirementsofUHV air insulated stations, and conse-
quently gas insulated stations will have a significant ad-
vantage in this area.
D. UHV Major Equipment
I) UHV Surge Arresters: Beforediscussing UHV surge
arresters, it is instructive to briefly review the role that surge
arresters play in maintaining the integrity of power systems
and to emphasizerecenttechnologicaldevelopments in
surge arresters design that have resulted in improved surge
arrester performance at all voltage levels.
The basic purpose of a surgearrester is to act as a high
impedance during normal steady-state voltageconditions
and to transfer, in analmost instantaneous manner, to a
we
very low impedance during intervals of overvoltage caused
4.4 x 1 0 ' ~ ~
by lightning and switching surges.These intervals of over-
voltage are very brief, lasting in the order of microseconds
forlightning surges to hundreds of
microseconds for
switching surges, but can destroy major station equipment
i f notlimitedto levels within the capability
of
the
equipment's insulation.
To limit these transientovervoltages, modern stationsurge
arresters utilize zinc oxide material pressed into cylindrical
blocks.Zincoxide has a highlynonlinear voltage-versus-
current relationship approximated by the relationship I =
kV", where k is a constant and the exponent n is typically
between 15 and 40. For the case where n is 23, it canbe
seen thata65-percentovervoltage will cause the surge
arrester's current conduction to increase by five orders of
magnitude. Thisextreme nonlinearbehaviorallowsthe
arrester to limit overvoltagesand to absorbsurgeenergy,
thus protecting major equipment while simultaneously al-
lowing an uninterrupted flow of electrical power [59].
Prior tothe late 197Os, surgearresters utilizedsilicon
carbide for the nonlinear material. Since silicon carbide has
an exponent in the above voltage-currentrelationshipof
between 4 and 6, complicated series gaps were required in
order to placethe arrester intoconduction (sparkover)
during overvoltages and to remove the arrester from con-
duction (reseal) aftervoltage levelshad returnedto near
normallevels. The developmentofzincoxide arresters is
very importantto the introduction ofUHVtransmission
voltages. Although silicon carbide arrester technology can
be extended to UHV levels, theperformance would be
inferior in almost every respect when compared to the zinc
oxide arrester.
In addition to protecting the internal insulation of station
equipment, there are majoreconomicincentivesforcon-
trolling the magnitude of lightning and switching surges in
1271
UHV stations to the lowest practical levels. These incentives
include reduced equipment cost and reduced station phase
to phase and phase to ground clearances.The concept of
using surgearresters to limit themagnitudeofswitching
surges was utilized for the AEP 800-kV system [60]. For UHV
systems, the surge arrester will play an even more vital role,
as evidenced by the greater quantity to be used at strategi-
cally determined locations and the efforts being expended
to define and manufacture arresters with increasingly better
protective characteristics [ a ] .
Zinc oxide surge arresters can be installed in either a gas
insulated SF, compartment or a conventionalporcelain
housing. The numberofparallelzincoxidecolumns per
one arrester is determined by the UHV line charge energy.
This energy depends upon the transmission line configura-
tion and length along with the system switching overvolt-
age levelandduration. Thechargedenergy in a322-km
W - k V EHV transmissionline with a 2.0 p.u.switching
overvoltage is in the order of 3200 kJ. EHV zinc oxide surge
arresters installed on the 800-kV AEP system consist of two
parallelzincoxidecolumns to dissipate this energy.The
LightningImpulseWithstand Level(LIWL) for GIS bus,
circuit breakers, shunt reactors,and transformers will be
based on the installation ofUHV surgearrestersat three
locations, one in the vicinity of the overhead line interface
(protectingtheline shuntreactor as well),the second
midway between the entrance bushing and the line side of
the circuit breaker, and a third at the transformer.
American Electric Power has worked closely with manu-
facturers on thedevelopmentof bothconventionaland
zinc oxide arresters. TheAEP/ASEA UHV test station located
near South Bend, IN installed a 1090-kV conventional type
arrester with silicon carbide blocks to protect the primary
winding insulation of a single-phase UHV transformer. This
arresterwas replaced with an arrester with a maximum
continuous operating voltage (MCOV) of 1000 kV. The term
MCOV is specificallyrelated to zincoxide surgearrester
terminology and i s the maximum designated rmsvalue of
the power frequency voltage that may be applied continu-
ously at the terminals of the arrester.
Westinghouse Electric Corporation has developed a UHV
zinc oxide surge arrester for a 1200-kV system. The arrester
has a switching surge protective characteristic of 1.5 p.u. of
maximumline-to-ground voltage.Two 1200-kVarresters
having a 700-kV rms MCOV were manufactured and then
tested at the Bonneville Power Administration’sLaborato-
ries. Thearrester’s protective level at26-kAdischarge cur-
rent i s 1.83 times line-to-ground voltage crest [61]. A zinc
oxide surgearrester has also beeninstalled to provide
protection for a1200-kV SF, test loop at the EPRI-Waltz Mill
Underground Transmission Test Facility near Pittsburgh, PA
WI.
Japanese engineers are studying the application of UHV
SF, zincoxide surgearresters in UHV SF, gas insulated
substations. Three Japanese arrester manufacturers have re-
portedthatthey are capable ofdevelopingzincoxide
arresters for such application. Thesearrestershave nonlin-
earitycoefficients as high as 38.Thearresters will be in-
stalled in an SF, gas insulated enclosureat ground potential.
The arrester‘s characteristicsand cutaway views can be seen
in [63].
2) Disconnecting Switches: Two types of EHV air in-
sulated disconnecting switches are presently being used in
1272
W - k V substations.Vertical reach disconnectingswitches
provideconnectionsbetweenhigh-andlow-levelstation
elementsand are usually used as circuit breaker discon-
necting devices since they conserve space. Horizontal break
disconnecting switches are mainly used fortransformers
and shuntreactorconnectionswherethe spacesaving is
less important.
AEP experience in the UHV disconnecting switch area has
been limited to a 2000-kV SF, gas insulated switch installed
at the AEP/ASEA UHV test station in 1978. A preliminary
study to undertake the development of a prototype hori-
zontal break air insulated disconnect switch indicated that
mechanical difficultiescould be encountered in extrapo-
lating present designs to UHV levels. This is primarily due
to the large open gapclearance requirement of 17 m and
the difficulty of maintaining switch component alignment
during opening and closing operations. Further studies are
required to determine if a reliable 1600-kV air insulated
disconnecting switch can be manufactured. 1600-kV vertical
reachdisconnectingswitches have beeninvestigated(by
Delle Alsthom in France) [64] andmaybe feasiblefor
dual-level station layout arrangements.
3) Circuit Breakers: As with all powerequipment,the
requirements of the systemmandate the ratings of circuit
breakers.However,stationdesign also hasan impact on
breaker design, and two UHV circuit breaker technologies
have been evaluated: conventional air blast circuit breakers
and the gas insulated station(GIS) circuit breaker. Although
the system requirements are similar,thestationdesign
imposes different limitations.
The application of a conventional circuit breaker is possi-
ble, but a discussion of the physical design consideration is
enlightening. The air blast circuit breakers, successfully used
at EHV levels, have top heavy interrupter heads and require
massive porcelainsupportcolumnsto bear the breaker’s
weight and to withstand the dynamic forces of operation
given a terminal height of approximately80 ft above ground
for UHV applications. Additionally, due to the large phase-
to-phase spacings and large vertical distances to the inter-
rupter heads,massive and complex airsystemsareneces-
sary to supplysufficientdielectric air to theinterrupter
heads. For the two-pressure SF, circuit breaker design, simi-
larly complex SF, systems are required to supply high-pres-
sure SF, to the live tank interrupting heads. The remaining
conventional design, the SF, puffer, is the most practical
live tank breaker design to extend to UHV levels due to the
lower number of gasseals and mechanical parts. However,
the SF, puffer interrupter contacts are operated by a mecha-
nism through a verticaloperating rod in the support col-
umns. It is difficult to deliver sufficient mechanical energy
over the required distance to achieve a two-cycle interrupt-
ingtimewhile simultaneouslyachievingthe necessary
synchronismbetweenthe multipleinterruptingcontacts.
Considerabledevelopmentwork has beencompletedfor
1100-kV UHV equipment as reported in [6], [7], [65]-[67].
In contrast, gas insulatedstation (GIS) circuit breaker
designs have fewof theproblemsoftheconventional
circuit breaker designs due to the compactness of the CIS
which allowscircuit breaker operating mechanisms and
interrupting contacts to be placed in close proximity. There-
fore, the remaining discussion on UHV circuit breakers will
be confined to GIS designs.
For the CIS design with today‘s technology,the GIS
PROCEEDINGS O F THE IEEE, VOL. 73, NO. 8,AUGUST 1985
puffer breaker seems to be the practical choice with regard ampere, kilovolt (ordielectricspecification),impedance,
to reliability. The GIS design permits compact arrangement numberof phases,taps, loss evaluations, degree offield
as well as full use ofthedielectriccapabilitiesofthe assemblyrequired,materialselectionforinsulation, mag-
interrupter. In addition, the design should permit two-cycle netic andstructuralrequirements,andwhetherthe trans-
interrupting times. Extrapolating from existing designs, the former is core or shell form.
numberofinterrupters per polewould be eightfor SF, For thepurposeofthe AEP System, it is expectedthat
puffer designs at 1500 kv. Withthe development of new SF, maximum transformer and reactor volt-ampere ratings will
puffer designs, thisnumber could be reduced tofour at be as shown in Table 4. The megavolt-ampere rating of the
1100 kV [63] and possibly six at 1500 kV.
Circuit breaker control, preinsertion resistors, andother
Table 4 Transformer and ReactorSizes
techniques will be needed so that transmission line over-
voltages due to energization, reenergization, fault initiation, Three-phase
Single-phase
Item MVA MVA
andfaultclearingwill normally be limitedto 1.6 p.u.of
maximum operating line-to-ground voltage. However, over- 1000
Station autotransformers 3000
Reactors 500 1500
voltages ofupto 2.2 P.u., could occur in theeventof
misoperations of the control devices and therefore need to
be incorporated in the design.
line-compensating shunt reactors is estimated by assuming
There is some indication that magnitudes of fault clearing
transients may require circuit breakers to be equipped with a degree of compensation of 75-80 percent for a 400-km,
opening resistors [65]. In addition, two-stepclosing resistors 1600-kV UHV transmission line. UHV single-phasetrans-
may be needed [ a ] . The voltage across, and therefore the former ratings are presently based on shipping restrictions.
If improvements in technology can bring about reductions
energyrequirementsof theseresistor switching arrange-
in transformer size and weight, the ideal UHV transformer
ments can be substantial [69]. Depending upon the number
ofcontacts,gradingcapacitors used to distribute stresses size for 1600 k v is projected to be 4500 M V A per three-phase
acrosseach interrupter canalsobe subjected to consider- bank.
Inadditionto shippingrestrictions, single-phase unit
able voltage stress.
The Switching Impulse Withstand Level (SIWL) for circuit design is required for UHV transformers and reactors with
air insulated connections due to phase-to-phase clearance
breakers would be based on the switching impulse protec-
requirements. Theclearance consideration can be elimi-
tive level of 2200-kVcrest forzincoxide surgearresters
when discharging a 400-km line having a surge impedance nated by direct connection of UHV transformers and reac-
of 250 Q andavoltageof 2.2 p.u. The addition of a tors to a gas insulated station, but single-phase units will
9-percentmargin leads to the SlWL specificationof 2400 continue to be heavily preferred for reliability purposes. A
kv. This level must be verified, for both positive and nega- fourth single-phase spare unit is both less costly and easier
tive polarity, using the standard 250 X 2500 wave and either to install then a full three-phase unit.
The weights of the transformers (without dramatic chan-
the IEC 2 X 15 or the ANSI 3 X 3 test [70], [71]. The with-
ges in materials) are expected to be near the values shown
stand across open contacts of 2550 kV (2400 +
150) appears
in Table 5. Note that to date USA railroad shipping limita-
to be in agreement with presentANSIstandard for EHV
equipment [65].
Transient recovery voltage requirements also need to be Table 5 Transformers and Reactors Weights
addressed.Extrapolationofexisting standardsmay not be Weight in
appropriate, resulting in either insufficient or excessive ca- Metric Tonnes
pabilities. As an example, an ungrounded three-phase fault Shipping Installed
orthree-phasegroundedfault on an ungrounded system Single-phase, ICOI-MVA, 1600/800-kV
can produce a normal frequency recovery voltage of up to autotransformer, 17-percent impedance 295 476
1.5 times the normal line-to-neutral voltageon the first pole Single-phase, 1500-MVA 1600/800/25-kV
autotransformer 390 5 a9
ofthecircuit breaker tointerrupt thefaultcurrent. The
Single-phase, 500-MVAR, 1600-kV
exact value ofthe voltageratiodepends on thecircuit shunt reactor 254 345
configuration and needs to be examined closely.
Test facilities for 1100-kV equipment are being developed
as a result of the stimulus associated with the 1100-kV test
tions for transformers are in the order of 272 tons. Shipping
lines in the United States, Europe, and Japan. That stimulus
dimensions are estimated to be as shown in Table 6. The
has not yet materialized for a 1600-kV equipment voltage
specification for the transformers and rectors are as shown
level. Considering the required investment in test facilities,
in Table 7.
as well as the present worldwide economic conditions, the
Due to the importance of reliability several items should
development of 1600-kV equipment test facilities will prob-
ably not materialize until more test lines and stations and
actual commercial facilities are planned. Table6 Physical Size Estimates for UHV EouiDment ShiDment
4 ) Transformersand Shunt Reactors: UHVtransformer Dimension inMeters
and reactor power ratingsmust incorporatecompromises Height Width Length
between desired system requirementsandmanufacturer’s Autotransformers 6.40 3.66 13.2
limitations in the design, construction, 3.70testing,and 4.80
trans- Reactors 12.0
port of reliable and maintainable equipment. Physical sizes Required shipment
will be determined bythecombinedeffectofmegavolt- dimension 5.90 3.66 9.1

SCHERER A N D VASSELL: TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER A T ULTRA-HIGH VOLTAGES 1273

 TaMe 7 ProposedSpecification
Autotransformer Reactor
kV (L-L, rms) 1600/800 1600
4 X2.5 percent (LV) - Frank 6. Black Laboratory
Taps*
Impedance 13-1 7 percent 1700 n**
Cool i ng OA FOA
Tertiary none -
Basic impulse level (kV) 3100 3100
Sw surge (kV)2550 2550
*It is preferred that the transformer have no t a p windings, how-
ever, i f taps are used they would be as shown.
**Reactor will probably be saturable in order to limit dynamic and
steady-state overvoltages.
be considered in final selection of transformer parameters.
In general, simpler transformer design tends to improve
reliability. For example, removal of the tap windings on the
primary (UHV) side enhances reliability of the transformer
package.Largertransformers will generally requiremore
thanone (parallel) coil ”leg.”Sinceeach legmightbe
considered to have equal reliability, the chance of failure is
higher. Two smaller transformers in parallel (with one “leg”
each) couldallow at least one-half capability to be
maintained while a failed transformer was being replaced
by a spare. Otherwise the entire transformer bank is forced
out of service during this replacement process.Smaller
transformers would also be more easily transported and
would require less field assembly and less field oil
processing time (per transformer).
Since reliability is of great concern, field diagnostic test-
ing will assumeincreased importance. New methods of
detectingincipient faults are being researched andoffer
promise in this regard. Additionally, extensive factory and
on-site testing of prototype transformers will help insure
design adequacy. IftheUHV station should not be GIS,
thenthe transformer’s UHV bushing will itself present
transportation and storage problems.
IV. UHV RESEARCHACTIVITIES
In recent years, major UHV research activities have been
carried out in the USA, Italy, japan, USSR, Canada, and
Brazil.
In the USA, UHV studieshave been conducted at the
American Electric Power Company (AEP), theBonneville
Power Administration (BPA), and the General Electric Com-
pany (GE). At AEP, research and development work for UHV
transmission has been conducted at a test stationjointly
operated by AEP and the ASEA Company of Sweden.
The AEP/ASEA UHV Research Project test station is
located near South Bend, IN. It isasingle-phase facility
energized from a 345-kV circuit. The highest voltage levels
are achieved through theuse of two transformers in cascade
and range from 1 1 1 0 / 6 to 2 2 5 5 / 6 kVline-to-ground.
Basically, physical facilities for the UHV test site include a
single-phase test line consisting of three spans each 305 m
long, a station with a UHV transformer manufactured by
ASEA (rated at 420/835/1785kV, three-phaseequivalents,
and 333 MVA), and two testcages with an independent
voltage source for testing short lengths of conductor in a
shorter time. Eachcage is 30.5 m long. The cages havea
square section and their dimensions can vary between 6.1
m X 6.1 m and 9.1 m X 9.1 m. The maximum test voltage is
900 kV. A general description and test station instrumenta-
tion can be seen in [72], [73].
UHV testing of large air gaps has been performed at the
of the Ohio Brass Company and
thehigh-voltage test facilities ofthe Hydro-Quebec In-
stitute of Research (IREQ) [74], [75]. At the AEP/ASEA UHV
Project test station, extensive research in the area of corona
performance of line conductors has been conducted. Vari-
ous conductor configurations have been tested at different
voltage levels and theircoronaperformance has been
evaluated in terms of theirenvironmentalimpact as spe-
cially characterized by audible noise, radio noise, television
interference, and corona loss caused by the interaction of
adverse weather conditions and voltage levels which could
be expected forfutureUHV transmission lines [40], [54],
1841.
To date, four conductor configurations have been sub-
jected to long-term testing on the single-phase UHV test
line. The first configuration was an 18-conductor bundle of
30.8-mm diameter subconductor supported in a symmetri-
cal 1.22-m-diameter circle (or 18 X 30.8mm/1.22 m bun-
dled conductor). The second configuration was a 9 X 30.8
mm/l.22 m conductor bundle, using the same subconduc-
torsandthe same bundle diameter as the first bundle
configuration. The third configuration was 10 X 46.2
mm/1.22 m conductor bundle. In order t o determine the
optimum diameter for the 10 X 46.2 mm bundle, diameter
variation tests have been performed in the test cages and
on the UHV test line. Presently, the fourth configuration, a
16 X 35.2 mm/1.22 m, is being tested. Future plans call for
reduction in the number of subconductors and employ-
ment of asymmetrical spacing within the bundle.
In addition, research is in progress in the area of tower
systems, psychoacoustic effects of transmission audible
noise, as well as the effects of electric fields on the growth
and yield of crops in the proximity of the UHV test line.
Also, ASEA has performeddevelopmentaltesting to de-
termine and verify the insulationdesign of UHV equipment.
Research on the GIS equipment has beenconductedfor
support insulators, entrance bushings, and on the effects of
varying gas quality and pressure.
At BPA, extensive research and development o n UHV
transmission have been conducted at the Test Facility at
Lyons, OR, and the Mechanical Test Line at Moro, OR. The
Lyons UHV Test Facility consisting of a 2.1-km three-phase,
1200-kV line, energized from BPA’s 230-kV system by three
50-MVA 230/1200-kV transformers, has been used for elec-
trical studies. The test line at Mor0 has been planned
exclusively for structural and mechanical studies without
voltage. Investigations at Lyons and Mor0 have been sup-
ported with tests and studies in the BPA laboratories [37],
[76], [77]. Corona and electric field studies, biological stud-
ies, andenvironmental studieshave been conducted at
Lyons.
Investigations on switching and lightning impulse insula-
tion have beenconducted to obtain full-scalelaboratory
test data on the dielectric strength of 1100-kV transmission
lines. Studies of corona performance on conductors, insula-
tors, and hardware have been carried out both in the BPA’s
Carey Laboratory and on the Lyons 1200-kV test line. Long-
termaudible noise, radio noise, televisioninterference,
corona loss, and ozone generation for seven- andeight-
conductor bundles of 41-mm diameter subconductor have

1274 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE. VOL. 73, NO. 8,AUGUST 1985

been investigated. Mechanical and structural tests including
studies ofline loadings (wind and ice load),conductor
motion (aeolianvibration,subconductoroscillation,and
galloping), have beenperformed in the BPA’s Mangan
mechanical-electrical laboratory and at the Mor0 mechani-
cal test line.
Other studies include construction and transmission line
maintenance techniques for 1100-kV lines; biological stud-
ies of the electric field effects of 1200-kV transmission lines
on crops, natural vegetation, honeybees, wildlife, and cat-
tle; tests on substationequipment;studiesofsubstation
noise and electric fields; and evaluation of the performance
of transformers, arresters, and SF, equipment.
In 1%7, a research program to study overhead transmis-
sion lines with voltages of loo0 to 1500 k v was initiated at
GE’s Project UHV research facilitylocatedin Lenox, M A .
This was a single-phase test line constructed and energized
for the initial period of research from 1967 to 1971. In 1974,
a new three-year program to construct and operate a three-
phase test line in the range of loo0 to 1500 kV was started
by
the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). The
single-phasetestline was expanded to three-phaseoper-
ationwiththeadditionoftwo UHV transformers,surge
arresters, coupling capacitors, and associated equipment.
Thethree-phaseUHV test line was 523 mlong and test
voltages up to 1500 kV phase-to-phase were utilized.
At ProjectUHV, extensive switchingimpulse tests on
many different types of line and substation equipment were
performedandpower frequency tests oncontaminated
insulators were performed at UHV voltages. Audible noise,
radio noise, corona loss, televisioninterference,electric
field at ground level, and ozone generation were measured
for 6- to 16-conductor bundles of 33- to 56-mm-diameter
subconductors. Studies related toelectric-fieldeffectsof
UHV transmissionlineswere alsomade.Theresults of
these tests have been included in [17], [78]. The facilities at
Project UHV are now being used for HVdc research. New
equipment has been installed as part of this Project to make
possible a comprehensive research program with test volt-
ages up to +I500 kV.
In Europe, the Ente Nazionale perI’Energia Elettrica(ENEL)
of Italy took the initiative in UHV studies with the estab-
lishment of its 1000-kV Project. UHV research and develop-
ment have been conducted in various testing stations and
laboratories. The testing site at Suvereto includes the main
testing facilities of the 1000-kV Project [79]. It consists of a
I-km-long test line and a 40-mtestcage.Testshavealso
beenperformed at the CESl laboratories inMilan, the
mechanical testing facilities at Pradarena, and the mechani-
cal laboratory of Brugherio in Milan.
Switching and lightning overvoltages are being studied.
Researchhas beencarried outin the area of switching
impulse behavior of air gaps, behavior of surface insulation
of UHV system in polluted atmosphere, performance of SF,
insulation, and development of nonconventional insulators.
Studies on audible noise, radio noise, and corona loss have
been made at the test line at Suvereto.Three different
conductor configurations-six,eight,andtensymmetrical
conductor bundles of 31.5-mm diameter subconductor and
0.45-m diameter circle-have been tested. At the test cage,
these tests have been made on symmetrical bundles of up
tofourteen subconductors,asymmetricalbundles of six,
eight,and ten subconductors,andtubularconductorsof
SCHERER AND VASSELL. TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC P O W E R A T ULTRA-HIGH VOLTAGES
diameters 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 m. Studies on theinterference
levels produced byUHVinsulators and fittingswere also
made. Research is in progress on the mechanical and struc-
turalproblemsoflines,conductors,vibration dampers,
spacers, suspension fittings, and joints.
As regards the subject of the biological effects of electric
fields,studies on mice, rats, rabbits,and dogs have been
conducted both inthe laboratory and under the test line at
Suvereto. In addition, tests onUHV electricalequipment
have been carried out at the testing station at Suvereto and
at the CESl laboratories.
In japan, UHV research has beencarriedout at Central
Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI), Tokyo
ElectricPowerCompany (TEPCO), and the NGK Insulator
Company.Testing facilities of CRlEPl include a UHVfog
chamberfortestingof polluted insulators, a facilityfor
insulator testing under continuous energization, a corona
cage used for audible noise test, and a double-circuit 600-
m-long line of voltage loo0 kV ac (convertible to a k500 to
+650 k v dc). O n the UHV test line, the behavior of eight-,
ten-,andtwelve-conductorbundlesandtowersunder
strong wind and earthquake have been investigated. Con-
struction and maintenance techniques, audible noise, radio
noise,televisioninterference, as well as studies ofthe
effects of electric fields on vegetation and cattle are planned
as part of the program.
Research and development work for mechanical perfor-
mance of bundled conductor and insulator assemblies, such
as galloping and ice loading, have been carried out on the
Takaishiyama Test Line of TEPCO.Thetest line has two
spans with ten ACSR conductorbundles. Radio influence
voltage (RIV) andaudible noisetests on insulator assem-
blies under polluted conditions have been performed with
corona testing equipment and the IOO-kV pollution testing
equipment constructed at NGK High Voltage Laboratory [7].
Other research in progress includesswitching,lightning
andtemporary overvoltages, phase-to-phase clearance of
UHV lines, and flashover characteristics of full-sized bush-
ings and long insulator strings under contaminated condi-
tions.
In the USSR, UHV research has beenconducted at a
1150-kV test site. The1150-kV installation is fed from the
500-kV switchyardofthe BelyRast substationthrough a
group of 750/500/1O-kV, 3 X 417 M V A autotransformers. It
consistsof a three-phase1.17-km-long line. Research car-
riedoutincludes tests oftheinsulationofequipment,
studies of switching overvoltages, audible noise, radio inter-
ference,electricfields in a substation, and installation,
operation, and maintenance of equipment. Preliminary test
results are reported in [W].
In Canada,research and tests on transmissionsystem
equipmentoperating at rated voltages ofupto 1500kV
havebeenconducted at theHighVoltage Laboratory of
Hydro-Quebec Institute of Research (IREQ). Outdoor test
facilities at I R E Q forcorona research on transmission line
conductorsconsistof a test lineand two testcages[81],
1821. Both the test line and testcageshave been used for
the corona testing of conductor bundles for ac systems up
to 1500 kVand dc systems up to 1200kV.Thetest line
consists of a single span300 m long. Thetest cages com-
prise two adjacentwire-mesh cages with a squarecross
section of 5.5 m X 5.5 m. Air insulation tests on substation
and line configurations for transmissionvoltages of up to
1275
1500 kV were performed in IREQ’s high-voltage laboratory.
Studieswere made onthe coronaperformanceoffour
conductor bundles-8 X 41.4 mm, 6 X 46.53 mm, 8 X 46.53
mm, and 6 X 50.75 mm-in the outdoor test cages of IREQ.
In addition, a general study has also been carried out in the
test cages to evaluate the conductor bundles having from
one to sixteen conductors, with the conductor sizes varying
from 23.5 to 77.2 mm. IREQ hasalso studiedthecorona,
electric field, and ion current performance of dc transmis-
sion lines in the range of k600 to *I200 kV. Wind tunnel
measurements of aerodynamic forces such as drag, lift and
derivatives, on four-, six-, and eight-conductor bundleshave
been made. Also, study of the dynamic performance of a such as thatexperienced in the United States since the
six-conductorbundle exposed to the wind and investiga-
tion of the aerodynamic performance of a twelve-conduc-
tor bundle have been carried out on the Magdalen Islands
test line.
In Brazil, a UHV research facility at Adrianopolis has been
recently completed [83]. A 360-m-long test line and a 7.5
m X 7.5 m test cage will be installed. They will be used to
conduct research for ac transmission systems up to 1500 kV
and dc systems up to ~ 1 o o OkV. Since 1978, Brazil has been
associated with ENEL, in Italy, in connection with the IOOO-
k v Project,fora joint UHV researchand development
program in the field of ac transmission
V. CONCLUSIONS
As demonstrated in the preceding sections of this paper,
a very substantial body of knowledge has been acquired in
recent years in the area of UHV technology. Sufficient UHV
technical know-how is now available with regard to system
analysis, transmissionline and station design, as well as
equipment requirements to make the introduction of UHV
transmission-anyplace in the world-technically feasible,
Technical considerations, as such,ceased to be a limiting
factor in this regard. Rather, the timing of the utilization of
UHV technology in the commercial transmission of electric
power will now depend on UHV’s economic feasibility and
desirability in the context of specific circumstances where it
might be considered as an economically preferable alterna-
tive to EHV transmission.
Conceptually,there are threepossibleapplicationsfor
UHV transmission (as there are for EHV transmission): 1) as
a means for long-distance transportation of electric power
and energy from a remote point of electric power produc-
tion toa point or points ofits utilization; 2) as an overlay on
an existing, strong EHV transmission network, in a manner
similar to that used in many parts of the world in introduc-
ing EHV as an overlay on an existing lower voltage transmis-
sion network; and 3) as a means for interconnection with
another strong power system in a manner similar to that
used extensively in establishing EHV interconnections in
the past. Also, of course, applications of UHV transmission
involving combinations of two or more of the above alter-
natives are entirely possible (and-in fact-probable, over
a period of time).
In the instance of long-distance transportation of electric
power and energy, the application of UHV transmission as
an alternative to EHV transmission could be viable in any
futureprojectinvolvingthedevelopmentofgenerating
capacity resources that are sufficiently large and sufficiently
remotefrompointsofutilization, The projected cost of
1276
UHV facilities as compared with such cost of EHV facilities,
as well as the pace at which the project is to be developed
to its full potential, would be two of the factors requiring
careful evaluation.
With regard to the possible introduction of UHV trans-
mission as an overlay on an existing EHV network,the
timing of such an overlay is bound to depend primarily on
the rateof growth in electricity demand,since growth in
demand is, ultimately, the driving force behind the pace at
which new generating capacity resources and their associ-
ated transmission facilities need to be added to the system.
A slowdown in the rate of growth in electricity demand,
mid-19705, leads unequivocally to a corresponding delay in
theintroduction of a UHVoverlay as an economically
attractive alternative to continued EHV development.
The possible utilization of UHV transmission as a means
for interconnection between two or more power systems is
likely to come about in conjunction with the introduction
ofUHV transmission as an overlay on existing EHV net-
works,ratherthan as an entirely separate applicationof
UHV transmission technology. This is so because the value
of a UHV transmission linkbetweenpower systemsis,
intrinsically, greatly dependent on the strength of the trans-
missionnetworks within such power systems. A strong
transmission tie between weak systems rarely can be justi-
fied.
While the precise timing of the utilization of UHV tech-
nology in the commercial transmission of electric power is
subject to considerableuncertainty,theultimateappli-
cation of such technology in the not-too-distant future is
hardly in doubt. In the meantime, further progress needs to
be made in thedevelopment and testing of UHV equipment
and in actualoperationofUHVdemonstration facilities.
Only in this way will the electric power supply industry of
theworld at largebe able to preserve andenhance its
flexibility of choice in future power system development. It
is notinconceivable thatthe introductionofUHVmight
need to be accelerated from the presently anticipated time-
table. Should this happen, the fully developed technology,
and the appropriate equipment would need to be available.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The scope of the technical effort described in this paper
covers the work of many individuals within the American
Electric Power Service Corporation. The authors called upon
a numberof these individualsfor assistance in preparing
materialsforthispaper.Quiteparticularly,theauthors
would like to acknowledge contributions of the following
staff members of the Electrical Engineering and the System
Planning departments:
Electrical Engineering Department
A. S. Jagtiani
D. E. joslyn
Y. I. Musa
R. L. Retallack
R . H. Schlomann
C. H. Shih
T. Vinh
6. J. Ware
D. M. Williams
PROCEEDINGS O F THE IEEE, VOL. 73, NO. 8,AUGUST 1985
 System Planning Department
M. Chau
M. S. Feichtner
R . M. Maliszewski
K . P. Medicherla
6. M. Pasternack
J. H. Riley
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