Oxford University Press Advanced Biology For You, Second Edition © Williams Services Limited 2015

Glossary
Absorption spectrum A graph that shows the degree of absorption of light of different wavelengths by a pigment
such as chlorophyll
Accommodation When viewing close objects, the ciliary muscles contract, the suspensory ligaments slacken and the
lens assumes spherical shape focusing the image on the retina
Acetylation of histone proteins Chromatin can be in an ‘open’ state in which the DNA is not methylated. Instead
the tails of the histone proteins associated with DNA are now acetylated (addition of an acetyl group). Transcription
factors can now bind to the DNA and genes are transcribed and translated into proteins
Acetylcholine A neurotransmitter that diffuses across the synaptic cleft between two adjacent neurones, and so
passes on an impulse from one neurone to the next
Acetylcholinesterase An enzyme present in the synaptic cleft that splits acetylcholine into acetate and choline after
acetylcholine is bound to the receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane
Acid rain Any precipitation with a pH below 5.6. The main pollutant responsible for acidification is sulfur dioxide
Action potential The change that occurs in the electrical charge across the membrane of a neurone when it is
stimulated and a nerve impulse passes
Action spectrum A graph that shows the rate of photosynthesis at different wavelengths of light
Activation energy The energy needed to start a chemical reaction. Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy
of a reaction
Activator Inorganic metal ion which forms a temporary attachment to an enzyme and changes its active site so a
reaction is more likely to take place
Active transport The uptake of molecules or ions against a concentration gradient using energy from respiration in
the form of ATP
Acute disease A disease that comes on suddenly and affects the body quickly
Adaptive radiation When a group of species have all developed from a common ancestor
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) A nucleotide derivative consisting of a molecule of ribose, a molecule of adenine
and three phosphate groups. It acts as an energy carrier in all living cells. The hydrolysis of ATP leads to the formation
of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi), with the release of energy
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) A short-term energy store of the cell, consists of a molecule of ribose, a molecule of
adenine and three phosphate groups
Adhesion The tendency of water molecules to stick to the inside of the xylem vessel
Adrenal glands Endocrine glands that are located on top of the kidneys. The outer cortex and the inner medulla
secrete hormones that are chemically and functionally quite different
Adrenal medulla The inner region of the adrenal gland which secretes the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline
Adrenaline Hormone produced by the adrenal glands in times of stress the prepares the body for an emergency
Aerobic respiration Respiration that uses oxygen
Agglutination When antibodies cause antigens to stick together
Agrochemical Chemicals that are used to improve crop productivity. These include chemical fertilisers to boost
growth, pesticides to prevent damage from pests and herbicides to kill weeds
Allele Alternative forms of a gene located at a single locus on a chromosome
Allopatric speciation The development of a new species as a result of populations being physically separated, that is
geographical isolation
Amino acid The monomers that make up proteins. All amino acids have an amino (–NH2) group at one end of the
molecule and a carboxyl (–COOH) group at the other end
Amino acid activation The process when transfer RNA attaches itself to a specific amino acid in the presence of a
specific enzyme and ATP
Anabolic steroid Manufactured drugs that mimic the protein building effects of testosterone. The use of these drugs
is banned in international sport, but in the past they have been used by athletes to build muscle and also because they
speed up the recovery of muscles after strenuous exercise
Anaerobic glycolysis Also known as the lactic acid system, this pathway only releases about 5% of the energy in a
molecule of glycogen
Anaerobic respiration Respiration that takes place in the absence of oxygen
Anaphase The stage in nuclear division when chromatids (mitosis and meiosis II) and chromosomes (meiosis I) move
to the opposite poles of the spindle
Oxford University Press Advanced Biology for You, Second Edition © Williams Services Limited 2015 1
Aneurysm A bulge in a blood vessel caused by weakness in the vessel wall. If the blood vessel bursts, the
haemorrhaging can cause extensive damage
Angina Pains in the chest and arms caused by restricted flow of blood, increasing blood pressure and the heart having
to beat faster than usual to deliver blood to the tissues
Anion Ion with a negative charge which is formed when an atom gains electrons
Anorexia nervosa A wasting disease with its symptoms similar to that of marasmus
Antibiotic Chemicals produced by microorganisms (mainly bacteria and fungi) which at low concentrations have the
ability to inhibit or destroy pathogens
Antibiotic resistance The development in microorganisms of mechanisms to prevent antibiotics from killing them
Antibiotic resistance Many bacteria that were once susceptible to antibiotics have become resistant by random
mutations. So the antibiotic is ineffective against the bacterial
Antibodies Proteins that are produced by the immune system in response to the presence of antigens
Antibody-mediated immunity Also known as the humoral response, this involves the production of B-lymphocytes
which are activated by antigens
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) The hormone produced by the hypothalamus that passes to the posterior pituitary
gland from where it is secreted. ADH reduces the amount of water in urine by increasing water reabsorption by the
kidneys
Antigens Chemicals that can produce an immune response by triggering the production of antibodies
Apical meristem Found at the tips of shoots and roots, these are regions of actively dividing cells (by mitosis)
Apoplast pathway The passage of water through the cell walls of the cortex cells
Apoptosis This is programmed cell death which occurs in all multicellular organisms. It is a controlled, predictable
process with the human body replacing about 1 million cells per second
Artificial active immunity When an immune response is triggered by an injection of antigens into the body. This is
also known as vaccination
Artificial passive immunity Occurs when preformed antibodies extracted from one individual are injected into
another as a serum. This only produces short-term immunity
Asexual reproduction This results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. It does not involve
gametes or fertilisation
Atheroma The build-up of fatty deposits in the lining of arteries that can cut down the flow of blood
Atom Is the unit of which all matter is made. Made up of three different particles: protons, neutrons and electrons
Atomic number The number of protons contained in the nucleus of an element
ATP/CP (phosphocreatine) pathway The chemical pathway which provides an almost instant replenishment of
ATP. The phosphocreatine is broken down and the energy released is used to add a phosphate to ADP to reform ATP
Atrio-ventricular node (AVN) A second node which picks up the impulses that are passed to the atrial muscle.
The AVN responds by generating its own electrical impulses which pass to the apex of the ventricles causing them to
contract simultaneously, from the bottom up
Atrio-ventricular valve Found on each side of the heart between the atria and the ventricles. They prevent the back
flow of blood into the atria when the ventricles contract
Autonomic nervous system This is divided up into the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic
nervous systems (PNS). Their actions are antagonistic, for example stimulation of the heart by the SNS increases
cardiac output; whilst stimulation of the heart by the PNS decreases cardiac output
Autosomes All the other chromosomes present in a cell with the exception of the sex chromosomes, for example in
human cells there are 44 autosomes and two sex chromosomes
Autotroph These include green plants, algae and some bacteria which are able to use light energy or energy from
chemical reactions to make their own food
Autotroph An organism that is able to use a source of energy to make complex organic molecules from inorganic
raw materials
Auxin (IAA) A plant growth substance that affects growth by stimulating cell division and enlargement
Bactericidal antibiotic An antibiotic that acts by killing bacteria, for example penicillin
Bacteriophage A virus that lives inside bacterial cells
Bacteriostatic antibiotic An antibiotic that stops bacteria from reproducing and slows down their growth, for
example tetracycline
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) The rate at which energy is used up when the body is at rest
Batch cultivation A process that takes place inside industrial fermenters, for example in the production of penicillin.
After about six days, the mixture in the fermenter is filtered and the penicillin is extracted and purified. The fermenter
is then emptied cleaned and sterilised ready for the next batch
Belt transect When a quadrat is laid down at intervals along the line transect so as to estimate the percentage cover
of species present
Benedict’s test A chemical test for reducing sugars. Benedict’s reagent produces an orange precipitate when heated
with a reducing sugar
Benign tumour A group of abnormal cells that remain inactive and relatively harmless
Bile canaliculi Fine tubes located between the sinusoids of the liver into which the hepatocytes secrete bile
Binary fission This occurs in prokaryotic cells and involves replication of the circular DNA (nucleoid) and of the
plasmids
Binomial system The system by which organisms are given two names in Latin. The first is the name of the genus,
the second is the name of the species
Bioaccumulation The tendency of certain compounds to be concentrated as they pass up the food chain. A number
of synthetic pesticides show bioaccumulation, so the concentration of the chemical in a predator is much higher than
the concentration of the same chemical in the environment
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) A measure of the oxygen required by a body of water. Typically organic
pollution raises the BOD of a water course
Biodiversity A general term used to describe the variety of life on Earth
Bioethanol A petrol substitute that can be produced by the fermentation of carbohydrate-rich crops, such as
sugar cane
Biogas The gas rich in methane which is used on a small-scale to power generators in many parts of the
developing world
Biological control The use of predators, parasites and pathogens to keep the numbers of pests below the economic
damage threshold
Biomass The mass of living material present in a specific area at a given time
Biotic potential The biotic potential of a particular population is the maximum rate at which it can reproduce, given
all the resources it needs
Biuret test A positive test for proteins which produces a purple colouration
B-lymphocyte A type of white blood cell that is produced and matures within the bone marrow. B-lymphocytes
produce antibodies
Body cell gene therapy This targets a particular tissue, for example in the case of cystic fibrosis congested lungs,
or in the case of thalassaemia the blood cells. Body cell gene therapy does not involve the sex cells so the cure is not
passed on to the offspring
Body mass index (BMI) Body mass (in kg) divided by height (in metres)2
Bohr effect Higher partial pressures of carbon dioxide increase the dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin, that is the affinity
of haemoglobin for oxygen is lowered
Bowman’s capsule The cup-shaped portion of the start of a nephron that encloses the glomerulus
Broad spectrum antibiotic Antibiotics that are capable of killing a wide range of bacteria
Buffer A chemical which can act as a base and as an acid to maintain a constant pH
Calvin cycle The biochemical pathway that forms part of the light-independent reaction of photosynthesis during
which carbon dioxide is reduced from carbohydrate
Cambium Cells that divide by mitosis to produce new phloem cells and new xylem cells
Captive breeding programme The breeding of animals in captivity, so building up their numbers and eventually
being able to release them back into the wild.
Carbohydrates Compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which are the source of energy in all living
organisms
Carbon monoxide The gas in tobacco smoke that combines more readily than oxygen with haemoglobin in the red
blood cells
Carcinogen A chemical, a form of radiation or other agent that causes cancer
Carcinogen A substance that can cause cancer, for example tar that collects in the lungs as the tobacco smoke cools
Cardiac cycle The sequence of events that occur in one heartbeat. It is described in terms of alternate contractions
(systole) and relaxations (diastole)
Cardiac muscle Muscle which is only found in the heart and is myogenic, that is it initiates its own contractions. It is
immune to fatigue
Carrier protein These proteins allow diffusion across the membrane of large polar molecules such as sugars and
amino acids. A particular molecule attaches to the carrier protein at its particular binding site, the carrier protein
changes its shape and ‘delivers’ the molecule through the membrane
Carrying capacity The maximum population that an environment can support
Casparian strip The cell walls of the endodermis are impregnated with a waxy material called suberin. This is known
as the Casparian strip and since suberin is waterproof, it effectively stops water passing along the cell walls of the
endodermis (apoplast route)
Catalase An enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen
Cation Ion with a positive charge which is formed when an atom loses electrons
Cell fractionation A technique used to separate the different parts of cells. The tissue is first ground into small
fragments in an homogeniser, and then different organelles are separated out by centrifugation
Cell-surface membrane The membrane composed of phospholipids and proteins that delineates the cell boundary
and contains the cytoplasm. It controls the passage of substances into and out of a cell.
Cellular response Also named as cell-mediated immunity, this involves T-lymphocytes and macrophages in an
immune response
Cellulose A structural polysaccharide made up of thousands of glucose units
Central nervous system (CNS) The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord
Centrioles Two short bundles of microtubules positioned at right angles to each other. At times of cell division they
migrate to opposite poles of the cell where they produce the spindle
Cerebellum Part of the hindbrain that receives sensory information from the muscles and the ears. It is concerned
with posture, body movement and balance
Cerebral hemispheres Form the cerebrum, or roof, or the forebrain. They receive sensory information, interpret it
in terms of previous experience and send out motor information to bring about appropriate responses
Cerebrospinal fluid The nutritive fluid that circulates in the spinal canal
Channel protein These proteins open spaces or pores across the membrane and so allow the entry or exit of
charged ions, such as Na+, K+,Cl–. These pores are lined with polar groups allowing charged ions to pass through
Chemiosmosis The synthesis of ATP in mitochondria and chloroplasts using energy that is stored as a hydrogen ion
concentration gradient across a membrane
Chemoautotroph An organism (mainly bacterium) that is able to harness the energy released from exergonic
chemical reactions to synthesise its organic food
Chemoreceptor These line the carotid arteries and aorta in humans. They are sensitive to changes in carbon dioxide
and pH. A rise in carbon dioxide results in an increase in the rate and in the depth of breathing
Chiasma (pl. chiasmata) Sites of crossing over (exchange) of chromosome material between homologous
chromosomes
Chitin A polysaccharide, with amino acids added to form a mucopolysaccharide, which forms the exoskeletons of
insects and other arthropods
Chloroplast A relatively large organelle found in photosynthetic tissue in plants and some protoctists. It contains a
network of flattened sacs called thylakoids where chlorophyll are located
Cholesterol A lipid manufactured in the liver, particularly from saturated fats. It is found in the cell membranes of
animal cells, as well as being involved in the formation of steroid hormones
Chromatid One of two strands of a chromosome that are joined together by a single centromere
Chromatin The material which makes chromosomes. It consists of DNA and histone proteins
Chromatin The material that makes up chromosomes. It consists of DNA and histone proteins
Chromosome A thread-like structure made of histone protein and DNA by which hereditary information is passed
from one generation to the next
Chromosome map Genetic mapping is a process of establishing the location and relative position of genes on
specific chromosomes
Chromosome mutation A change in the DNA affecting a single chromosome or set of chromosomes
Chronic disease A disease whose symptoms persist for a long time
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) These are a group of lung diseases, such as emphysema.
In most cases, COPD is caused by cigarette smoking and is due to previous permanent lung damage
Ciliary muscle Control the tension on the suspensory ligaments and so are able to change the shape of the
elastic lens
Class A grouping of similar orders
Climax community When succession has continued until the community reaches equilibrium with its environment
and no further change occurs
Closed circulation system The blood flows through vessels
Codominance A condition where both alleles are expressed and neither seems to be dominant over the other, so the
phenotype is often a mixture of the effects of each allele
Codon A sequence of three adjacent nucleotides in either mRNA or DNA that codes for one amino acid
Coenzyme A small, non-protein, organic molecule which is not permanently attached to an enzyme. Coenzymes help
enzymes and substrates to bond with each other
Cohesion This is the ability of molecules to stick together by means of hydrogen bonds. This gives water many of its
special properties
Cohesion The tendency of water molecules to stick together
Cohesion-tension theory The drawing up of a continuous column of water in the xylem vessel, due to the
properties of cohesion and adhesion
Collagen Fibrous protein which provides the tough properties characteristic of tendons and bone
Collecting duct A tube that carries urine from a number of nephrons, through the medulla to the pelvis of the kidney
Collenchyma Living plant cells that have been reinforced by the addition of extra cellulose. There are often found
below the epidermis in a stem and provide extra mechanical support
Commensalism An association between two species in which one species benefits while the other is unaffected
Communicable (infectious) disease Diseases that are caused when pathogens are passed from one individual
to another
Community This consists of all the populations of different species in a particular habitat
Competitive inhibitor This has a structure similar to that of the substrate. The competitive inhibitor competes with
the substrate for the active site of an enzyme. This prevents the formation of enzyme-substrate complexes and the rate
of reaction decreases
Condensation reaction The reaction that occurs when molecules combine together releasing a the molecule
of water
Cones High light intensity colour receptors that are located mainly in the yellow spot in the retina of the eye.
They give high visual acuity
Conservation The maintenance of ecosystems and living organisms that occupy them. It requires planning and
organisation to make the best use of resources while preserving the natural landscape and wildlife
Consumer Heterotrophic organisms that obtain energy by eating or decomposing other organisms. Primary
consumers are herbivores that each producers. Secondary consumers are carnivores that eat primary consumers.
Tertiary consumers are carnivores that each other consumers
Continuous cultivation A method of capturing microorganisms with raw materials continuously supplied and the
products continuously harvested
Continuous variation Variation shown when the characters of organisms do not fall into distinct categories, but
rather there are small measurable differences from one extreme to another, for example height in humans
Contractile vacuole An organelle found inside Amoeba (and other protoctists) which collects water as it enters a cell
by osmosis. When it is full the vacuole passes to the cell-surface membrane and releases the water to the outside
Cornea The transparent layer of the front of the eye which refracts light rays entering
Co-transport The simultaneous transport of one substance across a membrane, coupled with the simultaneous
transport of another substance across the same membrane in the same direction
Counter current principle In the lamellae of fish gills, blood in the capillaries flows in the opposite direction to the
water flowing over their surface. This means that a diffusion gradient is maintained between the blood and the water
right across the gill plates, making for efficient uptake of oxygen
Countercurrent multiplier mechanism The mechanism by which the efficiency of exchange between two
substances is increased by having them flowing in opposite directions
Covalent bond This forms when atoms are able to share their electrons, for example when two hydrogen atoms are
able to share their electrons the covalent bond holds the two atoms together in a hydrogen molecule
Cristae Folds of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion. The surface of each crista is covered in stalked particles
where energy-rich ATP is made
Crossing over The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis
Cross-pollination Occurs when pollen is transferred to a stigma of another plant of the same species
Cyclic photophosphorylation The process involving only photosystem I which results in the production of ATP
Cystic fibrosis (CF) An inherited disease caused by a recessive gene mutation. The body produces abnormally thick
mucus that obstructs the breathing passages and prevents the secretion of pancreatic juice
Cytokine A group of small proteins important in cell signalling. This group includes interleukins
Cytokinesis The division of the cytoplasm after the nucleus is divided into two
Cytoskeleton A complex network of fibrous proteins that form throughout the cytoplasm giving cells shape
and support
Cytotoxic T-cell Also known as a killer cell, it destroys an antigen directly by attaching to it and releasing the
chemical perforin to kill it
Deamination The process by which excess amino acids are broken down in the liver. The amino part of the molecule
is excreted, but the remainder can be converted to glucose
Decarboxylase These remove carboxyl groups from respiratory substrates to release carbon dioxide
Decomposer (saprophyte or saprobiont) These feed on dead or decaying organic material using extracellular
digestion. They include microbes such as fungi and bacteria and feed by secreting digestive enzymes onto the food
externally. The food is then digested and the soluble products are absorbed
Deficiency diseases Diseases that result from vitamins or minerals that are lacking from the diet
Deflected succession When succession does not proceed through to the climax community. The process is halted,
often by the management practices of humans, for example grazing by sheep, or by conservation measures
Deforestation The large-scale clearance of forests which can lead to soil erosion, leaching out of nutrients, and the
loss of humus from the soil
Deletion The change in the ‘normal’ base sequence of DNA, where a single base is lost
Denaturation This can occur when high temperature causes the bonds holding the protein together to break.
The three-dimensional structure of the protein changes permanently and this affects its biological function, for example
a denatured enzyme is unable to bind with its substrate
Denitrifying bacteria Bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen gas. Denitrification occurs in the absence of oxygen, for
example in water-logged soils
Density-dependent factor Factors that vary in the effect that they have in a population, depending on the size of
the population, for example competition, predation and space
Density-independent factor Factors that affect all the plants and animals in a population irrespective of the
population size, for example severe climate, pollution or disease
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) A nucleic acid found mostly in the nucleus, which consists of two complementary
chains of DNA nucleotides. It carries the genetic code of an organism
Deoxyribose A pentose which is an important part of the DNA molecule
Detritivore Primary consumers that feed on fragments of dead organic material called detritus. They shred the
detritus up into smaller particles for further decomposition
Diabetes mellitus The inability of a person to control their blood glucose level properly because they are unable to
produce sufficient insulin
Diastolic pressure The minimum pressure of blood in the aorta
Dietary reference values (DRVs) The nutrients and energy requirements for a particular group, with a reference to
age, gender, fitness, and so on
Diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT) The increase in the body’s heat production by cellular respiration after food is
eaten
Differentiation Most cells become specialised to carry out a particular function. We say they have become
differentiated
Diffusion The passive movement of molecules (or ions) from a region of high concentration to a region of lower
concentration until this spreads out evenly
Dipeptide The molecule that is produced when a peptide bond forms between two amino acids as a result of a
condensation reaction
Diploid When the nucleus of the cell contains two sets of homologous chromosomes
Directional selection This tends to eliminate one extreme variation from the population whilst retaining the rest
Disaccharide Double sugar, formed from two monosaccharides
Discontinuous variation Variation shown when the characters of organisms fall into distinct categories, for example
human blood groups
Disruptive selection The opposite to stabilising selection. Instead of favouring the mean, the extremes of the
population are selected
Disulfide bond The bond that can form between the sulphur atoms of some amino acids which are close together.
Disulfide bonds are very strong and contribute to the strength of structural proteins
Dividing B-cell Responsible for producing more B-lymphocyte cells
DNA helicase The enzyme that acts on a specific region of the DNA molecule to break the hydrogen bonds between
the bases, causing the two strands to separate and expose the nucleotide bases in that region
DNA ligase An enzyme used to join the sticky ends of the donor DNA and host DNA together. The sticky ends being
complementary
DNA polymerase The enzyme that joins the new nucleotide bases together, forming a new sugar-phosphate
backbone
DNA replication The process by which the double helix of a DNA molecule unwinds and each strand acts as a
template from which a new strand is constructed
DNA sequencing The process of determining the order of the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine in
DNA. The technique was at the heart of the Human Genome Project which published the entire sequence of the
human genome
Domain A new taxon in a classification system. The domain is added above that of the kingdom. There are three
domains, with Prokaryotae divided into two groups – Bacteria and Archaea – and all other organisms are classified as
Eukaryota
Dominant An allele which is always expressed in the phenotype of an organism, even when present with an allele
that is recessive to it
Double circulation system Blood passes through the heart twice in each circuit of the body: once through the right
side and once through the left side
Double fertilisation When the two male gametes are released into the embryo sac, one male gamete fuses with the
egg nucleus to form a diploid zygote. The other male gamete fuses with the diploid nucleus at the centre of the
embryo sac to form a triploid endosperm nucleus
Ecology The study of how living organisms interact with each other and with the environment
Ecosystem This is made up of the community (biotic component) and the habitat (abiotic component) of a particular
area
Ecosystem diversity The variety of different habitats found within an ecosystem
Ectotherm An animal that does not generate much body heat. In some, their body temperature may fluctuate more
or less with that of their environment, whilst other ectotherms control it by their behaviour or by increased activity
Electrocardiogram (ECG) This can be used to detect changes in the electrical activity of the cardiac cycle.
Electrodes are taped to the patient’s chest and connected to a monitor that produces the ECG trace
Electron A particle which has a negative charge
Electron microscope This microscope relies upon a beam of electrons instead of light rays. The image is formed as
electrons are scattered by the biological specimen. It is capable of much higher magnification (×500 000) than a light
microscope and has far greater resolving power
Electron transport chain A chain of carrier molecules along which hydrogen ions and electrons are passed resulting
in the formation of ATP
Electrophoresis The technique that allows the separation and identification of proteins. It also can be used to identify
the individual amino acids that make up a protein
Embryo cloning After in-vitro fertilisation, a fertilised egg develops into an embryo. At this stage young embryos can
be surgically split up to produce a number of separate embryos. Each is a genetically identical clone. Embryos can then
be transplanted into another female called a surrogate
Endangered species A species threatened with extinction, or its numbers are reduced to a critical level, or its
population is so low that its reproduction is affected
Endemic A communicable disease that is always present in a population
Endocrine gland Glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
Endocytosis The cell wraps the cell-surface membrane around the material and brings it into the cytoplasm inside a
vesicle
Endodermis A single layer of cells found around the central core of transport tissue and root. It is here that the
apoplast pathway becomes blocked
Endopeptidase These enzymes hydrolyse peptide bonds within a protein molecule. This essentially slices the protein
up into short lengths of amino acids
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) A complex system of double membranes where ribosomes may be present – rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER), or absent – smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). It forms an extensive transport system
throughout the cell, produces and packages proteins (RER), and synthesises lipids and steroids (SER)
Endotherm Animals that generate their own body heat. They are able to regulate their body temperature and keep it
relatively constant
Endotoxin Parts of the bacterial cell itself. When bacterial cells die, they break up and these endotoxins are released
Energy pyramid This shows the amount of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next, per unit area or
volume, per unit time
Environmental resistance This includes all the factors that may limit the growth of the population, such as
accumulation of waste products, scarcity of food and space, or adverse climatic conditions
Enzyme This is an organic catalyst that speeds up the rate of metabolic reactions
Epidemic A communicable disease that spreads rapidly through a population, for example new strains of influenza
Epidemiology The study of patterns of disease and the way in which diseases are spread through human populations
Epigenetics The study of biochemical tags that are added to the genetic material to change the expression of genes
Epigenome The unique pattern of epigenetic tags on an individual’s genome
Epistasis In epistasis, two genes on different loci interactive to control a single characteristic. This occurs when an
allele of one gene suppresses or masks the action of another
Erythropoietin A hormone made in the kidneys. Its increased secretion increases the production of red blood cells in
the bone marrow
Essential amino acid (EAA) Amino acids that cannot be synthesised from existing organic compounds in the body
and have to be obtained from food
Essential fatty acid (EFA) Fatty acids that cannot be synthesised from existing organic compounds in the body and
have to be obtained from food
Ester bond The bond that forms between fatty acids and glycerol as a result of a condensation reaction
Estimated average requirement (EAR) An estimate of the average energy or nutrient requirements needed by
50% of the population
Eukaryotic cell A cell with a true nucleus, the DNA is held within a nuclear membrane. These cells also have
membrane-bound organelles
Eutrophication The enrichment of water by inorganic nutrients such as nitrate and phosphate. Artificial enrichment
of water bodies as a result of human activities is a form of pollution
Exon Portion of DNA within a gene that codes for particular amino acid sequences
Exopeptidase These enzymes hydrolyse the peptide bonds at the ends of short lengths of amino acids
Exotoxin Toxins released by bacteria in the form of waste products
Extracellular digestion When enzymes are secreted and passed out of the cells so that digestive takes place
externally (as in bacteria and fungi)
Extrinsic protein A protein that is found only on the inner surface or the outer surface of the cell-surface membrane.
It is thought to be involved in cell-to-cell recognition, cell signalling, and acting as a receptor molecule
Facilitated diffusion A special form of diffusion that allows faster movement. It involves two main types of protein:
channel proteins and carrier proteins
FAD (flavine adenine dinucleotide) A molecule that carries high-energy electrons and hydrogen ions from oxidised
molecules to synthesise ATP. FAD is the second carrier in the electron transport chain
Family A grouping of similar genera (plural of genus)
Fast-twitch muscle fibres Skeletal muscle which uses the ATP/CP pathway and is adapted for sustained short
bursts of activity
Fibrous proteins Very stable, insoluble and strong, these proteins provide the tough properties needed in collagen in
bone, and keratin in hair
Flaccid If the external solution has a lower water potential than that of the cell, water will pass out by osmosis. The
cell contents no longer cause pressure against the cell wall and the cell is flaccid
Fluid mosaic theory The accepted view of the structure of the cell-surface membrane: a phospholipid bilayer, with
proteins embedded but free to move about
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland it is carried in the blood to the ovary
where it stimulates the development of follicles
Frame quadrat A square made out of wood or bought commercially is laid down at sampling points within the
sample area, or points along a transect. The organisms within it are estimated, often as percentage cover
Frame shift Deletions and insertions, means that every base triplet occurring after the mutation will now be changed.
Such mutations can result in a completely different primary protein structure from the original
Fructose A very sweet monosaccharide which combines with glucose to form the disaccharide molecule sucrose
Galactose A monosaccharide found in milk which combines with glucose to form the disaccharide molecule lactose
Gametogenesis The production of gametes in the gonads
Gas exchange The diffusion of gases into and out of cells, which allows respiration to take place
Gas exchange surface Allows quick and efficient gas exchange between the cells of an organism and its
environment. They have a large surface area relative to the volume of the organism, they are thin, moist and are able
to maintain a concentration gradient down which gases can diffuse
Gene A sequence of nucleotides on a DNA molecule coding for a specific polypeptide
Gene expression This can be regulated at any stage in protein synthesis by: control of transcription, control of
post-transcriptional processing, control of translation or control of post-translational modification
Gene mutation A change in the DNA of a single gene
Gene pool The total number of alleles within a particular population at a specific time
Gene therapy The process by which genetic diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, may be cured by masking the effect of
the defective gene by inserting a functional gene
Genetic bottleneck Populations may suffer a dramatic decrease in size. The few individuals that are left will have a
much smaller variety of alleles between them compared with the original population
Genetic code The order of bases in DNA (of a chromosome) that determines the sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide
Genetic diversity The variety of alleles within a particular species
Genetic screening This is used to find out whether a person is carrying an altered gene (mutation) that causes a
particular medical condition
Genome All of the genetic material of an organism
Genotype The genetic composition of an organism
Genus (pl. genera) A group of species that are very closely related
Germ-line gene therapy This involves repairing the original gene inside the fertilised egg. The resulting individual
grows and develops with healthy genes functioning in all body cells
Gibberellin A group of plant growth substances that stimulate cell division, stem elongation and germination
Gill plate Fish gills have a double row of gill lamellae which have gill plates along each side. These are the gas
exchange surfaces
Globular proteins Compact, soluble and relatively unstable structure. These proteins, involved in metabolic activities,
include all enzymes, antibodies and some hormones
Glomerulus A knot of blood capillaries enclosed by the Bowman’s capsule in the kidney
Glucagon A hormone secreted by the alpha cells (α-cells) in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. This results in
an increase in blood glucose level
Glucocorticoids A group of hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex the most important of which is cortisol.
This raises blood glucose level, promotes glycogenolysis and suppresses the immune system
Gluconeogenesis The conversion of amino acids and glycerol to glucose
Glucose A hexose which is the main energy source for most living cells
Glycogen The only storage polysaccharide found in animals
Glycogenesis The conversion of glucose to glycogen which is stored in the liver and muscles
Glycogenolysis The conversion of stored glycogen to glucose
Glycolysis First stage of cellular respiration in which glucose is broken down to form two molecules of pyruvate.
It takes place in the cytoplasm in the absence of oxygen
Glycosidic bond The bond that forms between two monosaccharides as a result of a condensation reaction
Golgi body A stack of flattened sacs formed from small vesicles pinched off rough endoplasmic reticulum. The Golgi
body assembles glycoproteins, transports and stores lipids, forms lysosomes and produces digestive enzymes
Graafian follicle A mature follicle that has developed in the ovary containing a secondary oocyte
Grana Located within the chloroplasts each grana is formed from many thylakoids stacked together like piles of coins
Gravitropism This is the response of a shoot or root to gravity
Greenhouse effect This attempts to explain the observed rise in global temperatures, in terms of gases in the
atmosphere reflecting heat back towards the surface of the Earth
Habitat The place where an organism lives
Haemocytometer Modified microscope slide that was originally designed to count blood cells
Haemoglobin A globular protein consisting of four polypeptide chains, at the centre of each is an iron-containing
group called haem. Haemoglobin picks up oxygen in the lungs to form oxyhaemoglobin. This dissociates the tissues
giving up its oxygen and reverting to haemoglobin
Haemolysis When red blood cells are placed in water, they will have a lower water potential. Water enters the cells
by osmosis, without a cell wall to stop the expansion of the cell the cell-surface membrane eventually bursts
Haploid When the nucleus of a cell contains only a single copy of each homologous chromosome, for example the
gametes
Hardy-Weinberg principle The Hardy-Weinberg principle allows scientists to determine whether evolution has
occurred. Any change in the allele frequencies in a population over time can be detected
Hedgerow Hedges grown to delineate field boundaries. The shrub layer is commonly made up of hawthorn, hazel,
elder and holly, and below this is the bank or herb layer
Helper T-cell Attracts and stimulates macrophages, and promotes the activity of other T- and B-cells to increase
antibody production
Hepatocyte Cells which line the sinusoids of the liver and regulate the levels of metabolites in the blood that drains
through them
Heterotroph These organisms are unable to make their own food but must take organic molecules into the body.
They include all animals, fungi, some protoctists, and some bacteria
Heterozygous When the alleles at a particular locus of a diploid cell are different
Hexose Monosaccharide molecule made up of six carbon atoms
High density lipoprotein (HDL) In this form, cholesterol can be carried away from the cells back to the liver where
it is either broken down or passed out of the body as a waste product
Histone protein Proteins associated with the DNA in the chromosomes. Their function is to condense chromatin and
coil the chromosomes during cell division
Homeobox genes These control whole sets of other genes to set out the basic body plan of the embryo, separating
the front from the back, and producing the right body structure in the right place
Homeostasis The maintenance of a stable internal environment within a living organism within restricted limits
Homologous chromosomes A pair of chromosomes, one maternal and one paternal, that have the same gene loci
and therefore determine the same features
Homologous structure These are shared physical features, for example the pentadactyl limb. They can suggest how
different organisms are related and the pattern of their evolution
Homozygous When the alleles at a particular locus of a diploid cell are identical
Hydrogen bond These are quite weak chemical bonds which form, for example, when two water molecules are in
close contact and their opposing charges attract each other
Hydrolase These catalyse the hydrolysis of a substance by the addition of a molecule of water
Hydrolysis The reaction that occurs when bonds are broken between molecules by the addition of a molecule of water
Hydrophilic molecule The phosphate part of a phospholipid molecule is polar and dissolves in water. It is called
hydrophilic or ‘water-loving’
Hydrophobic molecule The lipid part of a phospholipid molecule is non-polar and insoluble in water. It is called
hydrophobic or ‘water-hating’
Hydrophyte A plant that grows submerged or partially submerged in water
Hypertension A harmful condition caused by having constant high blood pressure
Hypertonic A solution with a lower water potential than another solution
Hypothalamus A region at the base of the forebrain joined to the pituitary gland, which acts as a control centre for
the autonomic nervous system. It regulates body temperature, fluid balance and sexual activity
Hypotonic A solution (or pure water) with a higher water potential than another solution
Immobilised enzyme An enzyme which can be attached to an inert substance such as alginate beads. Since the
enzyme is ‘fixed’ then it does not get mixed up with the products and so the cost of commercial production is lower
Immune response The complex series of reactions of the body to an antigen by which the body protects itself from
infection
Implantation After fertilisation, the zygote starts to divide by mitosis forming a ball of cells called a blastocyst. This is
able to embed into the wall of the uterus, a process called implantation
Incidence The number of new cases of a disease occurring over a particular time
Incubation period The time between infection and the symptoms developing in a person
Induced fit theory This suggests that the active site of the enzyme may not exactly correspond to the shape of the
substrate. The active site has a more flexible shape and is able to mould itself around the substrate and bind closely to it
Infectivity The number of bacteria needed to cause an infection
Inhibitor A substance that can slow down or stop an enzyme-controlled reaction
Insertion The change in the ‘normal’ base sequence of DNA, where a single base becomes added
Insulin A hormone secreted by the beta cells (β-cells) in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. This results in a
decrease in blood glucose level
Interphase The period between nuclear divisions when the amount of DNA in the nucleus doubles and new
organelles like mitochondria are made
Interspecific competition This is competition between organisms of different species
Intraspecific competition This is competition between organisms of the same species
Intrinsic protein A protein that completely spans the cell-surface membrane. It assists and controls the movement of
water-soluble ions and certain molecules across the cell-surface membrane
Intron Portion of DNA within a gene that does not code for a polypeptide. Introns are removed from mRNA after
transcription
Invasiveness The ability of bacteria to spread within the body of the host from the point of entry to other tissues
where they multiply
Inversion The change in the ’normal’ base sequence of DNA where a base triplet becomes reversed
In-vitro fertilisation (IVF) When eggs are removed and fertilised in a petri dish by sperm. The fertilised egg divides
into a ball of cells. In-vitro literally means ‘in glass’
Ion Charged particle which is formed when an atom or a groups of atoms gain or lose electrons
Ionic bond Oppositely charged ions will attract each other. Electrostatic forces draw these ions together forming an
ionic bond
Isotonic A solution with the same water potential as another solution
Isotope An atom of the same element but with a different mass number
Karyotype A photograph of a chromosome preparation. Each chromosome is cut out from a photograph and put in
a matching pair
Kingdom The largest taxonomic grouping
Krebs cycle The series of biochemical reactions by which energy is obtained through the oxidation of acetyl
coenzyme A produced from the breakdown of glucose
Kwashiorkor An extreme form of protein energy malnutrition
Lactation The production of milk by the breasts
Ligases These catalyse reactions in which new chemical bonds are formed using ATP as a source of energy, for
example DNA ligase is involved in the synthesis of DNA
Light microscope Composed of two lenses: the eyepiece lens and the objective lens, these combine to produce
much higher magnification. A light microscope has the ability to magnify up to ×2000
Light-dependent reaction The stage of photosynthesis involving photoactivation of chlorophyll and the transfer of
energy to produce ATP and reduced NADP
Light-independent reaction The stage of photosynthesis involving the fixation of carbon dioxide and the use of
ATP and reduced NADP to convert it into carbohydrate
Limiting factor When a process, like photosynthesis, is influenced by several factors, the rate at which the process
proceeds is determined by the factor in shortest supply
Line transect The tape is laid across the sample area and any species that touch or are covered by the tape are
recorded
Link reaction The process linking glycolysis with Krebs cycle in which pyruvate is dehydrogenated and
decarboxylated to form acetyl coenzyme A in the matrix of the mitochondria
Linkage Linkage occurs when two different genes are located on the same chromosome. For this reason, they are
usually inherited together because during meiosis they will end up in the same gamete
Lipid Large group of biological molecules which includes fats and oils
Lipoprotein Cholesterol does not dissolve in blood plasma it is carried in the circulation attached to a protein.
This combination of lipid and protein is called lipoprotein
Lock and key theory An enzyme has an area on its surface called the active site. It has a shape which is
complementary to the shape of the substrate. The substrate molecule is like the key that fits the enzyme’s lock.
The reaction takes place at the active site and this is where the products are formed
Locus The position that a gene occupies on a chromosome
Loop of Henle A hairpin loop that runs deep into the medulla and then turns and goes back to the cortex of a
nephron. Its function is to create an area of high solute concentration deep in the medulla bringing about the
reabsorption of water
Low density lipoprotein (LDL) Cholesterol is mainly carried in this form and it can be deposited in arteries, a
condition known as atherosclerosis
Lower reference nutrient intake (LRNI) The amount of nutrients that meet the needs of 2.5% of the population
Luteinising hormone (LH) This hormone triggers ovulation and also stimulates the remaining follicle cells in the
ovary to form the corpus luteum which secretes the hormone progesterone
Lymph This is tissue fluid that is passed back into the lymph capillaries which join up forming lymph vessels
Lysosome A small vesicle formed when a piece of the Golgi body is pinched off at the end. It contains hydrolytic
enzymes which can digest material within the cell
Lysozyme An enzyme found in tears, mucus, saliva and sweat. Catalyses the hydrolysis of molecules in the cell walls
of bacteria
Macronutrient Inorganic ions which are needed in small amounts in living organisms
Malignant tumour A group of abnormal cells that divide more rapidly than the normal surroundings cells. Cancerous
cells may break free from the primary tumour and be transported around the body by the blood or lymph
Malnutrition Nutrition that deviates from the norm which can result in clinical symptoms
Marasmus An extreme form of protein energy malnutrition
Marker gene A gene that is used as a label in genetic engineering because its effects can be easily recognised.
Quite often it is fluorescent
Mass number The number of protons plus the number of neutrons contained in the nucleus of an element
Medulla oblongata Part of the hindbrain that controls many reflex actions of the body
Meiosis The type of cell division which produces four genetically different haploid cells
Memory B-cell Does not produce antibodies but is programmed to remember a specific antigen and respond very
quickly to any subsequent infection
Meristem Particular areas in flowering plants, such as the shoot and root tips, where mitosis is active
Mesosome The inner extension of the cell-surface membrane in prokaryotic cells, where respiration takes place
Messenger RNA (mRNA) A form of RNA that carries the genetic code from the DNA of the nucleus to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where it acts as a template on which polypeptides are assembled
Metaphase The stage in nuclear division (mitosis or meiosis) when chromosomes become arranged at the equator of
the spindle
Metastasis When cancer cells break free from the original or primary tumour and are carried by the blood or lymph
to other parts of the body where they may start a secondary tumour
Methylation of DNA The addition of methyl groups modifies the structure of DNA changing it into a condensed
structure. The chromatin is in a ‘closed’ state and transcription factors cannot bind to the DNA and initiate
transcription, so the gene is ‘turned off’ and no protein is made
Micronutrient Inorganic ions which are only needed in minute quantities (a few parts per thousand) in living
organisms
Micropropagation Also called tissue culture, this is a method of cloning plants to produce large numbers of
genetically identical individuals
Middle lamella The substance that glues the cell walls of adjacent cells together. This jelly-like substance is made up
of calcium pectate and magnesium pectate
Mineralocorticoids A group of hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex that includes aldosterone. This influences
water retention in the body by regulating the distribution of sodium and other mineral ions in the tissues
Mitochondrion A relatively large organelle found in all eukaryotic cells. Each mitochondrion has a double membrane,
the inner one forms many folds called cristae. Mitochondria are involved with aerobic respiration
Mitosis The type of cell division in which the daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell
and are genetically identical to it
Molecule Consists of two or more atoms joined together chemically
Monoculture Grown in large fields, a monoculture is the same crop grown on the same land year after year
Monomer Sub-unit that can be repeated to form many different molecules
Monosaccharide The simplest form of carbohydrate with a single ring structure
Mortality The number of deaths from a certain disease over a particular time
Motor neurone A neurone that transmits an action potential from the central nervous system to a muscle or a gland
Multicellular An organism made up of many cells (usually millions of millions)
Multiple alleles The term used to describe a gene that has more than two possible alleles
Multipotent cell A less plastic and more differentiated stem cell that can give rise to a limited range of cells within a
tissue type
Mutagen Substances, like types of radiation or certain chemicals, that can cause mutations
Mutation A change in the DNA of an organism
Mutualism An association between two living organisms which is of mutual benefit to each
Mycoprotein A high protein material produced from a filamentous fungus called Fusarium
Myelin A fatty sheath that surrounds axons in certain neurones
Myocardial infarction A heart attack that occurs when there is a sudden and severe blockage of the coronary artery
Myofibril An individual skeletal muscle is made up of hundreds of muscle fibres. Within each muscle fibre are
numerous myofibrils, which are thin threads that run the length of the muscle fibre and have a characteristic striped
appearance
NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) A molecule that carries high-energy electrons and hydrogen ions from
oxidised molecules to pathways that produce ATP during aerobic respiration
Narrow spectrum antibiotic An antibiotic that is effective against only a few types of bacteria
Natural active immunity A type of immunity when lymphocytes are activated by antigens present on the surface of
a pathogen
Natural passive immunity Occurs when preformed antibodies pass naturally from mother to baby across the
placenta and in breast milk
Negative feedback A change in the level of an internal factor which causes effectors to restore the internal
environment to its original level
Nephron The basic functional unit of the mammalian kidney responsible for the formation of urine
Neurone A nerve cell, made up of a cell body, axon and dendrites. It is adapted to conduct nerve impulses (action
potentials)
Neurotransmitter A group of chemicals that are involved in communication between adjacent neurones or between
neurones and muscles
Neutron A particle which has no charge
Niche The role that an organism plays in its environment. This includes its interactions with other species and how it
responds to the abiotic environment
Nicotine A powerful poison. It is the substance that makes tobacco addictive and its absence results in withdrawal
symptoms
Nitrifying bacteria Bacteria that convert ammonium compounds into nitrites and nitrates
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria Bacteria that incorporate atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen-containing compounds.
They may be free-living or found in the root nodules of leguminous plants with which they form a mutualistic
relationship
Nodes of Ranvier Gaps in the myelin sheath that surrounds the axon of a neurone
Non-competitive inhibitor A substance that does not bind to the active site of the enzyme but attaches to some
other part of the enzyme molecule. This alters the overall shape of the enzyme molecule including the active site, and
the substrate can no longer bind to the active site
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation The process involving photosystem I and photosystem II, which includes
photolysis, that results in the production of ATP and reduced NADP
Noradrenaline A neurotransmitter which diffuses across synapses between sympathetic nerves, for example those
that end in the sino-atrial node
Nucleoid A chromosome-like structure containing bacterial DNA that is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane and is
not associated with proteins
Nucleolus The spherical structure contained in the nucleus which is important in the synthesis of RNA which is
needed to make ribosomes
Nucleotide Chemical made up of a phosphate group, a pentose sugar and an organic base. They are the basic units
of which the nucleic acids DNA and RNA are made
Obesity Overnutrition where a person takes in more energy and food than required, then the surplus respiratory
substrates are converted to storage fat
Oestrogen A female steroid sex hormone which controls the development of secondary sexual characteristics at
puberty and has a major role in the menstrual cycle
Oncogene Gene that is undergoing mutation causing cell division to run out of control
Oogenesis The formation of eggs in the ovary, as a result of meiosis
Open blood system The blood does not flow through blood vessels. It is pumped out of the heart into large spaces
in the body cavity, as is the case in insects
Oral rehydration therapy Used to treat dehydration, it involves giving by mouth a balanced solution of salts and
glucose which stimulates the gut to reabsorb water
Order A grouping of related families
Osmoregulation The homeostatic control of body water
Osmosis The movement of water molecules from a region of high water potential to a region of lower water potential
through a partially permeable membrane
Ovulation The process by which the mature Graafian follicle bursts releasing the secondary oocyte
Oxidative phosphorylation The production of ATP using chemical energy from respiratory substrates. It takes place
on the membranes of the mitochondria during aerobic respiration
Oxidoreductase These are involved in oxidation and reduction reactions. They include dehydrogenases, which
oxidise the substrate by catalysing the removal of hydrogen and passing it on to a hydrogen acceptor
Oxygen debt The extra amount of oxygen needed to break down the lactate (which is made during anaerobic
respiration) and restore oxygen levels in the body
Oxygen dissociation curve If samples of haemoglobin are exposed to different partial pressures of oxygen, the
amount of oxygen combining with haemoglobin can then be estimated. The percentage saturation of each sample can
be plotted against the partial pressure to give a characteristic S-shaped curve
Pacinian corpuscle A mechanoreceptor found in the dermis of the skin
Pandemic A communicable disease that spreads over a wide area, such as a continent or the whole world
Parasite Feeds on other living organisms, their hosts. They digest the cells of the host and absorb the products.
This relationship is beneficial to the parasite but harmful to the host
Parenchyma Unspecialised plant cells with thickened walls that provide the packing around the tissues
Partially permeable membrane The cell-surface membrane allows some molecules to pass through but not others.
In osmosis it allows the passage of water molecules but not solute molecules
Pathogen An organism that causes a communicable disease
Pathogenicity The degree of illness produced by an infection
Pentose Monosaccharide molecule made up of five carbon atoms
Peptide bond The bond that is formed when a reaction takes place between the amino group of one amino acid and
the carboxyl group of another
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) The nerves that bring and take information away from the central nervous
system make up the PNS. These nerves can be divided into the somatic nervous system, which controls voluntary
actions, and the autonomic nervous system, which controls involuntary actions and enables internal organs to function
properly
pH The pH of a solution is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions present
Phagocytosis When a cell wraps the cell-surface membrane around solid material and takes it into the cytoplasm in
the vesicle
Phenotype The expression of the particular alleles of an organism resulting from both its genotype and the effects of
the environment
Phenotypic variation Variation that results from the effect of environmental factors on the genotype
Phloem Tissue to transport sugars and amino acids, made up of large sieve tubes which transport these materials and
adjacent companion cells
Phosphodiester bond A bond that forms between a sugar and a phosphate group when one nucleotide joins to
another by a condensation reaction
Phospholipid Similar to triglycerides, but one of the fatty acid molecules is replaced by a phosphate group
Phosphorylation The process by which ATP is produced
Photoautotroph An organism, which includes green plants and algae, which is able to use light energy to synthesise
its own organic materials
Photoperiodism The response of a plant to the relative lengths of daylight and darkness. Flowering is affected by the
period of illumination (and plants can be classified according to their differing photoperiods)
Photophosphorylation The production of ATP using light energy which takes place on the membranes of the
chloroplasts during photosynthesis
Photosystem An organised group of chlorophyll and other pigment molecules situated in the thylakoids of the
chloroplasts that traps photons of light in a process called light harvesting
Phototropism The response of part of the plant to light. Shoots respond by growing towards light and roots respond
by growing away from it
Phylum A large grouping of all the classes that share some common features
Pinocytosis When a cell wraps the cell-surface membrane around liquid material and takes it into the cell forming
extremely small vesicles
Plasma B-cell Secretes antibodies from the circulation which are specific to the pathogenic antigen
Plasmid A small circular piece of DNA found in bacterial cells and often used as a vector in gene technology
Plasmodesmata Single strands of cytoplasm that pass through pits in the cell wall of plants linking different cells
together
Plasmolysis If more water leaves a flaccid cell, the cell contents continue to shrink and the cell-surface membrane
peels away from the cell wall
Pluripotent cell Stem cell that can give rise to all tissue types, however it cannot give rise to an entire organism
Podocyte The cell from the inner lining of the Bowman’s capsule that has many processes and is adapted to help
ultrafiltration
Point quadrat Ten pins on a frame are used to estimate the cover of vegetation in a particular area. All organisms
touched by a pin are recorded
Pollination The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to a stigma of a plant of the same species
Polymer Long chain of repeated monomers
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) A process that makes many copies of a specific sequence of DNA or part of a
gene. It is used extensively in gene technology and DNA profiling (such as genetic fingerprinting)
Polyploidy A mutation that affects the whole sets of chromosomes
Polyribosome or polysome The structure formed when a number of ribosomes can be found on a single messenger
RNA strand, each reading off the coded information at the same time
Polysaccharide Polymer chain of many hundreds of monosaccharides
Polysomy A mutation that changes the number of individual chromosomes
Polyunsaturates Fatty acids that have more than one C=C double bond, for example linoleic acid
Population A group of individuals of the same species that occur in the same place at the same time and are capable
of interbreeding
Predation When predators kill other animals (their prey) for food
Pressure potential The pressure exerted on the cell contents by the cell wall and cell-surface membranes
Prevalence The number of people who have a disease over a particular time
Primary production This is the production of organic materials by producers. Net primary production = gross
primary production – respiration
Primary succession When succession occurs on newly-formed habitats that have not previously supported a
community, for example on rocks exposed by a landslide
Producer Autotrophic organisms, for example plants and some bacteria, that can produce organic food substances.
They ultimately provide all the food for the other members of the community and form the first trophic level of a
food chain
Productivity The rate at which organic materials are produced per unit area or volume per unit time
Progesterone A female steroid sex hormone produced by the corpus luteum after ovulation and by the placenta
during pregnancy. It plays a major role in changes during pregnancy
Prokaryotic cell A primitive cell that has no nucleus nor does it have distinct membrane-bound cell organelles
Prophase The first stage nuclear division (mitosis or meiosis) when the chromosomes become visible
Prosthetic group A molecule that forms a permanent attachment to an enzyme
Protein Complex polymers composed of sub-units called amino acids
Protein energy malnutrition (PEM) A form of undernutrition caused by a lack of dietary energy and protein
Proton A particle which has a positive charge
Proximal convoluted tubule The coiled first part of the nephron which is responsible for the selective reabsorption
of only certain molecules
Pulse rate The rate is the number of heartbeats per minute (or per unit time)
Purines These bases with a double ring structure and include adenine and guanine
Purkinje fibres These are specialised muscle fibres which carry impulses rapidly to the apex of the ventricles.
The fibres in the right and left ventricle walls are together known as the Bundle of His
Pyrimidines These are bases with a single ring structure and include cytosine, thymine and uracil
Random segregation of chromosomes (or independent assortment) At metaphase I, the pairs of homologous
chromosomes arrive at the equator. They arrange themselves in a random order on the equator, so when they separate
the cell they end up in is purely down to chance
Reaction centre A molecule of chlorophyll a that collects light energy that has been absorbed from the surrounding
accessory pigments in the photo system
Receptor protein This recognises and binds with specific molecules outside the cell, such as hormones and drugs
Recessive An allele which is only expressed in the phenotype of a diploid organism if it is in the presence of another
identical allele
Recombinant DNA DNA that contains genetic material from two different organisms
Recombination This occurs when alleles are exchanged between homologous chromosomes as a result of
crossing over
Reference nutrient intake (RNI) The amount of nutrients required to meet the needs of 97.5% of the population
Reflex arc The nerve pathway taken by an action potential leads to a rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus
Refractory period The time delay following the passage of an action potential before the next one can pass. It lasts
a few milliseconds
Regulator T-cell Slows down the response of cytotoxic T-cells and the helper T-cells so stopping the immune
response
Repolarisation The return of the resting potential in a neurone after an action potential has passed
Residual volume The volume of air, about 1 dm2, which remains in the lungs and cannot be breathed out
Respiration A series of oxidation reactions taking place in all living cells. It results in the release of energy from
organic compounds such as glucose
Respiration A series of oxidation reactions taking place inside cells, which results in the release of energy from
organic compounds such as glucose
Respiratory quotient (RQ) The ratio of carbon dioxide given off to oxygen used up during respiration
Resting potential The difference in the electrical charge maintained across the cell-surface membrane of a neurone
when it is not stimulated
Restriction endonuclease The group of enzymes that are able to cut DNA into short lengths at specific points
Retrovirus The way a virus uses its RNA to produce a single strand of DNA, called copy DNA (cDNA), inside the
host cell
Reverse transcriptase An enzyme used to make a single strand of copy DNA (cDNA) from an isolated RNA strand
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) A nucleic acid made up of the pentose sugar ribose, phosphate groups, and the bases,
adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil
Ribose A pentose which is an important part of the RNA molecule
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) A large, complex form of RNA which in association with proteins makes up the structure
of the ribosomes
Ribosome A small, dense organelle that can be found free in the cytoplasm or associated with rough endoplasmic
reticulum. They are involved in protein synthesis
Ribulose A pentose which helps to fix carbon atoms from carbon dioxide into carbohydrate molecules in photosynthesis
RNA polymerase The enzyme that joins together nucleotides to form of messenger RNA during transcription
Rods Low intensity receptors in the retina of the eye which do not detect colour and have low visual acuity
Saltatory conduction The propagation of a nerve impulse along a myelinated axon in which the action potential
jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next node
Sarcomere Each contractile unit within a myofibril is called a sarcomere. This consists of overlapping strands of
contractile protein called myosin, and smaller protein strands called actin
Saturated fatty acid A fatty acid in which all the carbon atoms are joined by a single C–C bond, for example stearic
acid
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) This records the electrons that are reflected off the surface of the specimen.
It gives a three-dimensional image of the intact specimen
Schwann cell A cell that wraps itself around an axon to form a myelin sheath
Sclerenchyma Plant cells which have thickened walls due to the addition of lignin. These cells are dead since lignin is
impermeable to gases and liquids. Sclerenchyma provides immense mechanical support to stems and leaves
Sclerotic The tough, white, outer layer of the eye which protects it and keeps it in shape under the pressure of its
fluid contents
Secondary succession This occurs at sites that have previously supported a community when the previous
succession has been disrupted after a major environmental disturbance, for example a forest fire
Seed bank Cold stores of seeds that originally concentrated on commercial crops but now also conserve seed stocks
of endangered or valuable species
Selective breeding (or artificial selection) The process by which animals or plants with characteristics useful to
humans are allowed to breed
Self-pollination Occurs when pollen is transferred from the anther to a stigma of the same flower, or to a different
flower but on the same plant
Sensory neurone A neurone that transmits an action potential from a sensory receptor to the central nervous system
Sex chromosomes Human cells have a pair of sex chromosomes. In females, the two sex chromosomes are alike
and are termed X chromosomes. In males there is one X chromosome and one Y chromosome which is much shorter
Sex linkage Sex linkage occurs when genes are carried on the sex chromosomes. These genes may have nothing to
do with sex determination they just happen to be carried on the X or Y chromosomes
Sexual reproduction Reproduction involving the production and fusion of gametes producing offspring which show
genetic variation
Sickle cell anaemia (SCA) A human blood disease caused by the inheritance of a recessive allele. The red blood
cells become malformed, with the appearance of a crescent or sickle-shape. The sickle cells get stuck in capillaries and
inhibit the circulation of oxygen to the tissues
Simpson’s diversity index (D) A mathematical measure of diversity which takes into account the species richness
and their abundance within a habitat
Single circulation system As in fish, the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills. Oxygenated blood is then
carried to the tissues. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart. So blood passes through the heart only once in one
circuit of the body
Sino-atrial node (SAN) This is a specialised area of cardiac muscle in the wall of the right atrium. The SAN sends
out electrical impulses to the rest of the atria. Cardiac muscle in the walls of both atria contract in rhythm with the
impulses from the SAN
Skeletal muscle Also called voluntary muscle, since it is under conscious control. Skeletal muscles are attached to the
skeleton and occur in antagonistic pairs
Slow-twitch muscle fibres Skeletal muscle which uses aerobic respiration and is able to contract for long periods
Smooth muscle Also called involuntary muscle because it is not under conscious control. It is under the control of the
autonomic nervous system and is found in the walls of the gut, blood vessels, ureters and bladder
Solute potential A measure of the reduction in water potential due to the presence of solute molecules
Spatial summation When a number of presynaptic neurones form synapses with one postsynaptic neurone, enough
neurotransmitter builds up to a threshold level to trigger a postsynaptic impulse
Speciation The evolution of two or more species from an existing one
Species A group of similar individuals that can breed freely to produce fertile offspring
Species diversity The number of different species and the number of individuals of each species found within
a habitat
Species evenness The relative sizes of the populations and how well a species is spread through the habitat
Species richness The number of different species there are within a habitat
Specific heat capacity Water has a high specific heat capacity. A large amount of energy is needed to raise the
temperature water, likewise, water has to lose a lot of heat energy to cool down
Spermatogenesis The formation of sperm in the testis, as a result of meiosis
Stabilising selection This tends to eliminate extreme variations from the population
Starch The main carbohydrate food reserve in plants
Stem cell Undifferentiated cell from which specialised cells arise during development
Steroids Chemicals with a four-ring structure with various side-chains. Many hormones are steroids and are
synthesised from cholesterol
Stroke volume This is the volume of blood pumped out of the heart with each heartbeat
Substitution The change in the ‘normal’ base sequence of DNA where one base is substituted by another
Substrate The molecule upon which an enzyme acts. Together an enzyme-substrate complex is formed, which then
breaks down releasing the unchanged enzyme and the products of the reaction
Succession The change that takes place in the structure and species composition of a community over time
Sustainable management Using natural resources wisely so they are not destroyed the future generations, for
example sustainable timber production and sustainable fishing
Symbiosis This is a specialised form of mutualism which involves some form of physiological interdependence
between the two species
Sympatric speciation The development of a new species when there are no physical barriers. It is usually caused
when reproductive isolation occurs between individuals of a population
Symplast pathway The passage of water along through the cytoplasm of the cortex cells. Plasmodesmata are thin
strands of cytoplasm that allow water molecules to pass between adjacent cells
Synapse A junction between neurones where they meet but do not touch. There is a small gap about 20 nm wide
called the synaptic cleft across which a chemical known as a neurotransmitter can pass
Systolic pressure The pressure at which blood leaves the heart through the aorta from the left ventricle
Taxon Organisms can be placed into a series of groups arranged in a hierarchy. Each group is called a taxon and
contains organisms that share key features
Taxonomy The sorting of a vast array of living organisms into groups
Telophase The stage of nuclear division when the daughter nuclei form
Temporal summation When a number of action potentials are required before there is enough neurotransmitter to
initiate an action potential in the postsynaptic cell
Testosterone A male steroid sex hormone which controls the development of secondary sexual characteristics
at puberty
The founder effect This occurs when only a few individuals from a population colonise a new region and start a
new, isolated population
Thermoregulation The regulation of a stable body temperature in an organism by balancing its heat gain with its
heat loss
Thylakoid A network of flattened sacs between which chlorophyll molecules are located which trap light for
photosynthesis
Tidal volume The volume of air breathed in or out during a single breath
Tissue fluid As blood passes through the capillaries, some of the plasma passes out into the tissues. This tissue fluid
‘bathes’ the cells supplying them with nutrients and oxygen
T-lymphocyte A type of white blood cell that is produced in the bone marrow but matures in the thymus gland.
T-lymphocytes coordinate the immune response and kill infected cells
Tonoplast The membrane that surrounds a large vacuole in a plant cell
Totipotent cell Stem cell that has the ability to divide and produce all the differentiated cells of an organism
Transcription The formation of messenger RNA molecules from the DNA that makes up a particular gene. It is the
first part of protein synthesis
Transcription factors Specific proteins that are needed to stimulate a gene to start transcription
Transfer RNA (tRNA) A small form of RNA (about 80 nucleotides long) which transports amino acids to the
ribosomes so that a polypeptide can be assembled
Transferase These transfer a group of atoms from one molecule to another. They include transaminases which
transfer amino groups from one molecule to another
Transgenic organism An organism that has had the DNA from another organism of another species transferred into it
Translation The process by which the code on a section of messenger RNA is converted to a particular sequence of
amino acids which then form a polypeptide
Transmission electron microscope (TEM) The electron beam passes through the specimen, electrons are
deflected and the pattern produced is converted into an image
Transpiration The loss of water from the surface of land plants mainly by diffusion through the stomata on the
underside of the leaves
Trichromatic theory This proposes that there are three different types of cones receptive to blue, green and red
light. The extent of stimulation of each type of cone at different wavelengths of light enables us to perceive different
colours
Triglyceride A common type of lipid formed by the joining together of three fatty acid molecules and a glycerol
molecule
Triose Monosaccharide molecule made up of three carbon atoms
Trophic level The position of an organism in a food chain
Tumour suppressor gene Gene that codes for proteins that repress the cell cycle
Turgidity When a cell has a lower water potential than the external solution, water will enter by osmosis. The cell
contents press against the cell wall and the pressure potential rises until it is equal and opposite to the solute potential.
No more water can enter the cell. It is said to be turgid
Undernutrition General starvation or specific, as in the case of a deficiency of a particular vitamin or mineral
Unicellular An organism made up of just one cell
Unsaturated fatty acid A fatty acid that has at least one C=C double bond
Vaccination The introduction of a vaccine containing appropriate disease antigens into the body by injection or by
mouth in order to induce active immunity
Vasoconstriction The narrowing of the internal diameter of arterioles by muscle contraction
Vasodilation The widening of the internal diameter of arterioles by muscle relaxation
Vector A carrier. The term may refer to something such as a plasmid which carries DNA into a cell, or an organism
that carries a parasite to its primary host
Ventilation rate The total volume of air taken into the lungs in one minute, calculated by multiplying breathing rate
by tidal volume
Viral latency The ability of a pathogenic virus to remain dormant (latent) within a host cell before the lytic cycle
continues
Virus This is a ‘non-cell’ since it has no cytoplasm, no organelles and no chromosomes. It consists of a core of nucleic
acid and a protein coat. Viruses are able to invade cells and reproduce, forming new viral particles
Vital capacity The maximum volume of air that can be breathed in or out of the lungs
Water Perhaps the most important biological molecule, made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen
Water potential The tendency of water molecules to move. The greater the number of water molecules present, the
higher (less negative) the water potential. Pure water has a water potential of zero
Waxes These are similar to fats and oils, but their long-chain fatty acids are linked to a long-chained alcohol. Waxes
are very insoluble and form a waterproof layer over some cells
Wilting Turgid cells give mechanical support to soft plant stems and keep them upright. If these cells lose water they
become flaccid. They are no longer firm and cannot give the same support and the plant stem wilts
Xerophyte A plant that lives in conditions where water is scarce
X-ray diffraction A technique which involves firing a beam of X-rays at a crystal. The X-rays hit the atoms inside the
crystal and are deflected and caught on a photographic plate. This technique was used to work out the structure of
DNA and many proteins
Xylem vessels Transport water and mineral salts. Lignin is deposited in their walls to give greater mechanical support

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