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Photosynthesis
Chapter 13
CIE Notes for Biology A2
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1: Light Dependent Reaction
(O/N 04) Describe the photoactivation of chlorophyll. 3m
1. Chlorophyll absorbs mainly red and blue light
2. Light is absorbed by attenna complex and energy is transferred to reaction centres/ P700/ P680
3. Light energy excites electrons in reaction centre
4. Electrons are emitted from chlorophyll
(O/N 04) Suggest an advantage of having photosystems, the electron transport chain and ATP synthase as part of
the thylakoid membrane. 1m
1. Ref increased efficiency/ short diffusion distance/ close together
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(M/J 09)
Describe what happens to water at R. [1]
1. Photolysis
2. Water splits into 2e- , 2H+, and (1/2
O2)
3. Enzyme is involved
(O/N 10 43) Describe how the 2 products of light dependent stage are used in light independent stage of
photosynthesis. 3m
1. ATP provides energy
2. reduced NADP is reducing agent/ provides hydrogen for converting GP to TP
3. ATP is also used to regenerate RuBP
(M/J 13 42)
Name the process in the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis that produces oxygen. [1]
1. photolysis
Name the photosystem involved in the production of oxygen in the light-dependent stage. [1]
1. P680 / Photosystem II
(O/N 13 43) Fig. 7.1 shows some of the components involved in the light-dependent stage.
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(New syllabus) The Hill Reaction
To determine the effect of light intensity or light wavelength on the rate of photosynthesis using a redox indicator
(eg. DCPIP) and a suspension of chloroplast.
1. Liquidise the leaves in ice-cold water and filter the resulting suspension to remove unwanted debris
(isolation of chloroplast).
2. Chill small tubes of buffered chloroplast suspension.
3. Add DCPIP solution into the tubes.
4. Place the tubes in different light intensities/wavelengths of light.
5. Assess the blue colour at 1-minute interval.
6. Record the rate of loss of blue colour (as measured in a colorimeter/by matching against known
concentrations of DCPIP solution).
Photosynthesis involves the acceptance of hydrogen by a coenzyme. This occurs during the light-dependent stage,
when hydrogen is accepted by NADP. Indicator such as DCPIP takes up hydrogen ions that are produced as the light-
dependent stage occurs and loses its colour.
(2015 O/N 41) 7 (b) The uptake of radioactively-labelled carbon dioxide in chloroplasts was investigated.
Three tubes, each containing different components of chloroplasts, were exposed to light. The results of
the investigation are shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1
uptake of radioactively-
tube contents labelled carbon dioxide
/ counts per minute
C stroma 4 000
(i) Name the substance that combines with carbon dioxide in a chloroplast. [1]
1. RuBP / ribulose bisphosphate
(ii) Explain why the results in tube B are similar to those in tube A. [2]
1. grana site of light-dependent stage
2. ATP and reduced NADP produced
(iii) Explain why the uptake in tube C was less than the uptake in tube B. [2]
(without ATP and reduced NADP)
1. less / no, GP converted to TP
2. less / no, RuBP / ribulose bisphosphate, can be regenerated
3. light-independent stage / Calvin cycle, cannot occur (as much)
(2015 O/N 41) 7 (c) Complete the following paragraph by using the most suitable words to fill in the gaps.
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In a photosystem, several hundred accessory pigment molecules surround a primary pigment
molecule, called chlorophyll a, in the thylakoid (ignore grana / granum) membrane. The position of the primary
pigment is also called the reaction centre. Light energy is absorbed by the accessory pigments and passed on to the
primary pigment. Electrons are excited to a higher energy level. They are emitted from the primary pigment and are
captured by electron acceptors and eventually pass along the electron transport chain/ ETC, producing ATP.
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2: Light Independent Reaction (Calvin Cycle)
(M/J 13 41) Name the compound that combines with carbon dioxide in the light-independent stage in a C3 plant.
[1]
Ribulose bisphosphate
Ignore RuBP (RuBP gains no marks. Recently CIE has been stricter with names. For this particular question, CIE
commented that RuBP alone did not qualify as this is not the actual name.)
(O/N 08) The name of the five carbon sugar in the cycle [1]
Ribulose bisphosphate
(O/N 08) The name of the enzyme that fixes carbon dioxide [1]
Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/ rubisco
(O/N 08) State where in the chloroplast the Calvin cycle occurs [1]
Stroma
(M/J 14 41) State precisely where in the chloroplast RuBP and GP are located. [1]
Stroma
(O/N 14 41) Name precisely the process that produces reduced NADP. [1]
non-cyclic photophosphorylation
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(O/N 02) Explain the reasons why when the light intensity suddenly decreases
a. Concentration of GP increases and then decreases 2m
1. GP continues to be formed from RuBP
2. Until all RuBP used up
3. The GP falls as converted to hexose/ glucoce/ TP
b.RuBP decreases 1m
1. In dark RuBP not regenerated/ converted to GP
2. Requires the products/ ATP/ reduced NADP from the light-dependent reaction/ photophosphorylation
(M/J 05) Explain what initially happens to the concentration of RuBP and GP if the supply of carbon dioxide is
reduced. 3m
1. RuBP accumulates
2. Due to reduced combination with CO2
3. GP goes down/ not as much being formed
4. Due to conversion to TP
(M/J 05) Describe how carbon dioxide is fixed in the Calvin cycle. 2m
1. Carbon dioxide combines with (5C compound) RuBP
2. to form unstable 6C compound/ forms 2 molecules of 3C GP
3. Using rubisco
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(O/N 08) State the name of another compound that is produced in the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis
that is used in the Calvin cycle [1]
1. ATP
2. reduced NADP
(O/N 02) State 2 products of photophosphorylation that drive the Calvin cycle. [2]
1. ATP
2. Reduced NADP
(M/J 05) Explain how the products of photophosphorylation are used in the Calvin cycle. [3]
1. Products: Reduced NADP and ATP
2. Reduced NADP is reducing agent/ provides hydrogen for converting GP to TP
3. ATP is source of energy
4. ATP (as a source of phosphate) is also used to regenerate RuBP
(M/J 09) (M/J 13 41) Explain briefly the role of reduced NADP in the light-independent stage. [2]
Acts as a hydrogen carrier (The exact term hydrogen has to be used. It is not H+ or H2. We are referring to
hydrogen atoms here.)
To reduce GP into TP
This process uses ATP
(O/N 13 43) Describe the roles of the following substances in the light-independent stage of photosynthesis [6]
RuBP
1. Carbon dioxide reacts with RuBP (carbon dioxide fixation)
2. to form GP
3. using rubisco
reduced NADP
1. acts as a reducing agent / provides hydrogen
2. for converting GP to TP
ATP
1. acts as a source of energy to convert GP to TP
2. acts as a source of phosphate to regenerate RuBP
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(O/N 08) Explain the changes in the relative
concentrations of RuBP and GP after the light
source is switched off. 4m
1. In light independent reaction/ Calvin cycle
2. RuBP is still being converted to GP
3. Until the available RuBP is being used up
membrane in photosynthesis. 4m
1. Contains photosystems I and II
2. Large surface area of the thylakoid membrane holds the pigments, enzymes and electron carriers in
position for light dependent reaction
3. Site of photophosphorylation
4. Site of ETC
5. Produce ATP
6. Produce reduced NADP
In one study into the productivity of Chlorella, carbon dioxide concentration was altered to investigate its effects
on the light-independent stage of photosynthesis.
• A cell suspension of Chlorella was illuminated using a bench lamp.
• The suspension was supplied with carbon dioxide at a concentration of 1% for 200 seconds.
• The concentration of carbon dioxide was then reduced to 0.03% for a further 200 seconds.
• The concentrations of RuBP and GP (PGA) were measured at regular intervals.
• Throughout the investigation the temperature of the suspension was maintained at 25 °C.
The results are shown in Fig. 1.2.
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Explain why the concentration of RuBP changed between 200 and 275 seconds. [2]
1. The concentration of carbon dioxide is lower
2. Less carbon dioxide combines with RuBP / less carbon fixation / less RuBP converted to GP
3. RuBP reformed from TP
Calculate the rate of decrease per second in the concentration of GP between 200 and 350 seconds.
(Show your working and give your answer to two decimal places).
Explain how the decrease in the concentration of GP leads to a decreased harvest for commercial suppliers of
Chlorella. [2]
1. less TP
2. so less conversion to other carbohydrates/lipids/amino acids/protein
3. such as glucose/hexose/cellulose/starch
4. Amino acids are used to make proteins for growth/cell division
5. Carbohydrate/lipid are used for repiration for growth/cell division
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(O/N 15 42) Complete the following paragraph. [4]
Rubisco is involved in the fixation of carbon dioxide by RuBP (ribulose bisphosphate) in the Calvin cycle. The
resulting six carbon compound immediately splits to give two molecules of glycerate-3-phosphate (GP). GP is
converted to triose phosphate (TP) using ATP and reduced NADP produced in the light-dependent stage. Some of
the TP produced is used to regenerate ribulose bisphosphate so that the Calvin cycle can continue. The remaining
TP may be used to synthesise other compounds including acetyl CoA which can directly enter the Krebs cycle.
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3: Chloroplast
(O/N 13 41) Describe the role of accessory pigments in photophosphorylation. [2]
1. absorb light energy
2. to pass light energy onto primary pigment / chlorophyll a / reaction centre
(O/N 13 41) State precisely the location of photosynthetic pigments within a chloroplast.
1. Grana / thylakoid membrane
(O/N 15 42) Use label lines and letters to label one place where
stroma
(O/N 15 42) Chloroplasts can move within palisade cells. Suggest two advantages of chloroplast movement within
palisade cells. [2]
1. To absorb maximum light
2. To avoid damage by high light intensities
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4: Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
(O/N 03) With reference to figure, describe 3 ways in which the sun and shade leaf differ in their response to
increasing light intensity. 3m
1. More respiration in sun leaves at zero or low light intensity
2. CO2 uptake is greater in shade leaves at low intensity
3. Sun leaves reach compensation point/ zero gas exchange at higher light intensity
4. Rate of photosynthesis increases more rapidly in sun leaves
5. High rate of photosynthesis/ CO2 uptake in sun leaves at higher light intensity
6. CO2 uptake levels off in shade leaves
Explain why the carbon dioxide uptake levels off in the shade leaf as light intensity increases. 3m
1. Light is no longer a limiting factor
2. Some other factor becomes limiting
3. ie carbon dioxide concentration/ temperature/ ref chlorophyll
2. At high light intensity increasing temperature will increase the rate of photosynthesis
3. (Ref Effect of temperature on the rate of) enzyme controlled reactions/ light independent stage
4. Detail example/ named enzyme (Rubisco)/ Calvin cycle
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(O/N 06) Under conditions of low wind speed, the rate of transpiration decreases, even though the stomata of the
leaves are open.
Explain. 2m
1. Rate of transpiration is due to difference in relative humidity inside and outside stomata
2. In still air/ low wind speed, external water vapour remains close to stomata
3. Hence, reduced, concentration gradient/ water potential gradient
(O/N 07) With reference to Fig, describe the effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis of wheat plants.
2m
1. As temperature increases, rate of CO2 used increases then decreases
2. 2 paired figures/ peak at 18 C
(O/N 07) Suggest why temperature affects the rate of photosynthesis in the way you have described. 2m
In terms of Enzymes
1. Rate of photosynthesis rises due to increased kinetic energy of molecules
2. Increased number of collisions/ increase in enzyme activity
3. Enzymes become partly denatured above, 18 °C/ optimum
4. and affects the rate of light independent reaction/ Calvin cycle/ dark stage
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(M/J 08) Explain why increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide may increase the rate of production of
carbohydrates at high light intensities. 5m
1. Light not limiting at high light intensities
2. Much ATP/ reduced NADP available
3. CO2 is the limiting factor
4. Because low concentration CO2 (in atmosphere)
5. More CO2 combines with RuBP
6. using Rubisco
7. at Calvin cycle/ independent stage
8. More GP is converted to TP
9. More hexose is produced
10. Ref Fate of hexose (converted to sucrose/cellulose)
(O/N 09 41) Describe and explain the results shown in Fig 8.1 for experiment 1. 3m
At low light intensity
1. Rate of photosynthesis increases as light intensity increase
2. Light intensity is limiting factor
Describe and explain the difference between the results for experiment 1 and experiment 2. 3m
1. Above light intensity of 1 rate is always higher for experiment 2
2. Plateau reached at lower light intensity for experiment 1
3. Maximum/ plateau, rate is double for experiment 2
4. Experiment 2 has much more CO2 (concentration) (compared to experiment 1)
5. CO2 is limiting in experiment 1 up to 2.8
The optimum temperature for many plants living in temperate regions is approximately 25 °C. 5m
Explain why the rate of photosynthesis in these plants decreases at temperatures above 25 °C.
1. Enzymes denatured/ active site changes shape
2. Enzyme in cyclic phosphorylation (rubisco) is affected, less photolysis, less ATP produced
6. With the closing of stomata due to increased transpiration, uptake of carbon dioxide for light independent
stage is reduced
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(O/N 09 42)
Calculate the value of light intensity when the distance between the beaker and lamp was 20 cm. 1m
1. 0.0025/ 2.5 x 10-3
Explain why the discs rise to the surface after being illuminated for a length of time. 3m
1. Photosynthesis takes place
2. Oxygen is produced
3. Oxygen collects inside disc/ on surface of disc
4. Disc less dense/ more buoyant
Using the data in Table 8.1, describe the relationship between light intensity and the rate of photosynthesis. 2m
1. Rate of photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases
2. Paired data quotes from columns 2 and 4
The student found that there was no increase in the rate of photosynthesis when 2 lamps where placed 5cm from
the beaker. Suggest why there was no increase in the rate of photosynthesis. 2m
1. Light intensity no longer limiting
2. Carbon dioxide concentration/ rate of diffusion now limiting
3. Temperature too high/ Denatures enzymes
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(M/J 10 41) Compare the change in carbon dioxide uptake in sorghum and soybean during the 3 days at 10 C. 2m
1. Greater reduction in sorghum than in soybean
2. Use of comparative figures
Explain how these changes could be responsible for the low rate of carbon dioxide uptake by sorghum even when
returned to a temperature of 25 °C. 4m
1. Less surface area
2. Less absorption of light
3. Less photophosphorylation/ light dependent reaction
4. Less chemiosmosis
5. Due to smaller thylakoid space or reduced proton gradient
6. Less ATP produced
7. Less reduced NADP produced
8. Light-independent reaction/ Calvin cycle slows down
9. Less carbon dioxide fixed/ combined with PEP
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(M/J 10 43) Describe and explain the effect of light intensity on the rate of carbon dioxide uptake before cooling.
3m
1. Light intensity is limiting factor in this case
2. Higher CO2 uptake at higher light intensity
3. Comparative figures using column 1 and 2
4. CO2 used in Calvin cycle/ light independent reaction
5. Photophosphorylation/ light dependent stage provides ATP/ reduced NADP
6. for use in Calvin cycle
Describe the effect of light intensity on the ability of sorghum plants to survive cooling. 2m (Look at the data in the
final column of the table which referred to carbon dioxide uptake after cooling)
1. Survive better at low light intensities
2. Comparative figures
(O/N 10 43) The rate of photosynthesis is affected by factors other than the wavelength of light. These factors may
act as limiting factors.
Explain what is meant by the term limiting factor. 2m
1. Process/ photosynthesis affected by more than 1 factor
2. Rate is limited by the factor nearest its minimum value
(O/N 10 43) Carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere may be a limiting factor in photosynthesis.
Describe how carbon dioxide reaches the photosynthetic cells in a leaf. 4m
1. Carbon dioxide enters leaf by diffusing through open stoma into the sub stomatal space and into the many
air spaces in spongy mesophyll and air spaces between palisade cells.
2. It dissolves in the moisture on the cell walls of the cells and enters through cell walls.
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(M/J 12 41) Suggest and explain why the rate of photosynthesis of the plant decreases to zero just above 40 C. 5m
1. 26 °C optimum temperature for rubisco/ enzyme for Calvin cycle
2. At just over 40 °C enzymes/ rubisco denatured
3. So less carbon dioxide fixed and Calvin cycle slows down
Draw, on Fig, the likely curve if the same experiment were carried out on a C4 plant, such as sorghum.
Give reasons to explain your curve. 3m
Curve drawn with optimum to the right of existing curve
1. C4/ sorghum enzymes have higher optimum temperature than C3
2. Has leaf structural features to avoid photorespiration
3. Adapted to hot climate
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(M/J 12 42)
State why sodium hydrogencarbonate solution was used. 1m
Provides carbon dioxide
Suggest what factor, which may have an effect on the rate of photosynthesis, that was not taken into account in
this experiment. 1m
1. Temperature
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(M/J 13 42) A student investigated the effects of temperature and light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis of
an aquatic plant.
Suggest explanations for the results for high light intensity above 30 °C. [2]
1. Light is no longer the limiting factor/ temperature is now the limiting factor
2. Enzymes are denatured
3. Fewer enzyme-substrate complexes formed
4. Less photolysis (leads to less oxygen produced)
Explain why the volume of oxygen released from the plant does not give a true rate of photosynthesis. [1]
1. respiration uses oxygen
(M/ J 14 42) Tick (✓) if the factor directly affects the stage or a cross (✗) if it does not affect the stage.
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(O/N 14 43) An experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis
in an aquatic plant using the apparatus shown in Fig. 8.2.
As photosynthesis took place, the oxygen produced formed a bubble of gas which moved along the scale in the
capillary tube. The distance moved by the bubble in a fixed period of time was used to calculate the rate of
photosynthesis.
The light intensity was varied by altering the distance, d, between the lamp and the photosynthesising plant.
The results are shown in Table 8.1.
Using the data in Table 8.1, draw a graph to show the relationship between light intensity and the rate of
photosynthesis. [3]
1. y-axis: rate of photosynthesis
x-axis: light intensity
2. All points plotted correctly
3. Line of best fit
Explain the shape of the graph you have drawn, with reference to limiting factors. [3]
1. at low light intensity light is the limiting factor
2. at high light intensity other factors become limiting
3. such as temperature/ carbon dioxide concentration
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(2015 O/N 41) 7 (a) One way to estimate the rate of photosynthesis is to measure the rate of uptake of carbon
dioxide.
Fig. 7.1 shows the relationship between light intensity and relative carbon dioxide uptake and production in
a dicotyledonous plant.
(i) State one physical factor that may limit the rate of photosynthesis at Y. [1]
1. carbon dioxide concentration/ temperature
(ii) State two features of a dicotyledonous leaf that can affect the rate of photosynthesis. [2]
1. stomata number/ size
2. number/ size of chloroplasts
3. leaf surface area/ thinness of lamina
4. number/ size of intercellular airspaces
5. rubisco concentration
6. age/ senescence
(iii) Explain the shape of the curve as light intensity increases from 0 to X. [2]
1. respiration (rate) greater than photosynthesis (rate)
2. (so) overall there is a net production of carbon dioxide/ AW
3. at X, idea that photosynthesis = respiration/ compensation point
M/J 16 41 2 (b) Investigations were carried out in Florida, USA, into the effect of different concentrations of
atmospheric carbon dioxide and of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis of soybean plants.
Plants were grown from seed in outdoor, computer-controlled growth chambers at different concentrations of
carbon dioxide. The upper parts of the chambers were transparent so that the plants received natural sunlight.
After the seedlings emerged, the air in the soil was separated from the air around the leaves by a gas-tight seal in
each chamber.
Suggest why the air in the soil and the air around the leaves of the plants were separated. [2]
1. to keep out unwanted CO2 (in air around leaves)/ or to stop CO2 increasing/ entering (upper chamber)
2. as soil organisms and plant roots would respire and produce an unwanted source of carbon dioxide
2 (c) In one investigation, two sets of plants, A and B, were grown from seed at different concentrations of carbon
dioxide:
A – normal atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (0.033%)
B – normal atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ×2 (0.066%).
Then, keeping each set of plants in its particular concentration of carbon dioxide,
measurements were made of their rates of photosynthesis at different light intensities.
The results are shown in Fig. 2.1.
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With reference to Fig. 2.1:
(i) describe and explain, in terms of limiting factors, the results from the plants in set A [3]
at low(er) light intensity/ light intensity up to a figure in range 6 – 7 au
1. rate of photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases
2. light intensity is limiting factor
(ii) explain the difference between the results of set A and set B at high light intensities. [2]
1. more CO2 available in B/ less CO2 in A
2. There is an extra use of carbon dioxide in Calvin cycle as CO2 combines with RuBP
3. CO2 concentration is limiting factor in set A
2 (d) In a second investigation, two sets of plants, C and D, were grown from seed, as before, in different carbon
dioxide concentrations:
When the plants matured, conditions in the growth chambers were changed to investigate the
rate of photosynthesis of each set of plants in different concentrations of carbon dioxide.
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Suggest explanations for the higher rate of photosynthesis per unit area of leaf shown by the plants in set D
compared with those in set C. [4]
1. D adapted to high CO2/ can use more CO2 (per unit leaf area)
2. D have more chloroplasts/ chlorophyll
3. D have more rubisco/ RuBP
4. D have more stomata
5. D have thinner leaves
6. AVP ; e.g. ref. to diffusion of CO2
Many candidates suggested, incorrectly, that the plants in set D were exposed to a higher concentration of
carbon dioxide throughout the experiment rather than just in the maturation phase. Others did not
notice that the units for the y-axis stated mean rate of photosynthesis per unit area of leaf, and argued
erroneously that plants in set D had a greater leaf surface area. The candidates who scored highly showed
attention to detail and excellent biological knowledge, to realise that the plants in set D had adapted to a
high carbon dioxide concentration by developing more stomata, more RuBP and more chloroplasts.
(O/N 15 43) 7 (b) Describe the effects on a plant if its environmental temperature rises well above the usual
temperature range. [5]
1. decrease in rate of photosynthesis (or photosynthesis stops)
2. rubisco/ enzyme denatured
3. less/ no carbon dioxide fixed/ binds to RuBP
4. (initial) increase in transpiration (or high transpiration)
5. loss of turgor/ wilting
6. ABA production
7. (eventually) stomata close
8. reduction in carbon dioxide uptake
9. photorespiration/ rubisco binds to oxygen instead of carbon dioxide
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(M/J 16 42) 2 (a) Fig. 2.1 shows the effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis of a plant at low light
intensity and at high light intensity.
With reference to Fig. 2.1, describe and explain the effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis. [4]
Describe
1. increased temperature increases the rate of photosynthesis at high light intensities
2. increased temperature has little effect at low light intensity ;
Explain
3. increased kinetic energy
4. (leads to) increased no. of collisions/ (rate of) enzyme activity/ ESCs/ enzyme-subtrate complexes
5. at (high light intensity) temperature is the limiting factor
6. at (low light intensity) light intensity is the limiting factor
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5: C4 Plants
(O/N 16 43 2) Most plants are C3 plants and are so-called because their first photosynthetic product is a three
carbon compound.
The enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase / oxygenase (rubisco) catalyses the fixation of carbon dioxide in
the Calvin cycle and is used by both C3 and C4 plants.
Each molecule is made up of eight large polypeptides and eight small polypeptides. Fig. 2.1 shows a side view of
the molecule.
(a) (i) Outline how the biochemistry of C4 plants differs from that of C3 plants. [2]
1. First product of photosynthesis is a 4-carbon compound
2. Enzyme PEP carboxylase catalyses the combination of CO2 with PEP to form oxaloacetate
3. Oxaloacetate is converted to malate. CO2 is removed from malate in bundle sheath cells.
4. So Calvin cycle can continue.
(b) The active sites of rubisco accept ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) and either carbon dioxide or oxygen and can
catalyse the two reactions shown below.
either
RuBP + CO2 unstable intermediate compound 2GP (PGA)
or
RuBP + 2O2 unstable intermediate compound GP (PGA) + 2CO2
Explain the consequences to the plant of the reaction involving oxygen. [2]
1. no (new) CO2 fixed/ (previously) fixed carbon lost as CO2
2. photosynthesis decreased
3. less RuBP (re)generated
4. less TP/ glucose will be made
5. ATP used in making RuBP wasted
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(c) In the absence of light, rubisco changes shape from an active form to an inactive form. Explain why
rubisco does not need to be in an active form in the absence of light. [3]
1. Calvin cycle / light independent reaction stops
2. no RuBP (for rubisco)
3. as no ATP, no reduced NADP and no light dependent reaction/ photophosphorylation
(O/N 16 41 2) Grass crops such as maize, sorghum and sugarcane are C4 plants. They are common
grass crops of tropical regions.
Oats and wheat, commonly grown in temperate regions, are C3 plants. Most plants are C3 plants.
They are termed ‘C3’ because the first product of photosynthesis is a three carbon compound.
(a) Outline how the biochemistry of C4 plants differs from that of C3 plants. [2]
5. First product of photosynthesis is a 4-carbon compound
6. Enzyme PEP carboxylase catalyses the combination of CO2 with PEP to form oxaloacetate
7. Oxaloacetate is converted to malate. CO2 is removed from malate in bundle sheath cells.
8. So Calvin cycle can continue.
(b) The C4 pathway for fixing carbon dioxide was worked out in 1966 by Hatch and Slack. During their investigation
they measured the rates of fixation of carbon dioxide at high light intensities in leaves removed from both
temperate and tropical grasses.
They also measured the rates of activity of two carboxylase enzymes in the leaves, ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase (rubisco) and PEP carboxylase.
Table 2.1
(i) With reference to Table 2.1, compare the rates of fixation of carbon dioxide in C3 and C4 grasses. [2]
1. rate in C4 grasses higher (than C3 grasses)
2. mean rate in C4 3.17 a.u. and mean rate in C3 1.65 a.u.
3. more variation between C4 plants (than between C3 plants)
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(ii) Describe the role of rubisco in the Calvin cycle. [3]
1. Rubisco facilitates fixation of carbon (dioxide)
2. It (catalyses) the reaction between RuBP and CO2
3. to give two GP
4. via an unstable six-carbon intermediate compound
(iii) With reference to Table 2.1, suggest reasons for the differences in activity of the two carboxylase enzymes in
C3 and C4 grasses. [4]
1. PEP carboxylase has higher rate of activity in C4 plants
2. idea that C4 plants can live in high, temperature/ light intensities or C4 plants have more PEP
3. rubisco has higher rate of activity in C3 plants (than in C4 plants)
4. (due to) higher concentration of CO2
(c) It has been calculated that, to produce one molecule of glucose, the C3 pathway uses 18 molecules of ATP and
the C4 pathway uses 30 molecules of ATP.
Suggest why C4 plants can afford this high cost of ATP. [2]
1. C4 plants are adapted for high light intensities/ temperatures
2. (so) high rate of photophosphorylation/ light-dependent reaction
3. (so) much ATP produced
(M/J 10 41)
Outline how this leaf anatomy adapts the plant for high rates of carbon fixation at high temperatures. [4]
1. Light independent stage occurs in bundle sheath cells. RuBP is present in bundle sheath cells.
2. Bundle sheath cells are kept away from air spaces by tightly packed mesophyll cells, so RuBP is not
exposed to oxygen.
3. CO2 / malate is delivered to bundle sheath cells from mesophyll cells so CO2 concentration in bundle
sheath cells is always high.
4. Photorespiration is avoided. / prevents competition btw CO2 and O2 for RuBP / rubisco
5. PEP carboxylase has high optimum temperature of about approximately 45°C/ it has a higher affinity for
CO2 than Rubisco and is not competitively inhibited by O2 .
6. Therefore (PEP carboxylase) is not denatured
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(O/N 09 42) Sorghum is able to carry out photosynthesis at high temperatures by preventing photorespiration.
Explain how sorghum is able to prevent photorespiration.
1. Light independent stage occurs in bundle sheath cells. RuBP is present in bundle sheath cells.
2. Bundle sheath cells are kept away from air spaces by tightly packed mesophyll cells, so RuBP is not
exposed to oxygen.
3. CO2 / malate is delivered to bundle sheath cells from mesophyll cells so CO2 concentration in bundle
sheath cells is always high.
4. Photorespiration is avoided. / prevents competition between CO2 and O2 for RuBP / rubisco
5. Enzymes / PEP carboxylase have high optimum temp of about approximately 45°C.
6. Therefore they are not denatured.
(O/N 07) Maize is a C4 plant. Explain how the structure of the leaves of maize plants enables them to
photosynthesise more effectively at high temps than wheat plants. [3]
1. Bundle sheath cells surrounds vascular bundle of the leaf
2. Light independent stage occurs in bundle sheath cells. RuBP is present in bundle sheath cells.
3. Bundle sheath cells are kept away from air spaces by tightly packed mesophyll cells, so RuBP is not
exposed to oxygen. CO2 / malate is delivered to bundle sheath cells from mesophyll cells so CO2
concentration in bundle sheath cells always high
4. Photorespiration avoided/ prevents competition btw CO2 and O2 for RuBP / rubisco
The bundle sheath cells are being kept away from air to prevent oxygen competing successfully in
photorespiration
The anatomy allows carbon dioxide to accumulate
Bundle sheath cells and mesophyll cells prevent oxygen from reaching RuBP
(O/N 10 43) Maize, Zea mays, is a cereal crop that is adapted for growth at high temperatures. However, it does
not cope with drought as well as some other crops, such as sorghum. An investigation was carried out into the
effect of low water availability on the activity of mitochondria taken from maize seedlings. Young seedlings were
uprooted and left in dry air for varying periods of time to reduce the water potential of their tissues.
Explain why this treatment reduced the water potential of the maize seedling tissues. [2]
1. water lost by, evaporation / transpiration
2. no water uptake (by roots)
(M/J 11 42)
Explain how the leaf anatomy of a maize plant reduces photorespiration, even in hot dry conditions. [4]
1. Light independent stage occurs in bundle sheath cells. RuBP is present in bundle sheath cells.
2. Bundle sheath cells are kept away from air spaces by tightly packed mesophyll cells, so RuBP is not
exposed to oxygen.
3. CO2 / malate is delivered to bundle sheath cells from mesophyll cells so CO2 concentration in bundle
sheath cells is always high
4. Photorespiration is avoided/ prevents competition between CO2 and O2 for RuBP / rubisco
Carbon dioxide is fixed in the cytoplasm of the mesophyll cells as shown below:
PEP + CO2 -> Oxaloacetate with PEP carboxylase
Take Note!
Oxaloacetate formed through the combination of CO2 with PEP is converted to malate, which travels to bundle
sheath cells, where CO2 is removed from the malate to combine with RuBP.
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6: Absorption Spectrum/ Action Spectrum
(M/J 16 42) 2 (b) Fig. 2.2 shows an absorption spectrum for chloroplast pigments and a photosynthetic action
spectrum for the same plant.
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(O/N 15 43) 7 (a) Fig. 7.1 shows the absorption spectra of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b and a
corresponding action spectrum.
(O/N 14 41) The optimum pH for the activity of rubisco is pH8. Explain why the illumination of chloroplasts
leads to optimum pH conditions for rubisco.
1. excited electrons leave chlorophyll a/ photosystem
2. and pass along ETC
3. protons present from photolysis
4. are pumped into intermembrane space
5. rubisco is in stroma
5. Protons leaving stroma causes raise in pH
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(O/N 14 43) Fig. 8.3 shows the absorption spectra of the photosynthetic pigments of a flowering plant.
Very little light of wavelength 550 nm is absorbed by the photosynthetic pigments. State what happens to
most of this light. [1]
1. reflected
A graph can also be drawn to show the relationship between the wavelength of light and the rate of
photosynthesis.
State the name of this type of graph. [1]
1. action spectrum
(O/N 13 41)
An experiment was carried out into the effect of light of different colours on photosynthesis.
• 15 leaf discs from the same plant were obtained.
• Five sealed test-tubes were set up, each containing three leaf discs in hydrogencarbonate indicator solution.
• Hydrogencarbonate indicator solution changes colour at different pH values.
• At the start of the experiment the indicator solution in all five test-tubes was orange- red.
• Four of the test-tubes were illuminated by light of a specific colour.
• The test-tubes were illuminated for the same length of time.
• The fifth test-tube was covered in black paper and was a control.
The results are recorded in Table 7.1.
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When the pH increases, the indicator becomes purple and when the pH decreases, the indicator turns yellow.
Explain the results for the leaf discs illuminated by blue light. [2]
1. Blue light is absorbed and used for photosynthesis
2. CO2 is used, so concentration decreased
3. Leads to rise in pH / decrease in acidity
(O/N 10 43) Describe and explain the effects of different wavelengths of light on the rate of photosynthesis.
4m
1. Absorbed light is used for photosynthesis in light dependent stage
2. High rate of photosynthesis at 430-435nm, and 655nm wavelengths
3. Idea of high absorption of light at these wavelengths
4. Not an exact match between absorption and action spectra in middle region
Due to absorption of light by the carotenoids/ accessory pigments in middle region
Non-cyclic phosphorylation
1. Electron emitted from PS II absorbed by PS I
2. Reduced NADP produced
3. Photolysis occurs
4. Photolysis only involves PS II
5. Oxygen produced
Electrons used to reduce chlorophyll derived Electrons used to reduce chlorophyll derived from,
from oxidation of water and returned back to P700
Electrons from photosystems used to reduce Electrons returned back to P700, so no NADP reduced
NADP
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8: Essays
(O/N 05) Discuss the effects that variations in carbon dioxide concentration and light intensity have on the rate
of photosynthesis. 7m
1. Concentration of carbon dioxide in atmosphere is 0.04%
2. During the day when there is light and it is warm, carbon dioxide is most likely the limiting factor in
photosynthesis because of the low carbon dioxide concentration in atmosphere.
3. Increase in carbon dioxide concentration will increase in rate of photosynthesis during day when there
is light and warmth.
4. Ref. to variations in concentration within canopy ie leaves outside the canopy have higher
concentration of carbon dioxide and leaves inside the canopy have lower concentration of carbon
dioxide
Light Intensity
5. PS I absorbs energy most efficiently at 700nm and PS II at 680nm.
6. Increase in light intensity will cause a proportional increase in the rate of photosynthesis until the
point of light saturation is reached under full sun
7. Then other factors become limiting
10. Light intensities vary according to day length and season
11. High light intensity can bleach chlorophyll and photosynthetic pigments
12. Light excites electrons in chlorophyll
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(M/J 07) (M/J 2013 42) Describe the structure of a chloroplast. 9m
1. Chloroplast is shaped like a biconcave disc and is 3-10 um in diameter.
2. It is surrounded by an envelope of two phospholipid membranes/ a double membrane.
3. A system of membranes runs through the ground substance, or stroma.
4. The membrane system consists of a series of flattened fluid-filled sacs, or thylakoids, which in places
form stacks, called grana that are joined to one another by membranes.
5. The granal membranes provide a large surface area for the attachment of the photosynthetic
pigments (chlorophyll and carotenoids), electron carriers and enzymes that carry out light
dependent reaction- ATP synthase.
7. The stroma contains starch grains, lipid droplets, enzymes for Calvin cycle, 70S ribosomes and circular
DNA.
8. There is a variation in shape between species
(O/N 11 41) The structure of chloroplast in relation to the adaptation to its function 9m
1. Stroma for light independent stage/ Calvin cycle
2. Contains enzymes/ rubisco
3. Sugars/ lipids/ starch/ ribosomes/ DNA
4. Internal membrane system
5. For light dependent stage
6. It consists of thylakoids which form stacks called grana at intervals with intergranal lamellae between
the grana.
7. Membrane of grana have large surface area for maximum light absorption
8. It also holds ATP synthase and electron carriers for chemiosmosis.
9. Membrane of grana holds photosynthetic pigments.
10. Pigments are arranged in light harvesting clusters/ photosystems
11. Primary pigment/ reaction centre/ chlorophyll a, surrounded by accessory pigments
12. Accessory pigments pass energy to primary pigment/ reaction centre/ chlorophyll a
13. Different photosystems absorb light at different wavelengths
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(M/J 2013 41) 10 (b) Describe how, in photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical energy, in the
form of ATP. [8]
1. Photosynthetic pigments are arranged in light harvesting clusters called photosystems, where
chlorophyll a is primary pigment.*
2. P700, the primary pigment at reaction centre of PI absorbs wavelength of light at 700nm and P680.
The primary pigment at reaction centre of PII absorbs wavelength of light at 680nm.*
3. Accessory pigments such as chlorophyll b and carotenoids which surround the primary pigment absorb
light other than wavelengths 680nm and 700nm and pass energy to primary pigment.*
4. The light energy absorbed by (the) primary pigments excites electrons in P700 and P680 to a higher
energy level.
5. The excited electrons, emitted by the pigments, are then captured by the primary electron acceptor.
6. Electrons then flow down the electron carrier chain and the energy released is used to pump H+ from
the stroma into the thylakoid space.
7. The thylakoid membrane is impermeable to H+.
8. H+ gradient across the thylakoid membrane is created.
9. H+ diffuses down the concentration gradient through ATP synthase/ ATP synthetase.
10. The enzyme rotates, synthesising ATP from ADP and Pi.
11. In cyclic photophosphorylation, electron returns to P700.*
12. In non-cyclic photophorylation, electrons from PII are passed to PI to replace those lost in PI / electrons
from water pass to PII to replace those lost in PII.*
*In O/N 06, marks are awarded for this. See the immediate question below. My personal recommendation
is just write down the full story. It only takes an additional 2 minutes.
(O/N 06) Describe the transfer of light energy to chemical energy in ATP during photosynthesis. 6m
1. Photosynthetic pigments are arranged in light harvesting clusters called photosystems, where
chlorophyll a is primary pigment.
3. P700, the primary pigment at reaction centre of PI absorbs wavelength of light at 700nm and P680,
the primary pigment at reaction centre of PII absorbs wavelength of light at 680nm.
2. Accessory pigments such as chlorophyll b and carotenoids which surround the primary pigment absorb
light other than wavelengths 680nm and 700nm and pass energy to primary pigment.
3. The light energy absorbed excites electrons in P700 and P680 and the excited electrons are emitted
from chlorophyll. They are then captured by primary electron acceptor.
5. Electrons then flow down the electron carrier chain and the energy released is used to synthesise ATP
from ADP and Pi. ATP is synthesised through chemiosmosis.
6. In cyclic photophosphorylation, electron returns to P700
7. In non-cyclic photophorylation, electrons from PII are passed to PI to replace those lost in PI /
electrons from water pass to PII to replace those lost in PII
(M/J 11 41) Describe how non-cyclic photophosphorylation produces ATP and reduced NADP. 9m
1. Photosystem I and photosystem II are involved in non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
2. Photosynthetic pigments are arranged in light harvesting clusters called photosystems, where
chlorophyll a is the primary pigment
3. Accessory pigments such as chlorophyll b and carotenoids which surround the primary pigment
absorb light other than wavelengths 680nm and 700nm and pass energy to primary pigment.
4. The light energy absorbed excites electrons in P700 and P680 and the excited electrons are emitted
from chlorophyll. These electrons are then captured by primary electron acceptor and pass down
electron carrier chain, leaving the photosystems positively charged.
5. Electrons then flow down the electron carrier chain and the energy released is used to synthesise ATP
from ADP and Pi. ATP is synthesised through chemiosmosis.
6. Electrons from PII are passed to PI to replace those lost in PI
7. Electrons from water are passed to PII to replaces those lost in PII as photolysis occurs at PII and water
is split into protons, electrons and oxygen using a water splitting enzyme.
8. Protons and electrons which are emitted from PS I combine with NADP to produce reduced NADP
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(O/N 12 42) Discuss the arrangement and location of chloroplast pigments and discuss their effect on
absorption spectra. 8m
1. Photosynthetic pigments are arranged in light harvesting clusters called photosystems on grana/
thylakoid, where chlorophyll a is primary pigment.
2. P700, the primary pigment at reaction centre of PI absorbs wavelengths of light at 700nm.
3. P680, the primary pigment at reaction centre of PII absorbs wavelengths of light at 680nm.
4. Accessory pigments such as chlorophyll b and carotenoids which surround the primary pigment
absorb light other than wavelengths 680nm and 700nm and pass the energy to the primary pigment.
5. Chlorophyll a and b absorb light in red and blue/ violet region
6. Absorption peaks for chlorophyll a and b are seen in the red and blue region
7. Carotenoids absorb light in blue/ violet region
8. Diagram of absorption spectrum
9. Different combinations of pigments in different plants give a different spectra
(O/N 12 43) Outline the process of the photolysis of water and describe what happens to the products of
photolysis. 10m
1. PII absorbs light
2. Enzyme in PII involved
3. To break down water
4.
5. Oxygen is produced
6. Used by cells for aerobic respiration
7. Or released out of plant through stomata
8. Protons used to reduce NADP
9. With electrons from PI
10. Reduced NADP used in light independent stage
11. To convert GP to TP
12. Electrons used in ETC
13. To release energy for photophosphorylation
14. To produce ATP
15. Electrons from PII go to PI
16. Ref re-stabilise PI
Absorption spectrum and action spectrum are related because the rate of photosynthesis depends on the
effectiveness of different pigments in absorbing light.
Photosynthetic pigments fall into 2 categories: primary pigments and accessory pigments.
The primary pigments are 2 forms of chlorophyll a with slightly different absorption peaks. The
accessory pigments include other forms of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and the carotenoids.
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8.3: Essays- Calvin Cycle
(M/J 04) (M/J 41 11) Outline the main features of the Calvin Cycle. 9m
1. RuBP (5C) combines with carbon dioxide using rubisco to form an unstable 6C compound, which
immediately splits into 2 molecules of GP.
2. GP is converted to TP by ATP and reduced NADP which are produced from light dependent stage.
3. TP used to form glucose/ carbohydrates/ lipids/ amino acids
4. TP is also used in the regeneration of RuBP, using ATP as a source of phosphate
5. Calvin cycle is a light independent reaction and occurs in the stroma.
(O/N 07) Explain briefly how reduced NADP is formed in the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis and is
used in the light-independent stage. 6m
1. Photolysis of water releases H+. This occurs at PS II.
2. Electrons is released by P700/ PI during non-cyclic photophosphorylation
3. Both protons and electrons combine with NADP
Reduced NADP
4. Reduces GP/ PGA
5. To TP
6. ATP used
7. NADP regenerated/ oxidise
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