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2
MARKET STRUCTURE
Definition of a Market
An arrangement that facilitates buying and selling of a good,
service, factor of production or future commitment.
OR
• A market is a place where the buyers and sellers meet with one
another and involves transaction.
Break-even →
Break-even →
The Marginal Revenue-Marginal Cost
Method (Marginal Approach)
SS
RM10
RM10 P = MR = AR
DD
Q* Quantity
Quantity
Market Firm
Perfect Competition: Profit Maximization
In The Short Run
Short run equilibrium
In short run; at least 1 input is fixed, AR = MR.
Based on MR-MC approach, firm will
maximize its profit when MR=MC.
In short run, firm can face 3 possibilities types
of profits.
i. Economic profit or supernormal profit
ii. Breakeven or normal profit
iii. Economic losses or subnormal profit.
Perfect Competition: Profit Maximization
In The Short Run
i. Economic profit/Supernormal profit
Profit earned by a competitive firm when its total revenue is
greater than total cost (TR > TC) or when price is greater than
average total cost (P > ATC)
(RM) • Firms demand curve is horizontal where
DD=AR=MR. (perfectly elastic)
• MC curve intersect with DD curve at point
ATC B.
• When MR=MC, firm achieve the profit
20 A B
maximizing output and price at 60 units and
15 D C RM 20.
60 Quantity (Kg)
Perfect Competition: Shut down point
• What would a firm do when losses incurs in short
run? Should the firm continue its operation or cease
its operation.
• The shutdown point is the point at which the firm
will be better off if it shuts down than it will if it stays
in business or when price is equal to minimum AVC.
(P = min AVC)
• The firm will shut down if it cannot cover average
variable costs.
– A firm should continue to produce as long as price
is greater than average variable cost. (P > AVC)
– If price falls below that point it makes sense to
shut down temporarily and save the variable costs.
Perfect Competition: Shut down point
• At price, RM5 per kg, P=
Price AVC and output is 60kg.
ATC •At this point, losses incurred
equals to fixed cost.
•If price falls below RM5,
operating the firm will only
A B AVC incur more losses than fixed
15 cost and thus firm must shut
down
10 P = MR = AR =DD •The key to decide whether to
continue operation or shut
5 D P1 = MR1 = AR1 =DD1 down is related to the AVC:
C
i. If P < min AVC : Shut
down (Below RM 5)
ii. If P > min AVC : continue
0 60 Quantity operation (above RM 5)
2
iii. If P = min AVC : firm at
shut down point (Point C)
Perfect Competition: Profit Maximization In
The Long Run
• In the short run, a perfect competitive firm
can either earn profit or suffer losses.
• However, in the long run, the firm can only
earn zero economic profit or normal profit
(Breakeven).
• This is due to the absence of barriers to enter
and exit the market.
Long-Run Equilibrium
• In long run, the firm can earn normal profit. There are 2
reasons:
60 60
SS1 MC AC
SS
15
15 P1 = MR1 = AR1
10 10
LOSSES
P = MR = AR
DD
Quantity Quantity
Q* 60
Market Firm
Long-run equilibrium of the firm under perfect competition
£ (SR)MC
(SR)AC
LRAC
DL
AR = MR
O Q
MONOPOLY
COMPETITION
MONOPOLY
Definition
• Monopoly is a type of market in which there is a
single seller and large number of buyers
• Selling product that have no close substitution
and have a high entry and exit barrier.
• E.g. Electricity and water provider in Sabah.
MONOPOLY
Characteristics
i. One seller and large number of buyer
• Monopoly exist when there is only one seller of a product
where this firm is the only firm exist which selling a
product which has no close substitute.
• The monopoly market is where the monopoly firm
operates, thus there is no difference between the firm and
the industry as there is only one firm in the industry.
• Since there is only one firm operates under this market, a
monopolist firm is a price maker.
• Price maker situation indicates that the firm has the
market power to control the price.
MONOPOLY
Characteristics
ii. No close substitution
• Monopoly firm would sell a product which has no close
substitute.
• This means consumers or buyers could not find any
substitute for the product.
• E.g. Electricity supply from local public utility which has
no close substitution such in Sabah, the only electricity
provider is Sabah Electricity Sdn Bhd (SESB).
• A monopoly power cannot exist when there is competition
or any substitute product.
MONOPOLY
Characteristics
iii. Restriction of entry of new firms
• In monopoly market, there are strict barriers to
the entry of new firm.
• Barriers to entry could be natural or legal
restriction that restrict the entry of new firms into
the industry.
• Barriers to entry is the main reason why a
monopolist firm faces no competition.
MONOPOLY
Characteristics
iv. Advertising
• Advertising in monopoly market depends on the
types of product sold.
• If the products are luxury goods such as imported
car, then monopoly firm will needs some
advertisement to inform the consumers on the
goods’ existence.
• Local public utilities such as water, electricity and
home phone services do not need advertisement
since consumers know where to obtain the
products.
TYPES OF MONOPOLY
i. Natural Monopoly
• Can arise due to economies of scale (the larger the firm,
the lower would be the cost of production.
• Natural monopoly exists when one firm can produce at a
lower cost compared to what two or more firms could
produce.
• In simple word, natural monopoly refers to a single firm
that can meet the entire demand with lower price charge
than more firms.
ii. Government-Created monopoly
a) Government franchise
Exclusive rights to a firm to sell certain goods and services
in certain area.
E.g. Railway services, water supply, electric supply, postal
services and cable TV services.
TYPES OF MONOPOLY
b) Government license
License needed by firms to operate any kind of business.
In monopoly market, obtaining a license will be much
difficult compared to other market structures,
c) Patent
An exclusive right to the production of an innovative
product.
Patents are given to the firms or individuals for their
discoveries and invention
d) Copyright
Exclusive right given to the author of a book, composer of a
music or producer of a movie or artistic work.
e) Control over raw-material
When one single firm has the exclusive control/right over
raw material, it will be impossible for other firm to enter the
market.
Monopoly : Profit Maximization In
The Short Run
AR = DD
MR
10
Monopoly: Profit Maximization In The
Short Run
iii. Economic losses/ Subnormal profit
Losses incurred when price is lower than average total cost (P<ATC)
or when total revenue is less than total cost (TR<TC)
46
Second-Degree Price
Discrimination
• Second-degree price discrimination is pricing
according to quantity consumed or in blocks.
• This kind of price discrimination is quite
common in our daily life.
• It occurs when the products are grouped into
blocks and each block is charged at a different
price.
• This type of price discrimination often applied
by public utilities such as electricity charges,
water charges, telephone charges and others.
Second Degree Price Discrimination
• The figure shows the rate
Price (RM) schedule for parking charges for a
building where higher price is
charged for the first hour of
parking, RM 5, second hour RM 3
Profit-maximization and third hour RM2. The next
5 price without price
discrimination
hour are charged RM1 for each
MC
additional hour.
3 • The monopolist firm could earn
additional profit under this price
discrimination .
• Without price discrimination,
2
firm earn less profit at profit
maximization price of RM3, and
quantity of 2 (hours)
• Firm earns higher revenue when
DD -AR charging different price levels
MR
compared to single price.
Q
1 2 3
THIRD DEGREE PRICE
DISCRIMINATION
• This type of price discrimination also commonly
practiced by firms in many places.
• Under this kind of price discrimination, market
is divided into many submarkets or subgroups,
where each group is considered as a different
market, depending on the price elasticity of
demand.
• Third degree price discrimination occurs when
adults are charged higher price of movie ticket
compared to children, students and senior
citizens.
Perfect competition vs. Monopoly
• Large number of buyer and • One seller, many buyers
sellers • Sells goods that has no close
• Sell homogenous product substitutes.
• Price taker • Price maker
• Free of entry and exit to the • Various barrier to entry and exit.
industry • Downward sloping demand
• Horizontal demand curve curve.
• Earn normal profit in long run • Earn a supernormal profit since
due to free entry and exit there are barriers to entry
• Operates at the lowest point of • Does not operate at minimum
ATC in long run and more point of ATC curve and less
efficient efficient.
• Comparison between monopoly and perfect Diagram
competition
•
• Comparison of both markets is done in the long run
• Compare quantity, price, profit and level of efficiency
• i. Quantity
P.comp firm sold more than monopoly firm
(Qpc Qm)
• ii. Price
• Monopoly firm charged higher than p.comp
• firm (Pm Ppc)
• iii. Profit
• P.comp firm earned normal
• Monopoly firm earned supernormal
•
iv. Level of efficiency
– P.comp firm sold more quantity at the lowest
cost ( Qpc at the min. AC)
– Monopoly firm sold less quantity at higher cost
AR = DD
MR
10
PROFIT MAXIMIZATION :
SHORT RUN
iii. Economic losses/ Subnormal profit
Losses incurred when price is lower than average total cost (P<ATC)
or when total revenue is less than total cost (TR<TC)
• When oligopolist firms compete against each other, price is determined via
kinked demand curve
– A demand curve facing an oligopolist that assumes rivals will match a price
decrease, but ignore a price increase.
– If one firm increase price, rivals will not follow. So they can gain customers
from the first firm.
70
KINKED DEMAND OR SWEEZY’S MODEL
IMPORTANT!!!
– If Firm A increases price, rivals will not follow. So they can gain customers
from the first firm. (elastic demand)
– If Firm A reduces price, rivals follow the cut in price to prevent losing customers
to the first firm. (inelastic demand)
• Thus, each firm in the oligopoly market faces a demand curve that is kinked
at the current price & output.
– Above kink: demand is elastic. If ↑ price, large ↓ sale, since customers shift to
other firms that do not follow the price increase.
– Below kink: demand is inelastic. If ↓ price, small ↑ sale, since customers do not
shift to other firms as their prices also reduced (relative similar)
71
How does Kinked demand curve happen?
When Firm A ↑ P, others do not
follow, customers shift to other
oligopolist firms = elastic demand
Price curve
Kinked demand
curve
P0 When Firm A ↓ P, others will follow,
customers would not shift to other
oligopolist firms since the P similar
Gap in MR = inelastic demand curve
curve
Q0
MR Quantity
72
How does Kinked demand curve happen?
Price
Kinked demand
curve
P0
Gap in MR
curve
Q0
MR Quantity
73
How does Kinked demand
MC 4
curve happen?
MC2
Price
MC1
P2 The model explains price
remains relatively stable
P0 overtime i.e. price
rigidity
Q2 Q0 Q1 MR
Quantity
74
How does Kinked demand curve happen?
Price
MC
ATC
Profit determination depends on
P0 the location of the ATC
Q0 MR
Quantity
75
• Equilibrium or profit maximization output at Q0
(MR = MC), P is at P0
76
• At price P0, the oligopolist will sell at output Q.
77
• The kinked demand curve will lead to price rigidity. This explains
why price usually remains unchanged for a long period of time.
• Thus the kinked demand curve model predicts that price and
quantity will be insensitive to small cost changes but will respond if
cost changes are large enough.
78
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 7
THEORY OF FIRM AND
MARKET STRUCTURE
Quick comparison between four
markets
Key Perfect Monopolistic Oligopoly Monopoly
characteristics Competition Competition
No. of Sellers Large number of Many sellers Few sellers One single seller
sellers
Price decision Price taker Price taker Price maker Price maker
(Price control) (no control over P) (little control) (some control) (complete control)
MC1
14 MC2
AC
10
8
6
4
(i)
35
Output ( units )
(ii)
c) Suppose production cost of the firm increases from MC1 to MC2, what is the
new equilibrium output and price?
d) Calculate total profit at the equilibrium and name type of profit the firm is
making
THANK YOU