8/20/2017

TU ERROR ANALYSIS

Short note |Method of experimental error estimation designed for MSc. PHYSIC s
| Changba Dinesh Singdan Tamang
 Error analysis (CDST)

Preface
I designed this short e-book for those students of MSc physics who were struggling for
writing the error analysis part of experimental physics in laboratory. I couldn't visit
every colleges but for sure I get chances to enter and do some experimental stuffs inside
the laboratory of two TU( Tribhuvan University) affiliated colleges St. Xavier's College
(Maitighar) and Amrit Science College(lainchaur). Most of the students were there with
chaos of a lot of confusion inside their head, so I decided to write this simple and short
handbook on the topic of error analysis to help all those students. This book is short but
comprehensive one as it covers all the necessary tools required in Masters Level Physics
but not that long filled with a lot of boring complex language part. This is based on the
lectures given by several physics teachers of TU, ASCOL and my own knowledge that I
gained in several years since I started loving physics. Method of error analysis is well
illustrated through suitable examples. All those texts, data and graphs are my own. Some
figures are referenced from other sources you can copy and distribute it as electronic copy
for educational purpose with permission, but you need permission to print and distribute
it for business purpose as hard copy or soft copy.

Thanks to my parents, sisters, teachers, friends and colleagues from

(ASCOL , KVC Chhauni, JYOTI HSS & Goganpani Elementary School
Dhading)

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 Error analysis (CDST)

Contents
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................................. 3
DEFINITION .................................................................................................................................................................. 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ERROR ......................................................................................................................................4
1. BASED ON THE SOURCES OF ERROR .........................................................................................4
2. BASED ON METHOD OF DETERMINATION ................................................................................ 5
SOURCES OF SYSTEMATIC ERROR AND ITS MINIMIZATION.......................................................................... 5
SOURCES RANDOM ERROR ...................................................................................................................................8
MINIMIZATION OF RANDOM ERROR ..................................................................................................................8
STATISTICAL ERROR ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................................... 9
FREQUENTLY USED TERMS ...................................................................................................................................... 9
THEORITICAL VALUE: ........................................................................................................................................... 9
STANDARD OR ACCEPTED VALUE: ..................................................................................................................... 9
MEASURED OR OBSERVED VALUE: ..................................................................................................................... 9
BEST VALUE OR MEAN VALUE: .......................................................................................................................... 9
ACCURACY VS PRECISION ................................................................................................................................... 9
DEVIATION (δ) ........................................................................................................................................................ 10
MEAN DEVITAION ................................................................................................................................................. 10
SQUARE DEVIATION ............................................................................................................................................. 10
ROOT MEAN SQUARE DEVIATION (STANDARD DEVIATION /SD) ............................................................... 10
STANDARD ERROR ................................................................................................................................................. 11
PROBABLE ERROR.................................................................................................................................................. 11
RELATIVE (R.E) AND PERCENTAGE ERROR..................................................................................................... 12
DIRECT MEASUEREMENT (OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLE) ................................................................................ 12
INDIRECT MEASUEREMENT (OF DEPENDENT VARIABLE) .................................................................................13
PROPAGATION OF ERROR ....................................................................................................................................... 14
ESTIMATING THE ERROR OF INDIRECT MEASUREMENT ................................................................................. 14
(DEPENDENT VARIABLE)......................................................................................................................................... 14
CASE-1) FOR SINGLE VARIABLE FUNCTION .................................................................................................. 16
CASE-2 FOR FUNCTION INVOLVING SUM and Difference of variables .......................................................... 16
CASE-3 FOR FUNCTION INVOLVING Product and division of variables ......................................................... 16
EXPRESSING MEASUREMENT WITH ERROR ....................................................................................................... 17
A comprehensive example on error analysis ................................................................................................................. 17

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 Error analysis (CDST)

ERROR IN REFRACTIVE INDEX (µ) ..........................................................................................................................20

CALCULATING THE RELATIVE ERROR ................................................................................................................. 22
SIGNIFICANT FIGURE, LEAST COUNT AND ROUDING OFF .................................................................................. 22
LEAST COUNT............................................................................................................................................................. 22
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: ............................................................................................................................................. 22
CHOOSING THE BEST NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES .............................................................................. 23
LEAST SQUARE FITTING ...............................................................................................................................................24

INTRODUCTION
Error is inherent in any measurement.
Error is not a mistake
Our aim is to estimate the error , possible sources of error and to minimize it

"It is better to be roughly right than to be precisely wrong"

DEFINITION
The experimental error or uncertainty can be defined as the deviation of measured or observed
value from the true value.

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 Error analysis (CDST)

CLASSIFICATION OF ERROR

1. BASED ON THE SOURCES OF ERROR

ERROR TYPES
(based on their
source)

RANDOM SYSTEMATIC
ERROR ERROR

Even if the observation is repeated several

times under the similar condition by the same
person , different readinds may be obtained. They are reproducible
inaccuracies that arises
This type of error is callled RANDOM ERROR.
consistently in every
Simply it is a statistical fluctuation form one experiment in the same
mearsurement to another measurement. direction.

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 Error analysis (CDST)

2. BASED ON METHOD OF DETERMINATION

ERROR TYPES
(based on their
method of
determination)

PROBABLE
RALATIVE
ERROR(P.E.
ERROR(R.E.)
)

PERCENTAGE STANDARD
ERROR(%) ERROR(S.E.)

SOURCES OF SYSTEMATIC ERROR AND ITS MINIMIZATION

1. INTRUMENT BASED ERROR

a) FAULTY INSTRUMENT:
Eg. Stopwatch with slower or faster timing
Minimization: Check every instrument before using whether it working properly or not.
b) CALIBRAITON :
Faulty calibration of an instrument like ammeter, voltmeter gives induces errors
Minimization: Compare the scale with the standard scale
c) INSTRUMENT DRIFT
Most electronic devices have reading that drift over time.
Minimization: Note the reading as fast as possible.

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 Error analysis (CDST)

d) PARALLAX ERROR
This occurs whenever there is
some distance between
measuring scale and
indicator/pointer or due to the
angle and position of observer's
shight. This error can mostly be
found in ammeter, voltmeter,
multimeters like needled devices
and aslo while seeing meniscus
while measuring the volume of
liquid with measuring cylinder.

Minimization: To minimize such

error a mirror can be introduced
on the scale panel and the
observer should take the
readings in such a way that
indicator and its mirror image be
in unison.

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 Error analysis (CDST)

e) OFFSET ERROR:
If measuring device doesn't show zero reading event in the zero condition this is
known as offset error or zero error. For example if a multimeter doest show zero
ohm while measuring the resistance of highly conductive short wire.

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 Error analysis (CDST)

f) LAG TIME AND HYSTERESIS

Some measuring devices require time to come to

the equilibrium point and taking measurement
before reaching that equilibrium point may arise
errors.
Eg . Thermometers take time to reach the
equilibrium temperature with surrounding.
A similar effect is hysteresis where instrument
reading lag behind and appear to have memory
effect.

MINIMIZATION: We should take enough time to

take the measurement so that the system could
reach its equilibrium position.

2) ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Environmental/Physical condition such as temperature, humidity, pressure, vibrations,
electronic noise, unnecessary lights are also the common source of experimental error.
Eg. A meter scale may read differently in the temperature which is different than its
calibrational temperature coz there is effect of heat expansion.
*Optical experiments (interference and diffraction) are affected by external light.

SOURCES RANDOM ERROR

a) PHYSICAL VIRIATION
Even a slight change in physical condition form one observation to another observation may
induce random errors.
b) BIASNESS/JUDGEMENTAL ERROR
Eg. Same measurement may be read different person to person.
c) VARIATION IN TIME RESPONSE
EG. Starting and stopping stop watch can vary person to person and measurement to
measurement.

MINIMIZATION OF RANDOM ERROR

The only way of reducing random error is to take several measurement and to take the mean of
of multiple values as best value.

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 Error analysis (CDST)

STATISTICAL ERROR ANALYSIS

FREQUENTLY USED TERMS

THEORITICAL VALUE:
The theoretically speculated values of quantities without conducting any firm experiments are
known as theoretical values.
STANDARD OR ACCEPTED VALUE:
These are just experimentally observed value conducted by experts with extremely controlled
experiment and this value is publicly accepted. For example; g= 9.8 m/s.s is the standard value
of acceleration due to gravity on earth surface.
MEASURED OR OBSERVED VALUE:
If someone carry out experiments and measure the values of certain quantity then these value
are known as observed values of that quantity. Eg one can conduct his/her own experiment and
find g= 8 m/s.s (not necessary to be equal to standard value)
BEST VALUE OR MEAN VALUE:
If someone some take the mean of several experimentally observed values then this value is
known as best value or mean value of the quantity.
If x1,x2, x3 ….. are the measured value of X in 'n' different observation then the arithmetic
mean of these value is the best value of X which is given by,
𝑥1+𝑥2+𝑥3+⋯…+𝑥𝑛
𝑥̅ =< 𝑋 >= ………………………………(1)
𝑛

ACCURACY VS PRECISION
1) Accuracy : It deals with how close is measured value to an accepted or true value, If one
ca measure the value of 'g' very close to accepted value of g(i.e. 9.8 m/s2) then his
measurement(i.e. value measured by him) is said to be accurate. Less the relative error
greater is the accuracy. i.e less the deviation from standard value greater is the accuracy
is.
2) Precision: It deals with how reproducible the measurement is. If one can measure certain
quantity multiple times around a very close value then his measurement is said to be
precise but these values are not necessary to be close to standard value of that quantity.
Less the deviation from mean value greater is the precision.
Hence accuracy and precision are entirely different things.

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 Error analysis (CDST)

DEVIATION (δ)
The difference of particular value from its mean value is called the deviation from the
mean. Deviation of ith is given by
𝛿𝑖 = (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )
MEAN DEVITAION
Average (arithmetic mean) of all deviations is called mean deviation.

∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )
𝛿̅ =
𝑚

SQUARE DEVIATION
𝛿𝑖 2 = (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2

ROOT MEAN SQUARE DEVIATION (STANDARD DEVIATION /SD)

It is denoted by σ and given by

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 Error analysis (CDST)

𝒏
𝟏
𝝈=� ��(𝒙𝒊 − 𝒙
� )𝟐 �
𝒏−𝟏
𝟏

………………………………(2)

𝟏
i.e 𝝈=� �∑𝒏𝟏 𝜹𝒊 𝟐 �
𝒏−𝟏
𝑺
i.e, 𝝈=�
𝒏−𝟏
Where 𝑆 = ∑𝑛1 𝛿𝑖 2
is sum of all square deviations.
For large number of deviation we can write just 'n' in place of (n-1) ……but for small
number of observation we must write (n-1) in the denominator under root.

Note for normal distribution about mean (𝑥̅ ) it is found that,

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝛿̅
= ≈ 0.8
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜎

STANDARD ERROR
It is the measure of random error
It is calculated from standard deviation using the formula below,
𝝈
𝝈𝒎 = ………………………………(3)
√𝒏

𝝈𝒎 → 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
𝝈 → 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒏 → 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

∑(𝜹𝒊 𝟐 )
Also, 𝝈𝒎 = �
𝒏 (𝒏−𝟏)
�)𝟐
∑(𝒙𝒊 −𝒙
Also, 𝝈𝒎 = �
𝒏 (𝒏−𝟏)

PROBABLE ERROR
It is obtained from standard error as

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 Error analysis (CDST)

Probable error (𝐏. 𝐄. ) = ±𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟒𝟓 × 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫

i.e, (𝐏. 𝐄. ) = ±𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟒𝟓 × 𝝈𝒎
………………………………(4)
The probable error is a quantity e such that it is an even chance whether true value of the
quantity measured differs from the mean value by an amount greater or less than e

RELATIVE (R.E) AND PERCENTAGE ERROR

It is the ratio estimated error to the true value of quantity. Sometimes it is also called fractional
error. So it is given by
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟(∆𝑥) 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑅. 𝐸 = =� �……………(5)
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

And percentage error is the simply the relative error expressed in percentage

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑝𝑚𝑠𝑐𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑚𝑔𝑚 𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑠 = � � × 100% … … … … (6)
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Or, 𝑝𝑚𝑠𝑐𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑚𝑔𝑚 𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑠 = 𝑅. 𝐸.× 100%

(Note: Relative error is just ratio of error to the value of quantity…. We put take the value of
standard error in place of difference between measured value and standard value and mean
value in place of standard value at denominator last term of eq(5)… now we can say this is a
fractional error in terms of standard error )

DIRECT MEASUEREMENT (OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLE)

Those quantities which can be measured directly using measuring devices beacause they are not
dependent to other quantities/variables are called independent variables/quantities.
For example: Time, Mass, Length
Time can be measured directly using watches and we don’t need to measure other quantities to
put the values into certain formulas/equation/relations for the calculation of time.
Standard error of such independent variable can be estimated directly using statistical method.
We first find the mean value, standard deviation and finally calculate the standard error using
equation (3).

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 Error analysis (CDST)

INDIRECT MEASUEREMENT (OF DEPENDENT VARIABLE)

They can't be measured directly; rather we calculate them by using specific formula/relation by
substituting the values of directly measurable quantities. So first do the direct measurement of
independent variables in which our quantity is dependent to.
For example: we don’t measure velocity directly. To measure the velocity we first measure the
displacement (length) by using measuring tape , and time taken by stop watch and we use the
formula
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑚𝑙𝑑𝑐𝑑𝑑𝑦 = …………………………………………….(7)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

To calculate the value of a body.

(if one insists that velocity can also be measured directly by using speedometer then we can say
that even that speedometer can't measure velocity directly it works on the principle given by
the relation (7). There is special sensor-circuit arrangement that obeys the relation (7) displays
the resultant velocity of vehicles by using either analog or digital displays as you can see in car
and bikes)

Note:

So standard error in dependent variables/quantities can't be determined directly by using standard

deviation method of the quantity as it is not measured directly. For the estimation of standard error for
such quantities we first determine the standard error of dependent variables which our quantity is
dependent to and use certain rule/formula to calculate the error. Because the error in certain
dependent variable is the net error due to all of its arguments variable(input variables) .

For example to find the error in velocity we first separately determine the error in displacement and
time by using statistical method(standard deviation method) and finally we calculate the net standard
error in velocity due to error in displacement and time.
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 Error analysis (CDST)

PROPAGATION OF ERROR

Most often in the case of quantities which is dependent to several other variables, errors occur due the error in
its variable. In this way error propagate from one measurement to another.

Often we have two or more measured quantities that we combine arithmetically to get some result. Examples
include dividing a distance by a time to get a speed, or adding two lengths to get a total length. Now that we
have learned how to determine the error in the directly measured quantities we need to learn how these errors
propagate to an error in the result. We assume that the two directly measured quantities are X and Y, with errors
ΔX and ΔY respectively. The measurements X and Y must be independent of each other. The fractional error is
the value of the error divided by the value of the quantity: ΔX / X. The fractional error multiplied by 100 is the
percentage error. Everything is this section assumes that the error is "small" compared to the value itself, i.e. that
the fractional error is much less than one.

ESTIMATING THE ERROR OF INDIRECT MEASUREMENT

(DEPENDENT VARIABLE)
Let f(x1, x2, …..xn ) be a function of n variables variable x1, x2,…..xn representing any physical
quantity f.
f = f(x1, x2, …..xn )
Let Δf be error in f due to error in xi's and {Δx i }=Δx1, Δx2 , …., Δxn are the errors in x1, x2,
…..xn respectively. Provided that {Δx i } can de determined or have been already estimated.
If we know {Δx i } then we can estimate Δf easily.
If 𝑥̅𝑖 be the best value ( or true value) of x , then we can write
Δf = err in f due to err in 𝑥1 + err in f due to err in 𝑥2 + ⋯ + error in f due to error in 𝑥𝑛
Δf = (Δf)𝑥1 +(Δf)𝑥2 +(Δf)𝑥3 + ⋯ … … … … … … … +(Δf)𝑥𝑛
....…………………….(8)
But we have
(Δf)𝑥1 = 𝑓 (𝑥̅1 + 𝛥𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥̅1 )

Using the Taylor series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥̅1 + 𝛥𝑥1 ) we get

1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 2
(Δf)𝑥1 = {𝑓(𝑥̅1 ) + � � ∆𝑥1 + � � (∆𝑥1 )2 + ⋯ … … … } − 𝑓(𝑥̅1 )
1! 𝜕𝜕1 2! 𝜕𝜕1

Neglecting higher order terms we get(taking lowest order non vanishing term),

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 Error analysis (CDST)

𝜕𝑓
(Δf)𝑥1 = � � ∆𝑥1
𝜕𝑥1 𝑥
1 =𝑥̅ 1

(Δf)𝑥1 = 𝑐1 ∆𝑥1
𝜕𝑓
…..where 𝑐1 = � �
𝜕𝑥1 𝑥 =𝑥̅
1 1

Similarly we can expanse (Δf)𝑥2 , (Δf)𝑥3 , … … , (Δf)𝑥𝑛 too,

now equation (1) can be written as
Δf = 𝑐1 ∆𝑥1 + 𝑐2 ∆𝑥2 + 𝑐3 ∆𝑥3 + ⋯ … … … … + 𝑐𝑛 ∆𝑥𝑛
Squaring on both sides we get,

(Δf)2 = 𝑐12 (∆𝑥1 )2 + 𝑐22 (∆𝑥2 )2 + 𝑐32 (∆𝑥3 )2 + ⋯ … … + 𝑐𝑛2 (∆𝑥𝑛 )2 + 2 � 𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑗 ∆𝑥𝑖 ∆𝑥𝑗

𝑁𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑚𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑔 𝑑ℎ𝑚 𝑑𝑚𝑠𝑚𝑠 , 2 � 𝑐𝑖 𝑐𝑗 ∆𝑥𝑖 ∆𝑥𝑗 ≈ 0

We can write, Δf = �𝑐12 (∆𝑥1 )2 + 𝑐22 (∆𝑥2 )2 + 𝑐32 (∆𝑥3 )2 + ⋯ … … + 𝑐𝑛2 (∆𝑥𝑛 )2

i.e,

𝜕𝑓 2 𝜕𝑓 2 𝜕𝑓 2 𝜕𝑓 2
Δf = �� � (∆𝑥1 )2 + � � (∆𝑥2 )2 + � � (∆𝑥3 )2 + ⋯ … … + � � (∆𝑥𝑛 )2 … … . . (9)
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥𝑛

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 Error analysis (CDST)

CASE-1) FOR SINGLE VARIABLE FUNCTION

If f is the function of only one variable x

i.e f=f(x) ………………… then eq (2 ) takes the form,

𝜕𝑓 2
Δf = �� � (∆𝑥)2
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑓
Δf = � � (∆𝑥) … … … … … … … … … … (9a)
𝜕𝑥

CASE-2 FOR FUNCTION INVOLVING SUM and Difference of variables

Let, f = f(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = 𝑥1 ± 𝑥2 , then applying eq (9) partial derivative of f w.r.t each
variable becomes ei, 1 or -1 and we get,

𝜕𝑓 2 𝜕𝑓 2
Δf = �� � (∆𝑥1 ) + �
2 � (∆𝑥2 )2 Δf = �12 (∆𝑥1 )2 + (1)2 (∆𝑥2 )2 Δf
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2
= �(∆𝑥1 )2 + (∆𝑥2 )2
In general for n different variable with sum or difference,
Δf = �(∆𝑥1 )2 + (∆𝑥2 )2 + (∆𝑥1 )2 + ⋯ … . . + (∆𝑥𝑛 )2 … … . . (9𝑏)

Off course, which is simpler than eq (9).

CASE-3 FOR FUNCTION INVOLVING Product and division of variables

Let, we have a function f = f(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = 𝑥1 × 𝑥2 Then in both cases we can use equation (9) ,

𝜕𝑓 2 𝜕𝑓 2
Δf = �� � (∆𝑥1 ) + �
2 � (∆𝑥2 )2
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2

∆𝑓 = �𝑥2 2 (∆𝑥1 )2 + 𝑥1 2 (∆𝑥2 )2

Multiplying both sides by 𝑥1 𝑥2 we get,

∆𝑓 𝑥2 2 (∆𝑥1 )2 𝑥1 2 (∆𝑥2 )2
=� +
𝑥1 𝑥2 (𝑥1 𝑥2 )2 (𝑥1 𝑥2 )2

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 Error analysis (CDST)

∆𝑓 ∆𝑥1 2 ∆𝑥2 2
= �� � +� � �∵ 𝑓 = 𝑥1 𝑥2, 𝑂𝑁 𝐿𝐻𝑆�
𝑓 𝑥1 𝑥2

∆𝑥1 2 ∆𝑥2 2
∆𝑓 = 𝑓� � � +� �
𝑥1 𝑥2
𝑥
And the similar result can be obtained even if f = f(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = � 1�, and in general
𝑥2

∆𝑥1 2 ∆𝑥2 2 ∆𝑥3 2 ∆𝑥𝑛 2

∆𝑓 = 𝑓�� � +� � +� � + ⋯……+ � � … … … . . (9𝑐)
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛

These were the generalization of equation (9) for simple specific function. For other complex
function it is recommended to use the equation (9) directly.

EXPRESSING MEASUREMENT WITH ERROR

Measurement = (best value ± uncertainty) units

= (best value ± standard error) units
In general, 𝑥 = 𝑥̅ ± ∆𝑥
eg. µ = 1.34 ± 0.04
(This tells us that refractive index of certain medium is best determined to be equal to 1.34 with
uncertainty (error) of ±0.04)

A comprehensive example on error analysis

Let us consider we are performing and experiment to calculate the refractive index of certain
liquid using hollow prism… our aim is to estimate the best value of refractive index and the
error in measuring that refractive index.

Suppose, Vernier constant of spectrometer (VC) =1' =0.0167˚

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 Error analysis (CDST)

Following table is obtained while measuring the angle between the reflected light from the two
faces of hollow prism (B)
Table-1
Reading of face I Reading of face II A˚
no. of obs

VS VS differen (angle
vernier

M MS
DIV VS ˚ TOT˚ DIV VS ˚ TOT˚ ce of
S˚ ˚
S S B=(R1- Mean prism
R1 R2 R2)˚ B˚ )
15 0.050 150.05 0.033 30.033 120.016
1 I
0 3 1 01 30 2 4 4 7
32 0.100 325.10 0.083 205.08 120.016
II
5 6 2 02 205 5 5 35 7
13 0.083 138.08 0.100 18.100 119.983
2 I
8 5 5 35 18 6 2 2 3
32 0.167 322.16 0.133 202.13 120.033
II
2 10 0 70 202 8 6 36 4
14 0.534 143.53 0.016 23.516 120.017
3 I
3 32 4 44 23.5 1 7 7 7
32 0.584 323.58 203. 0.083 203.58 120.001 120.01 60.00
II
3 35 5 45 5 5 5 35 0 15 57

Since angle of prism A depends on B as

A=B/2
𝜕𝐴
SO, = 1/2
𝜕𝐵

We can say A is function of one variable B, to estimate the error in A we have to find out the
standard error in B.
For this we first determine the standard deviation on B

Table-2
No Standard
of Deviation Square deviation
Mean B
obs B˚ � )˚ form mean deviation ∑(δ)²
(𝑩
𝛅 = (𝐁 − 𝑩�) ˚ δ² ∑ 𝜹𝟐
𝝈=�
𝒏−𝟏
1 120.0167 120.0115 0.0052 0.0000 0.0015 0.0172

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 Error analysis (CDST)

2 120.0167 0.0052 0.0000

3 119.9833 -0.0282 0.0008
4 120.0334 0.0219 0.0005
5 120.0177 0.0062 0.0000
6 120.0010 -0.0105 0.0001
(Here n=6, since 6 observations are made)

Now, Standard Error in B is,

𝜎 0.0172
∆𝐵 = 𝜎𝑚 = � = �
𝑚 6

= ±0.0070 ˚
Then error in A due to error in B is given by (according to eq (10) )
𝜕𝐴 1
ΔA = � � (∆𝐵) = (0.0070) = ±0.0035
𝜕𝐵 2

Suppose following table is obtained while measuring the angle of minimum deviation,
TABLE-3

Deviated reading Direct reading

no.
vernier

of MS ˚ VS ˚ TOT˚ MS ˚ VS ˚ TOT˚Dm=(R1-
obs (R1) (R2) R2)˚ �����
𝑫 𝒎
1 I 111.0 0.1002 111.1 86.0 0 86 25.1002
II 292.0 0.0334 292.033 266.0 0.8016 266.8016 25.2318
2 I 111.0 0.668 111.668 86.5 0.1169 86.6169 25.0511
25.0919
II 290.5 0.668 291.168 266.0 0.167 266.167 25.001
3 I 63.0 0.2505 63.2505 88.0 0.2672 88.2672 25.0167
II 242.0 0.1503 242.15 267.0 0.3006 267.3006 25.1503

We have refractive index ,

(𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚)
sin
𝜇= 2
𝐴
sin
2
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 Error analysis (CDST)

(60.0057 + 25.0919)
sin
𝜇= 2
60.0057
sin
2
𝜇 = 1.3523
Now , we estimate the error in angle of minimum deviation ( Dm) before estimating the error in
µ

𝜹
= 𝑫𝒎 𝑆. 𝐸(∆𝐷𝑚 ) =
−𝑫 �����
𝒎 𝜎
����� �𝑛
NO of obs Dm ˚ 𝑫 𝒎 ˚ (˚) δ² ∑δ² SD (σ) ˚
6.97E-
1 25.1002 0.0083 05
2 25.2318 0.1399 0.01958
3 25.0511 25.09185 -0.0407 0.00166 0.03863 0.0879 ˚ 0.0358 ˚
4 25.001 -0.0908 0.00825
5 25.0167 -0.0751 0.00564
6 25.1503 0.0584 0.00341

ERROR IN REFRACTIVE INDEX (µ)

We have ,
𝐸𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑚 𝑑𝑓 𝑚𝑑𝑚𝑑𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑚𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑚, ∆𝐷𝑚 = ±0.0358 ˚
𝐸𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑚 𝑑𝑓 𝑝𝑠𝑑𝑠𝑚, ∆𝐴 = ±0.0035˚
Since µ depends on two variables Dm and A, Error in µ due to error in A and Dm is given
by(according to eq (9) ),

𝜕μ 2 𝜕μ 2
Δμ = �� � (∆𝐴)2 + � � (∆𝐷𝑚 )2 … … . . … … … … … . .11
𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐷𝑚

(𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚 )
sin
𝑆𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑚 𝑤𝑚 ℎ𝑚𝑑𝑚, 𝜇= 2
𝐴
sin
2

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 Error analysis (CDST)

1 𝐴 (𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚) 𝐴 (𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚 )
𝜕μ �sin �cos � − cos sin �
2 2 2 2 2
𝑆𝑑, � �=
𝜕𝐴 𝐴
sin2
2
1 𝐴 𝐴 𝐷
𝜕μ �sin � − − 𝑚 ��
� �=2 2 2 2
𝜕𝐴 𝐴
sin2
2
𝐷𝑚
𝜕μ 1 sin � 2 �
� �=− … . . … … … … … . . (12)
𝜕𝐴 2 sin2 𝐴
2

Again,
(𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚 )
𝜕μ 1 cos 2
� �= … . . … … … … … . . (13)
𝐷𝑚 2 2 𝐴
sin
2

Using equations (11) , (12) and (13) we get,

𝐷𝑚 2 (𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚 ) 2
1 sin � 2 � 1 cos 2
Δμ = �� � (∆𝐴)2 + � � (∆𝐷𝑚 )2
2 sin2 𝐴 2 sin2
𝐴
2 2

𝐷𝑚 2 (𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚 ) 2
1 sin �
� cos
Δμ = �� 2 � (∆𝐴)2 + � 2 � (∆𝐷𝑚 )2
2 𝐴 𝐴
sin2 sin2
2 2
Putting the values of ∆𝐷𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑑 ∆𝐴 we get,
Δμ = ±0.0025°
So finally we have estimated the error in refractive index µ, So we can write

𝜇 = (1.3523 ± 0.0025)°

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 Error analysis (CDST)

CALCULATING THE RELATIVE ERROR

Let 𝜇𝑠 = 1.3614 be standard value of refractive index of given liquid, we have also found out
the observed value of refractive index as 𝜇o = 1.323 , then we have
Relative Error
𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑚𝑠𝑑𝑚𝑑 𝑑𝑚𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑓 𝜇 − 𝑆𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑚𝑠𝑑 𝑑𝑚𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑓 𝜇
𝑅. 𝐸. = � �
𝑆𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑚𝑠𝑑 𝑑𝑚𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑑𝑓 𝜇
𝜇 o − 𝜇s
𝑅. 𝐸. = � �
𝜇s
1.3523 − 1.3614
𝑅. 𝐸. = � �
1.3614
𝑅. 𝐸. = 0.0067

Similarly percentage error is given by,

𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑠 % = 𝑅. 𝐸 × 100%
𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑠 % = 0.067%

SIGNIFICANT FIGURE, LEAST COUNT AND ROUDING OFF

LEAST COUNT
The smallest possible value or unit that a device can measure is called the least count or
resolution of device.
For example a spherometer had main scale with smallest division equal to 1 mm and its circular
scale has 100 divisions in total. Let one complete rotation of circular scale covers a distance of
1 mains scale division then it can be said that it can measure as small as
1
𝑚𝑚 ….
100

so its least count is 0.01 mm.

One can't express error less than the least count of device (or once cant express the error in
more significant figures than least count of measuring device has)
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES:
It is defined as the all digits of a number between and including the first non-zero digit from left
through the last digit.

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 Error analysis (CDST)

RULES OF COUNTING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES (s.f.)

ALL non –zero digits are significant
eg, 91 has 2 s.f.

Zeros between non-zero digits are significant

Eg. 101002 has 6 s.f.

Leading zeros are not significant

eg. o.ooo52 has only 2 s.f.

Trailing zeros in a number containing decimal point are significant

eg. 12.2300 has 6 s.f.
0.00122300 has 6 s.f.

Significance of trailing zeros in a number not containing decimal point are ambiguous
eg. 13000, 124000 etc
these numbers are converted in scientific format including one trailing zero so that s.f. is
equal to the number of non zero leading number plus 1 (+1 for one included zero 0)
so, 13000 = 130 × 102 has 3 s.f.
2
, 124000 = 1240 × 10 has 4 s.f.

CHOOSING THE BEST NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

The last significant figure in measurement should be of the same order of magnitude of
uncertainty

Measured value Uncertainty

𝐿 = 92.8 ± 0.3 𝑐𝑚 (𝑅𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇)𝐿 = 93 ± 3 𝑐𝑚 (𝑅𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇)

𝐿 = 56.8345 ± 0.4𝑐𝑚 (𝑊𝑅𝑂𝑁𝐺)𝐿 = 56.8 ± 0.4 𝑐𝑚 (𝑅𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇)

𝐿 = 56.83 ± 0.0546 𝑐𝑚 (𝑊𝑅𝑂𝑁𝐺)𝐿 = 56.83 ± 0.05𝑐𝑚 (𝑅𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇)

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 Error analysis (CDST)

Uncertainty value should be in less significant figures (probably 1 s.f or 2 s.f) ……..so it
is not good to write uncertainty with many significant figures like ±0.3490484
(WRONG). Coz uncertainty can't be determined in that precision.

Measured value cant be more precise than the least count of measuring device.
eg, x=6.7938±0.0002 is incorrect if measuring device has least count more than o.ooo2.

LEAST SQUARE FITTING

This is a method of

1) representing random data with best fitted graph and

2) estimating uncertainties in various variables/quantities

Thought method can be used for both linearly dependent and non-linearly dependent variable
here we discuss only about the graphical fitting of linearly dependent quantities.
Suppose we have to measure a variable y
which depends on another variable x
linearly then we can write,
y= mx + c ……………………(a)
Clearly this equation gives a straight line
when we plot graph with
m = slope of graph
c = y intercept

But experimentally values of y may be found

in such a way that the x v/s y plot may not be
straight graph, instead it will just be a chaos
of randomly distributed points. For example
we set different value of x and measure y and
obtain following table of data,

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 Error analysis (CDST)

(TABLE-1)
No of obs x y
1 1 5
2 2 4
3 3 7.5
4 4 8
5 5 9
6 6 11.7
7 7 11
8 8 14
9 9 13
n= 10 10 16
(n= total number of observation)
Definitely this is not a straight line, so our first aim is to plot the best fitted graph for this data.
We use here the method of least square fitting. Following are the formulae to find the values of
slope(m) and y- intercept ( c ) of best fitting line,
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦−∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑦
𝑚=
∆
∑ 𝑥 2 ∑ 𝑦−∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑥𝑦
𝑐=
∆
2
2
𝑤ℎ𝑚𝑠𝑚 ∆= 𝑚 � 𝑥 − �� 𝑥�

So for the calculation of m and c we construct an another table below,

(TABLE-2)
No of
obs x y 𝑥2 xy
1 1 5 1 5
2 2 4 4 8
3 3 7.5 9 22.5
4 4 8 16 32
5 5 9 25 45
6 6 11.7 36 70.2
7 7 11 49 77
8 8 14 64 112
9 9 13 81 117
10 10 16 100 160
� 𝑥 = 55 � 𝑦 = 99.2 � 𝑥 2 = 385 � 𝑥𝑦 = 648.7

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 Error analysis (CDST)

Putting the values form table 2 we get,

Δ 825
Slope (m)= 1.2
Intercept (c) = 3

Now the equation of our best fitting graph is y= 1.2 x + 3

using this equation we can plot the graph of best fitting line as shown in figure

Now we can find the uncertainty (error) in y, m and c by using the following formulae

1 𝑚 ∑(𝑥 2 )
∆𝑦 = � �(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑚𝑥𝑖 − 𝑐) ∆𝑚 = ∆𝑦� ∆𝑐 = ∆𝑦
2 �
𝑚−2 ∆ ∆

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 Error analysis (CDST)

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