f,LAI STENONIS NICOLAUS STENO

] SOLIDO THE PRODROMUS

LIDUM NATURALITER TO A DISSERTATION ON SOLIDS
CONTENTO NATURALLY CONTAINED
ATIONIS PRODROMUS WITHIN SOLIDS

AD

SEREfflSSI/',IUM ro
Dedicated

]ERDINANDUM II FERDINAND II
IAGNUM ETRURIAE DUCEM. GRAND DUKE OF TUSCANY.

FT,ORENTIAE
FLORENCE

f aphiasubsignoSTELLAE. MDCLXIX FromthePrintingShopundertheSignof TheSTAR.1669

Superiorum
Permissu. With permission of the Superiors
 Masne Dux.'
Serenissime
bus frcqvcnter evenit, dun per loca continuis montibus as-
in verticc corum sitam, ut simul visam, simul proximarn si-
plicesviarum ambagcsad tacdiunrusqvc spent illorum no-
na cacumina prospiciunt, qvac vero eorundem cacuminunt
edita colliun, sive profunda vallium, sive canporum plana,
urilnum superant. cum. sibimet ipsis adblandiendo,loco-
rie metjantur. Ncc aliter se res habet cum illis, qvi ad ve-
pcr cxperimentainccdunt; simul ac enim veritatis incogni-
irpparuerint.rem totam cxtcmplo detectum iri opinantur:
)terunt rationem temporis, qvod rcqviritur ad resolvendanr
ditficultatum. qvae sensim,et qvasi ex occulto prodeundo.
rpedinlentis, ad linem propcrantcs rctardant. Communes
lifficultatesprincipium laboris dunltaxat ostcndit;qvae vero
a evertenda,tun vera stabilienda,tum elucidandaobscura,
la, raro qvispiam detexerit, anteqvam invcstigationisfilum
rle putei excrnplo utebatur Democrills, ubi hauriendi labo-
lvam ritc cmcnsus fucrit, nisi cxhauriendo; cum vcnarum
t amplitudo natcrjae afflucntis copiam dubiam reljnqvat,
issinte Princcps, si integro anno, ct qvod excedit, singulis
'oximam dixerim illam investigationem, cui CanisCarchariae
ruerant.Visis enim semel iterumqve tcrris, unde testaeet id
rrentacruuntur. cum deprchendcrcm,cssc illas tcrras turbi-
cssesingulisin locis numerum iniri, qvoties marc ibi turbi-
crutinium brevissimitemporis laborcm cssc,non solum mi-
e, sed aliis insuper intrcpide asserebanr.Inde vero, dum
ra attcntius pervestigo, ea in dies dubia mihi suboriuntur
icem excipientia, ut saepius qvasi ad carceres reductum me
proximum me credebam. Hydrae Lernaeac capitibus
im, qvandoqvidem, uno eorum exstincto, innumera alia
r labyrintho qvodam me oberrare deprehendi, ubi. qvo pro-
ritum, eo ampliores gyros ingreditur.
Most SereneGrand Duke.
While travellers in unknown territories hasten over rough mountain tracks towards a
city on a mountain top, it often happens that they judge the city, at first sight, to bc
close to them; constantly, numerous twists and turnings along the route delay their
hope of arrival to the point of weariness, for they sce only the nearcst pcaks; in
fact, those things hidden by the said pcaks, the heightsof hills, the depthsof valleys.
or the levels of plains, whatever they nray be, far exceed thcjr conjccturcs, and
they, dccciving thcmsclvcs, cstimatc thc intcrvening distances from their own
desires.
Nor is it in anyway diffcrcnt for thosc who movc towards true knowledgethrough
experiments,for as soon as certain tokensof an unknown truth have bccolnc clcar to
them, they believe that the wholc matter will be revealed at once; they can ncvcr
estimateproperly the time that is requircd to unravcl the closelylinked seriesof dif-
ficultiesthat. emerginggradually,as if from hiding. impede thosewho are hastening
to their goal, by constantly throwjng fresh obstaclcs into their path. Early work
merely revealscertain conmon and generallyknown difficultics; what is included
in these,now falschoodsto be overturned,now truths to be established,now dark
arcas to be lit, now unknown facts to be brought forth, will rarely be detected by
anyone before he has been led to them by the thread of his research.
And Democritus made use of a good example with a well in which,, since both
the numbcr and size oi the hidden springs leave the quantity of material flowing
into the well in doubt, a proper cstimatcof the work and time involved in emptying
it could scarcely be made except by draining the well dry. Therefore, do not won-
der, Most SerenePrince, lhat I should have said lor a whole year, and what is
more, almost daily, that the investigation, for which thc teeth of the Carcharias shark
provided the opportunity,3 was near to completion. For, having on sone occasions
observed soils from which shclls and other such marine deposits had been dug,
having observedthat those soils were scdimentsfrom a turbid sca and that is was
possible to calculate in each place how many times the sea had been turbid there,
not only did I make up my mind too hastily, but I also, in addition, gave daring
assurancesto others that a complete scrutiny on thc spot would be a very brief task.
But since then, as I investigated more closcly{ both each place and each body, these
gave rise to a successionof doubts, indissolubly connected, which assailed me day
by day, so that I saw rnyself rnore often brought back as it wcre to the starting gate
when I believed I was near to the finishing posts. I might liken these doubts to the
heads of the Lernean Hydra, since when one was destroyed, countless others grew
out from beneath;at all events, I saw that I was wandering in the kind of labyrinth
 Th. Prod'ontuso Solits
.ti excusandasnon inmorabor. curl) tibi longo reruDl usu
rtricata res sit, qvae experirnentorumnexibus implicatur:
nl magnamdicti laboris partenr,cum in Anatomicis aliqvid
uptis omnibus. in Patriam redeundi vcniam rogem, id
geret. nisi scireut. jn subjcctisalteri Principi eanr tibi obe-
m. qvae sinjli occasionein tibi subditistibi placeret Qvam
eam certiorem rcddit singularisilla benevolentia.qva, stu-
)ntis libcralc subsidium addiccndo. integram mihi relictam
.atcm,qvotiescunqveita jusserit occasio.Cum itaqve coep-
nccessariamnroram exspectareantplius non ausim, in per-
id aganr.qvod aere alicno oPPignoratisin freqventi more
cedcrc teneantur.cum non habeant,qvae solvant. solvunt
qvandoqvidem,qvae exhibendatibi essent,omnia exeqvi
se vidcar, eorum. qvae exeqvutussum, praecipuaexhibebo.
tus,omnia, dorrecinPatriam reversosingulaperiicerelicuis-
unam exspectarcm.qvam ubiqve hactenusexpertus sum.
rficiendis novi senrperobstiterintlabores. Glanduljs totius
rtentun mira cordis fabrica in sui scrutinium abripiebat;
rs Meorum mortcs intcrrumpebant. Ne muscul;s minutim
prodigiosaemagnitudinisCanem tua maria nobis obtule-
tum praescntibuscxpcrimentis ad xlia invitat, cujus nutui
et, magna )n nre Mcosqve promerita hortantur. Qvo fine
lo anxie inqvirere, torsitan mihi attribucrcm, qvac superio-
/entis non meis longa meditatio qvasi de mco aliqvid addi-
excolendo si inhaesissemdiutius, reliqvis reperiendis ipse
rm. Nescius itaqve, qvae alia expcrimenta studiaqve alibi
.ctu ratus sum de sttlido intre soLidur naturaliter incluso ea
icccptis beneficiis,grati animi mei pignus tibi crunt, et otio
liis occasionempraebebuntPhysicesct Geographiaestudia
ndi.
um naturaliter inclusi productionemattinet, primo disserta-
delineabo, inde, qvae rariora ibi occurrunt, succincte enar-
in qvatuor partes diviseram. qvarum prima. prooemii vi-
de rebus marinis procul a mari repertis qvaestionem esse
rtilem, sed veram ejus solutionem, primis temporibus mi-
The Ptodrotnw on Soli,ls t39
where the nearcr onc concs to the cxit, the greatcr the circles in which one walks
But I shall not linger in excusingmy slowness.since you have abundant know-
ledgc, from long experience,i of how complex is a n'latter involving a chain of ex-
periments:but an excusewould indeedbe required on the account that. having suc-
ceededwith a large part of the said task. I am seekingyour permissionto return to
my homeland, interrupting everythjng, to pursue a study of anatomy, did I nol
know that you will not bc displcascdby thc obcdicnceof a subjectfor another prince
that -vouwould be pleasedto have from your own subjectson a similar occasiono
My expectationof your willingnessin this matter is made more certain by the ex-
ceptionalkindnesswith which, in pledginggenerousassistancetowards the develop-
ment o[ n]y studies,you wished to leave me complete freedom to digresshowevcr
often the occasion might arise. Thus, since I can no longer dare to hope for the
ncc!-ssirr\tirne in whiclr to complcte the tasks begun, in meeting nry promises,I do
what b! common custonl is arranged for those in financial debt; they, when they
lack the nrcansto pay their dtbt in full. pay what thcy have, so that they will not lose
thejr business;and since I am not able to completeall that was to be shown to you,
I shall show you the chief itents of what has been completed,so that I may not
sccnrto hrvc brokcn my word-
I shouldhave beenbl no meansunwilling to put oft everytlringunlil I was at liber-
ty to p.rfect thc details. after rny return to nty native land, but for the exPectation
that thc samc situation will arise there as has been my expericnceup till now, inso-
flr as nerv tasks have always stood in the way of the completion of initial under-
takings: Whilc I was intent on finding the number of glands in the whole body,?
the rvonderiul structure of the heart dragged ntc off into a investigationof it;s the
deaths oi urv relations interrupted studies begun on the heart.eTo take rne away
frorn r tle'tailedaccountof the muscles,a shark of prodigioussizewas thrown up by
your seas.r0and now that I am wholly dedicatedto my present experiments,I am
called to ()ther things by hc whose command I must obey, under nLrturallaws, and
whosc will I am urged to obey by the great favours that he has shown to me and my
f a n ri l v . t '
I dcr not u,ish to ask anxiously for what purpose all these things happen; I may
pcrhi]ps atiribute to mvselt things which are due to a higher cause.If prolonged
meditatior would have added something,as it were of my own, to discoveriesnot
my own. it is certain that if I had remained closely concernedwitb developingone
discovery for a long time, I should have debarred myself from the opportunity of
discoveringthe rest.l: Not knowing, therefore,what other experimentsand studies
await me elsewherc.I thought it best to set down here those things concerninga
solid naturally cnclosed withitt a sLtlid,lt as a token of my gratitude for the favours
I havc' rcccivcd, and to provide an opportunity for others, vr'ho from their own
wish have the use and enjoyment of leisure. to cultivate studies in physics and
geography with greater profit.
With regard to the production of a solid naturally enclosed within a solid, I shall
 Thc I'rodrotnus on Solid.f
culis oppjdo incertam redditam fuisse.Inde expositisratio-
nl opjnione recesscrintPosteriores,cur hactenusa ncnrine
etianlsi plurima a multjs optintc scripta lcgantur. ad tc
ia plurinra tuis auspiciispartim noviter reperta, paftim ab
:tianrhos tibi ostendodcbcri, qvod huic qvircstioniultimanr
rcndamsperemus.
ur problema univcrsalc.undc singularumdifficultatunl eno-
'. dtto <orporc a(rta ligu't pt'acdilo, cl ju.tta lcges Nuturae
(, orgutlt(ntd int,e'nira,kxturt el Dodunl produ(tionis del(
roblematisresolutioncmevolvendamaggrcdiar.onlnia ejus
: allaboro. ut nulli scctac Philosophorum dubium qvid in
tqvarur.
r a v i s i n g u l i ss o l i d i ss o l i d o j n c l u s i sc x a n i n a n d i sj u x t a l e g c s
c inventas.
status Etruriae dcnronstratHistoricis et rcrunr naturaliunl
, d u m q v ed i l u v i i u n i v e r s a l ips r o p o n i t .n r o t u u n l n a t u r a l i u m l e -
o idionate extenderecocpcranr.tunr qvod tibi ita pjacere
teret illustri Academiae.qvae suorunr nre nunlero adscrip-
rnr tali honore. ita maxine avidunr cssc tcstandi conatus.
:ae linguae cognitionernpervenire allaboro. Ncc iregrelero
atcm differendi canden) scriptioncm; ut cnin instans iter
)reln notitiarnrrcrum qvaestioni illustrandac inscrvientium.
rcs in linguaestudio progressusnlihi pollicctur.
rcs praedictaIncthodo expositas.longum foret. observatio-
inde conclusionibustransscribere;qvocirca nrodo conclu-
les refcranr.pro ut comnrodiusvisum lucrit ad rcs pracci-
r licucrit dilucidc. indicandas.
vaestionumn.rturirlium dubia pleraqve non nrodo indccisa
Lmpro Scriptorum numero augcantur.a duobus praccipuc
letur.
i omnes illas difficultates excutiendassibi sunlant. absqvc
s qvaestionisresolutio mutila et impcrfectarclinqvitur.Evi-
rst pracscnsqvaestio.Antiqvos unica tantum excrcebatdif-
r res marinae in locis a mari remotis derelictaefuerint, nsc
veniebat,an aliunde qvam e mari oriunda fuissent similia
The Protlronus on Solils t4l
first outlinc bricfly the method ol the Dissertation,and then describesuccinctlythe
morc important mattersthat occur in it.
I had divided the dissertationitselt into four parts.lr thc first of which, acting
in place of an introduction, shows that the investigationof marine objects found
far from the sca is old, pleasant,and useful, but that its true explanation,lessdoubt-
ful in earlier times, has become exceedingly unccrtain in most recent times.15
Then, having set down the reasonswhy later investigatoNdepartedfrom the bclief
of the ancicnts, and why. although many excellent books by a large number of
writers nay be consulted, no one has up to now found a new answer to the contro-
vcrsy. I show, returning at length to you, that following many other things, in part
newly discovered, in part frecd from old doubts under your patronage. to you is
also owcd our cxpectation that the finishing touch rvill soon be given to this investi-
gatlon.
In the second part is solved a general problemr6 upon which depends the expla-
fation of individual difficultics, that is, given a substqnce cndov,ed witll a cert.rin
slrupe, and protluced according to the lqws ol nature, to lind in the substance itseu
clues disclosing the plqce atld nunner ol its production. Here, bcforc going on to
cxpound the solution to the problen, I strive to set down the meaning of all the
terms in it, so that no school of philosophcrsmay be left in doubt and dispute
about them.
The third part I have allocatcd to thc cxamination o[ particular solids enclosed
within a solid, according to the laws discovered in solving the problem.
The fourth part dcscribcsvarious conditionsof Tuscany not dealt with by histori-
ans and writers on things of nature, and proposes a kind of universal delugel? that
is not rejcctcd by the laws of natural movemcnts.
And indeed, I had begun to develop these in Italian, not only bccause I knew
you would bc plcascd in consequence,but also to reveal to the illustrious Academyl8
which has enrolled me among its members that just as I am least worthy of such an
honour, so I am most eagerto give evidcnceof thc cffort with which Iamstrivingto
attain some knowledgeof thc Tuscan language.Nor am I distressedthat the neces-
sity is imposed on me of postponing the said writing, tor as my imrnediate journey
promises me fuller knowlcdge of matters that will bc useful in elucidation of the
investigation, so the delay offers me more fruitful progress in my study of the
language.
With regard to those matters explained by thc aforesaid method, it would take a
long time to write out all observations and thc conclusions drawn from them, there-
fore sometimes I refer to observations, somctimcs to conclusions, whatever may
sccm best to indicate the chief matters as briefly and as lucidly as possible.
Thcre seem to me two main reasons underlying the fact that in the solution of
natural problems not only are many doubts left undecided but also most often the
doubts multiply with the number of writers.
The first is that few take it on themselvesto examine all those difficulties without
 The I'rodtotnus on Sotids
:culis parciusurgebaturAntiqvorum difficultas,cunromnes
torum corporun indagandum occuparentur;qvi ulari illa
ut ostcDderent.non potuisseid generiscorpora alitcr esse
ttrilrucbant.negabant,potuissen)arc i]la loca tcgefe;et toti
arunl cognitacvires laudarent aptas rebus qvibuslibctpro-
pinio sic satisreceptasit. qva pars dictorurl corporum ter-
efertur: attameo fere ubiqve de Antiqvorum dubio altunr
vidam inundationeset nescioqvam inrrncmorabilemanno-
d obitcr tantunl. et qvasi aliud agendo.Ut itaqve anirlyseos
accrem. totics investigationishujus telam tcxui et rctcxui,
:rqvisivi. cionccnulJam amplius in lectione Authorum, nec
,us,ncc in locorurn inspcctionercliqvam viderirn difficulta-
'crin, vcl saltem.qvousqvcex hactenusmihi cognitisresol-
im.
n GlossopctraeMelitensesCanum Marinorum olim dentes
eln esscpatuit cum qvaestjone-qr-'nerali, an marinis corpo-
re procul a mari rcpcriuntur. in nrari olim producta fuerint.
r reperiantur alia corpora illis sinrilia, qvae in aqvis dulci-
crescunt,si damus tcrrae vim producendi haec corpora.
illi facultatcm reliqva generandi.Oportuit itaqve qvaestio-
r illa corpora, qvae, e terris eninr, similia deprehenduntur
rs in fluido crcscerevidemus; sed et multa alia in saxis re-
acdita. qvae si qvis loci vj producta dixerit. eadenrvi pro-
rittat neccssecst, adeoqv€co tandem deductam rem vidi.
ido naturaliter inclusum exanrinaDdumessct.an, qvo loco
uctum fuerit, id est, examinandamessenaturam tunr loci,
I qvo productum est; at vero locum productionisneno fa-
rroductionismodum ignorat. et de productionismodo vana
i de materiaenrtura certanl qvandam cognitionemhabue-
esolvendaesint qvaestiones,ut unicae qvaestionifiat satis.
rum nutrix, ea mihi esse videtur, qvod in rerum natura-
Iuantur illa, qvac determinari certo neqveunt, ab itlis, qvae
t; unde fit, ut ad duas classesrediganturpraecipuirescctae
enim religioni sibi ducerent, etian ipsis demonstrationibus
, idem ilUs error subsit, qvem in aliis assertionibusfreqven-
a nullo modo paterentur, se restringi ad ea sola pro certis
The Ptodrornus ott Solids 143
whose resolutionthe solution ol the investigationitself is left marred and imperfect.
Thc present investigation is an obvious exanrple of this point. Ody one such djffi-
culty troubled the ancients, narnely the way in which marrne objects had been left
in placcs far from the sea, nor was the question ever asked whethcr similar bodies
had been produced in placesothcr than the sea.,cIn more reccnt tines the difficul-
ty of the ancients received less emphasis since almost everyone was busy inquiring
into the origin of the said bodies.roThose who ascribedthem to thc sea did their
best to show that bodies of such type could not have been produced in any other
way, those who attributcd them to the land denied that the sea could have covered
thcse places;they all joined in extoJlinglittle known powers of Nature as capable
of producing anything whatsoever.?rAnd it may be that n third opinion has suffi-
cient in it to be acceptable, tiat some of the said bodies may be attributed to the
land and some to the sea; yet almost everlwhere tlere is deep silence about the
doubt of the ancients,t2except that some mention floods and a successionof years
of unknorvn duration, but only incidentally, and, as it were. in dealing with some-
thing else.Thus, iD order to satisfy the laws of anal)'sisto the best of my ability, I
wove and unravelled the web of this investigation many many times, and examined
its individual parts until there seemed to me to be left no further diificulty in the
rcading of authors, nor in the objections of friendl, nor in the inspection of sites.
that I had not cither solvcd, or about which I had at least dccided, from what I had
learnedDp till now. how far a solution was possible.
The first question was whether the glossopetraeof Malta had been at one time
thc teeth of sharks; it was immediately obvious that this was similar to the general
question of whethcr bodies resembling marine bodies which are fouud far from the
sea were produced in the sea in past times.r] But since other bodies are also found
on land that resemble those which grow in fresh waters, in the air, and in other
fluids, if we grant tbe earth the power to produce these bodies, we cannot deny it
the ability of producing dre rest. Thus, it was necessaryto extend th€ investigation
to all thosc bodies dug fron the earth that are seen to resemble those bodies that'
elsewhereare observedgrowing in fluid; but many other bodies are also found in
rocks, endowed with a certain shape; if it be said that they were produced by the
power of the place. it is necessary to admit that all the rest were produced by the
same power, so at length. I saw that the point had been reached where every solid
naturally enclosedwithin a solid should be examined to dctermine if it was produced
in the same place as it was found, that is, the nature of the place where it is found
should bc examined and then thc nature of the place where it was produced. But
indeed, no one will readily determine the place ol production who is ignorant ot the
method of production, and all discussion on the method of production is futile un-
less we have somc certain knowledge of thc nature of mat(er; from tijs it is clear
how many problems must be solved to satisfy one line of inquiry.
The second reason, one which nourishes doubts, seemsto me to be that in consid-
ering the natural world those things which cannot be determined with certainty
 '1hcProdrontuson Solids
anae nentis et sanorum sensuumfidem denegarepoterit,
qvae ipsispulchra et ingcniosavisa fuerint. Qvin ipsi expe-
I modcrationemtenuerint, qvin vel omnia etiam certissima
ent, \'el a sc inventa principia pro demonstratishaber!'nt.
.unl evitarenr.:5qvod dc morunl praeceptisSens(4 saepius
mopcre urgcndun judicavi; ca ille nlorunl pracc€ptaoptr-
rnia sunt. qvac publica, qvae omncs ex onrni dono concla-
:mici. Stoici. Cynici; ct sane non poterunt non optrma essc
l v J ! c o n l n r u n i as u n t . q v a e p u b l i c a .q v a e o m n e s c x o m n i
r, turn novitatisin orrrnire avidi. tunr priscorum dogmatun]
r. utmm corporis naturalis particulae,qva figuran. mutari,
trum dentur, rn non dentur exiguaspatiavacua;sitne in istis
sioncnr et cluritient. aliucl aiiqvid nobis incognitum: non
i sunt, ct debile argunentum est, qvo negor esscaliud qvid
Liiudqvid ibi non obscrvo.r"
ltionc assero:
aic ccrngcricmparticularunriusensibiliumpervitni operatio-
agncte,ignc, interdum ctiam luce, qvocunqve demum mo-
sive in ipsis particulis,sivc utrobiqvc meatus aperti reperi-
lum a fluido. qvod in fluido particulaeinsensibilesin pcrpe-
riccm reccdant, in solido vcro, licet particulae insensibiles
x tanren unqvan) ab jnviccm reccdant. qvamdiu solidunt
r persistit.
orpus solidunr,particulasejus de loco in locunt uroveri.
a materiaenihil cognitum nobis csse,cujus ope motus prin-
io explicentur;detcrnrinationgmvero motuum naturaliunra
e:
rnia corpora permeantis:et qvae hoc ntodo producuntur,
lus.
The Prodrontur rnt Solidr
are not kept separatcfrom those that can be so determincd;as a result,thc principal
schools t)[ phi)osophyare reduced to two clusscs;some indeetj are prcvcntcd by
scruplcs lrom putting faith even in denronstrations,for fcar that ths same error
cxists in thenl that they often detcct i)t other declarationsiothers, on the colltrrry.
would b1'no mcans show thcrnselvesconstrainedto hold as certainonly thosethings
in which pcoplc of sound nind and sound perceptioncould expressbelief, thcy be_
ins of the opinion that all thosc things ilre rruc (hat sccm to thenr adrnirablcanrl in_
genious.Indced. the advocatcsof experimentshave rarely had the restraint either
to rvoid lejecting entirely even the ntost ccrlain principles of nature or to avoid
consideringtheir own salf contrived principlesas proved.r{ Thus, to avoid this reef
aiso. I dccided to press with all my mjght Jn physicsfor what Scnccaoftcn urges
strongly regardingnroral prccepts;hc statesthat the best noral pr€ccprsare those
which are in cornmon use. widely accepted,and which arc jointly proclaimed by
all fronr cvcrv sc)roo1,Periparetics.Acrdemics, Stoics, and Cvnjcs;:6and indced
those principles of nature could not but be best that arc in common use, widely
acccpted.and iirc considcred admissibleby all front every school. whellter those
who are eager lor novelty in everythingor those u4ro are dcvoted to the teachins
o l t l ) cp i r ) t .
Thus. t do not deternrinewhetlrer particlesof a naturatlsubstrncerTcltn or can_
nol undcrgo change. as its shapc can, whether there are or are nor minute entpty
spiiccs.\{hcther in those partjcles.in addition tLrthe rbility to occupy spaceand thc
property of hardness,there nlay not be sonething else unknown to us; for these
statenentsarc not widclv acccpted.and it is a feeblc argunrentto deny that there
is anlthing clse ilt a certain thing becauseI do not obscrveanything eise in it.
But, in truth, I do assertwithout hesitationthat:
L A natural body is an ag-qrc-cate of inrpcrccptibleparticlesthrough which may
plss the forccs cmanatingfrom a magnet,from fire, and sometimes
also from light,
whatever Drry be the passagewly by rvhich acccssis found, whether between
the
plrticles. in the particlesthcrnselves. or both.r!
2. A solid differs from a fluid in that in a fluid thc imperceptibleparticlesare in
continual Dotjon. Dutually recedingfrom each other, but in a solid, though
the im_
perccptible particles may sometimesmovc, neverthclcssthey
scarcely ever move
aprrt fron each other as long as that solid remainssolid and intact.
3. While a solid body is being formed its particlcschangethcir position from
. one
place to another.
.1. So far wc know of nothing in the nature
of mattcr to explain the origin of mo-
tion and clarify our understandingof it; but the determinationof
natural motionso
can be alteredby three causes:
l) By movement of the fluid that pcrmeatesall bodies:And we state that
things
that are produced in this way are produced according to nature.
2) By the nrovementof tiving beings:And we srate that many ot the rhings rhat
are done by man in this way are artificial.
 The Prodlontus on Soli.lt
m: et qvac hoc modo ab hominc fiunt, corum multa artiti-
tnita causa motus: et in Jl1is.qvae hoc modo fiunt. Divinj
'agani crcdiderunt. Certe dencgarehuic causaevim produ-
rturae cursui contrarios. idem est. ac dencgarchomini vinl
n r ; r , e J i cs o n t r av e n t o sr l u c t a n d i ;a c c e n d e n di ig n c m i n l o c i s .
rru accenderetur;exstingvendilumcn, qvod ltlias non nisi
icerct; alterius planlae surculutrralterius plantae rlnto inse-
media hyeme aestivostructus; in ipsis ardoribus aestatisgla-
lc alia id gencrissolitis Naturac legibusrcpugnantia.Si enint
aliorum corporunr fabricam ignoramus,immutantus in dies
,tcrminationem.qvidni eerrumdcmdeterminationcnl immu-
m totanrqve rerum o)lrniulDfabricam non modo novit, sed
n rebus artc factis honrinislibere agcntisingenium mirari, et
l\4otoremlibcrum denegarc:ca demum magna in subtilitate
qvaeqvepracstiterit.
lr'retur. cunl lrorno. ubi artificiosjssiDra
l organo usus fucrit. ned qvid sit causa illa dictum organum
nr prospiciat.
ipsa disscrtationefusius expono experimentissimul et ratio-
I pateat, neminem Philosophorumcsse,qvin vel idem dicat,
or verbis, vel, si divcrsa dixerit, ea tamen admittat, unde
rtur. Ovac enim de materia asserui,ubiqve locum habent,
rabucril atomos, sive particulas mille modis mutabiles. sive
principia chymica, qvantunrlibetpro Chymicorum varietate
qvae dc motus deternriDirtione
prerposui,omni moventi con-
Ldixeris formam. aut a forirla enlanantesqvalitates,sive Ide-
ilcm communem.sive nlatcriam subtilem proprianr.sive ani-
animam Mundi, sivc inlmcdiatumconcursumDci.
plico varios illos loqvcndi modos usu communi receptos.qvi-
rm, interdum et eorundem corporum productionem diverse
rim ad corporis alicujusproductionemaliqvid confert, id agit
lteria, vel ut movens: hinc dum simile sibi sinile Producit.
rm, et motum productionisconfert, ut plantula, semini alicu-
alia planta habuil.et materiam, in qva producta est, et mate-
est, et particularum motum, qvo delineataest, qvod idem de
m animalium inclusis, certum est.
t h? Prodnrnus o Solids 141
3) By ths first and unknown cituscof motion: And even pagan peoplesbelicvcd
that there was somethingDivinc in those things that come about in this way. Ccr-
tainly to dc'nythis causethe power of producing rcsultscontrary to thc usual course
of nature is the same .ls dcnying man the powcr to changecoursc of rivers, of sh ug-
glJngwith sails againstthe winds. of kind)ing fire in placcs where without hin firc
would ncr,crbe kindled, of cxtinguishinga liglrt which would not othcrwise vanish
unlcssits luel suppl! ccased,of gratting the shoot of one plant on lo the branch of
another. of serving up sunrnrcr fruits in nlid-wintcr, of producing icc in the
lcrv hcat of sunrmcr.and a thousandothcr things of this kind opposedto thr' usual
laws of Nature. For if we oursclves.who are ignorant of the structurc of both
our own bodiesand the bodies of othcrs. altcr the determinationof natural nlotions
each diLy, why should not He be able to uller their dctermination who not only
knows the whole of our structure and that of all things, but also brought them into
being. Morcover, to be ready to adnire the geniusof man as a free agent in things
made by human skill, and to deny a frcc nover to things produced by Nature
would indc'edseemto me to show great simplicity in pretendedsubtlety,sincr when
man has perfornrcd nrost skilful things, he clnnot. except through a foa, makc out
what he lrasdonc'.rvhich instrunrenthe usctl.or through which causethe said irstru-
nlt-llI lllO!CS.
I shall set forth these dctails. denronstratedby expcriments and alrguments,at
greaterlength in thc Dissertationitself.so that it may be evident that no philosopher
cxistsr,'ho does not say the same thing. dlough not always in the sane words, or if
he has spoken differently.neverthelessadnritsthose points from which thesr'details
ncccssarilyfoilow. For what I have statcd about matter holds everywherc,whether
mattcr is consideredto consist of atoms,3lor of particles which may change in a
thousand uays,n: or of the four elements.33 or of as many different chemical ele-
ments as rre needed to meet the variety of opinions among chemists.3iAnd jn-
dccd what I hlvc proposed about the detcrnrilltjon of motion agreeswith every
mover, wl')ethervou call thc movcr the lorDl. or propertiesemanatingfrom lhe form.
or the Idea. or contnton "subtilc nrattcr", or special "subtile matter". or a particu-
lar soul. or a world soul. or the intntediateinfluenceof God.3t
Following this, I explain thc various nr<xlesof speechthat are comnlonly acceptcd
through usagc, by which we explain in various ways the diverse production of
diffcrent bodies, and sometinresof the sarnebodies;for whatever contributesany-
thing to any body does so either as its location, its malerial. or its mover: hcnce,
when like produces like, there is conferred on the produced object location,
matcrial, and novcment of production, just as the tiny plant enclosedwithin the
seed of sonreplant receivedfrom the othcr plant both the material within which it
was produced and the particulatemotion which gave it its shape; the same is true
of animalsenclosedwithin the egg of sin)ilaraniDrals.
While the particular form or soul produces soluelhing, the movement of particles
 Thc Pndrcnlus on Solils
ris vcl anin.l producit aliqvid, notus particularutn in pro-
ctcrnrinatura movcntc qvodlm particulari,sive is fucrit nlo-
oris. sivc lluic nlovcnti sinlilc qvid aliud.
produci, motum particularunl suarum a Solis radiis habcnt,
po-
lvae influentiis astrorunr adscribuntur,ab astris habere
runl nlotunr; cum enim ccrtum sit. a luce siderum moveri
:rtrovcrsianritidcnr erit. rcliqvam partenr materiaeitidcm ab
aliud a tcrra non habent qvanr locunl, in qvo producuntur,
os ipsissubministratam.
lntur. nrotunrparticularuol suarum habent a motu fluidi pc-
C fluidun vcniat. sive ab ignc terrestri rnatcria contento,
rusa nobis incognita.ut aninraeinstrumento,etc.
,nenr alicujus rci Naturae adscribit. moventem generalem
ductienc occurrentcm;qvi Solcrnad partcs vocat. aliqvanto
m movcntem; qvi anintam vcl fornam particularremnonli-
-nrinatilnrcausan affcrt: at vero onrnium rcsponsarltc per-
um occurrit. qvandoqvidem Natura, Solis radii. anima ct
int solo nominc notae. Cum vero in productionc corporum!
n nratcriaet locus considcraridebeant,hinc patct, non mo-
,so qvacsitoignotiorem.sed et omnino imperfectam,qvando
'lia a Natura producta essedicuntur, cunr etiam illa, qvae
rc opus sint; omnia qvidem Natura producit. qvandoqvidcm
luctionc fluidum penetrans locum habeat; sed et jure qvis
rroduccre.cun fluidum illud pcr se nihil efficiat. a materia
ninationcm cxpectans.Exemplo nobis homo est; qvidlibet
:ia omnia adfucrint, et, illis abscntibus,nihi[ unqvan prae-
icujus rei tcrrac adscribit, locum qvidem nonlinat. sed cum
rus locum saltemcx parte terra tribuat, solusvero locus pro-
r absolvat;de terra idem qvod de Natura dici poterit. scili-
onrnia a terra produci, et eorum, qvae in terra fiunt, nul-
rerius expositasufficiunt resolvendisdubiis omnibus propo-
tribus seqventibuspropositionibushic comPrehenderevolui.
Thc Prottrontut on Solidt 149
in the production of that body is determinedby sonleparticular mover, whether this
be the nrovcr of another sinilar body or sonething else sinrilar to this mover.
Things said to be producedby the sun derive the notion of thcir pafticles f rom the
rays of the sun. and by the sanre rcasoning.thosc that arc attributcd to thc influ-
encesof the stars could dcrivc thc nrotion of thcir particlesfronl the stars;for since
it is ccrtain that our eyesare stimulatedby the light of heavcnlybodics, it will like-
wise be beyond dispute that the rcst of mattcr might bc influcnccd by then in thc
sameway.
Things produced by the earth derive from the earth nothing elsethan the location
in which thcy are produccd and thc material furnished to them through pores in
that placc.
Things produccd by naturc dcrivc thc motion of their particlesfrom the motion
of a penetratingfluid. whether this fluid comesfrom the sun. or lrom firc contained
jn terrestrialmattcr. or fronr sonrc other causenot known to us, ils for examplethe
operationof the soul. and so on.
Thus. he who attributesthe production of anything to nature namcs thc general
mover found in the production of evcrything;he who calls the sun to play this role
definesthe same movcr in a more restrictedway; hc who nanresthe soul or particu-
lar form puts forward a more limited causethan the renainder; but no knowlcdgc
is to be found by duly weighing the answers of all conccrncd, since nature, the
rays of the sun, the soul, and the particular iorm arc things known only by name.
But since.apart from thc nrovcr in thc production of bodies. the material and the
location ought also to be considered.it is clear in consequencethat not only is this
answcr nrorc obcure than the object of our researchbut it is in evcry way inconrplete;
when shellfishfound in thc carth arc said to bc produced by naturc so also those
that grow in the sea are the work of nature; nature indeed produces evcrything,
since the pcnctrating fluid is involved in the production of all things. but it could
bc said rightly that naturc produccsnothing. since that fluid by itsclf accomplishes
nothing - its determinationis dcpcndenton the nlaterial to be movcd and the loca-
tion. Man provides an examplefor us: hc can accomplishanything if the necessary
things are all to hand, but he never accomplishesanything if these are lacking.
He who ascribesthe production of anything to the earth names indeed the loca-
tion, but since thc carth bestowslocation at lcast in part to all the things of carth,
the location certainly by itself docs not explain the production of a body; the same
can be said of earth as I said about nature, namely, that all things formed in the
earth are produced by the earth, and, also, that of thosc things that are formed in
thc earth none is produced by thc carth.
Thcse samc few points set down above are sufficient to resolveall doubts in our
proposed investigation;I havc wishcd to expressthesc here in the three proposi-
tions that follow.
 The Prodtotnus on Solid.\
I.
:orporc solido undiqve ambitur. illud ex iis prirno induruit.
r sua supcriicie altcrius supcrficiei proprietatcscxprimit.:rd
sive saxis.qvae undiqvc circumdant et continentc rystallos.
)lantascarumqvc partes.ossaet testasanimaliunr.idqve gc-
superiicic praedita.jam tunt induruissecaden illa corpora,
axorumqve illa continentium materia etianlnum fluida erat;
ut illac terrac vel saxa produxerint contenta in illis corpora.
ibi. clvo temporc eadentcorpora ibi producta fucrunt
:allo. sclcnitesselcnitidi, nrlrcasita marcasitaeqvadan sui
nr induruissecontenta illa corpola. qvando cotporun con-
r fluida crat.
rxis. qvibus testaecrystallinaect lapideae.vcnae natntoris,
rcrcurii. antimonii, cinnabaris. acris aJiorunrqvcid generis
contincntiacorpora jarn tum induruisse.qvo tempore con-
teria ctiamnun fluida erat, adcoqve marcasitaspnmo pro-
:s. qvibus includuntur nlarcasitac,tandenr vcnas nlinerali-
as rcplcnt.
II.
rpori solido,non modo qva supcrficieiconditiones.sedctianl
n particularunrqvcordinationcnr.per onrnia sinile fucrit,
um productionisilli sinile erit; si illas loci conditionesexce-
loco aliqvo reperiuntur, productioni corPoris nullun nec
l Praestaotes. Und(] scqvitur:
r locul'n et nrodunr productionis,convenirecum iilis stratis.
rit.
nr. qva nrodunrlocumqve productionis.convenirecum cry-
lo ncccssariumsit. aqvcum fucrit illud fluidum. in qvo illae
c c terris eruuntur, plantarum animaliumqvc partibus per
odo et loco productircssc,qvo modo et loco productircsunt
ralium partcs. Ne vero incerta loci interprctatio nova dubia
i
curram.
I
illam nrateriamqvae sua superficicimmcdiatc tangit super-
I
The I'rodrontus ott Solids 151
l.
If a solid body is cnclosed on all sides by another solid body, the first of the two to
harden was that one which, when both touch, transterred its own surface characte-
risticsto thc surfaccof the other.i6Fronl this it follows that:
l. In the case of those solids. whether of earth or rock, which completely sur-
round and contain crystals,rTselenites,marcasites,plants and their parts, aninlal
bones and shells.and other bodics of this kind that are endowedwith smooth sur-
face. these same bodies had already hardenedat the time when the material of the
earths and rocks containing thcm was still fluid; and so clearly it could hardly be
that those earths or rocks produced the bodiescontained in them, since they would
not even have becn in existenceat the time when the said bodics were oroduced
there.
2. If at any timc a crystal is partly encloscdby a crystal, a selenitcby a sclenite,
a nrarcasiteby a marcrsite,then at a time when thesecontainedbodieswere already
hard, part of the containingbody was still fluid.
3. In those earths and rocks containing crystalline and petrificd shells.veins of
marble. of lapis lazuli, of silver, mercury, antimony. cinnabar. copper. and other
nrincralsof this kind. the containing bodies were already hardcned when the ma-
tcrial of the containedbodies was still fluid, and so marcasiteswere the tirst to bc
produced. then the rocks in which thc nrarcasitesare cnclosed,and next the veins
of mincralsthat fill the fissuresin the rocks.n3
II.
If a solid body resemblesanother solid body in all respects.not only in the state of
its surface but also in the internal arrangementof thc parts and particles. it will
rcsembleit also in thc mcthod and place of production, exceptingthose conditions
of place which are oftcn found in any region and provide neither advantagenor
disadvantagcto the production of thc body. Whcncc it follows that:
l. The strata of thc carth agrcc, in location and manner of production, with
thosc stratathat arc dcpositedfrom turbid watcr.
2. Thc crystals of mountains agree, in nanner and place of production, with
crystalsof nitrc, although it is not on that account necessarythat thc fluid in which
tlrey wcrc producedshould have been.rqueous.nll
3. Thosc bodics that are dug from tllc earth and which resemble in every way
the parts of plants and animalswere produced in the samc manner and placc as thc
parts of plants and tnimals themselvcs.But so that no ncw doubts may arisc from
an uncertain intcrpretationof the term placc. I shall deal with this difficulty.
I understandby the term place the ntaterial whose surface is in inmcdiate con-
tucr with the surfaceof the body which is describedas being in that placc; howevcr
the said mrterial adnritsof a varicty of differenccs,for it is eithcr:
 7 hc Prodtontus on Solils
illo loco csscdicitur; varias autcln differentiaseadenrnr.ltc-
. vel tota fluida, vel ex parte solida,sx partc fluida.
nsibilis.vel ex parte scnsibilispcr sc. ex parte sensibilisper
corpori. qvod in sc continet. vel parte etiam eidenrcorpori
n cst. vel sensimmutaturl sic locus, in qvo producitur plan-
c matcria, intra qvam plantula dclincatur; sic locus, in qvo
lla nlateria. qvae sua superficie imnlediate centingit totanr
ntpositr intcrdun ex terra et adre, interdunr ex terra et
. iiqvlr et lrdrc, intcrdum ex solo lapide et aere, qvo modo
pius vidi plantularum radicestotas superficieitophi adhae-
verc tcctas;sic locus. ubi dclapsoflore crcscit lnalunr aure-
us illi pedunculus.partinl contiguus eidcm a€r; sic locus,
Lninralisfiunt, est partirn contigua illi aqva amnii, partin]
a per chorion diftusa.
III.
LdunrNaturae legesproductun) est, e fluido productunr est.
ris solidi tum prima ejus lineamenta.tulll incremcntaconsi-
ro, ut lubens profiteor. plerorumqve delineationenr.r'non
sed onrnino incognitam;sic absqveomni dubitationede in-
tiarfere omnia vcra essecxistimo.
articullisejus novae apponunturparticulaeab externofluido
sitio hacc vel a fluido externo imnediate, vel mediantcflui-
bus.
[o immediateapponuntur solido. in qvibusdamproprio pon-
rbuntur. ut in sedinentis; in aliis a fluido penctrantesolidi
latae vcl undiqve apponuntur solido, ut in incrustationibus,
rrficici solidae locis, ut in illis corporibus, qvac fila, rantos
bent. Hic obiter notandum, dictos modosinterdumcontinua-
spatium illis ilnpleatur, undc rcplctionesoriuntur, qvae mo-
e crustis,modo e sedimentis,modo ex angulatiscorporibus,
)r se mixtis componuntur.
ante interno fluido apponuntur solido, vel fibrarum figuram
Tltc Ptolronus ou Solids 153
1) Completelysolid,conpletely fluid, or part solid and part fluid.
2) Completely pcrceptibleby itsclf, or partly perceptibleby itself and partly by
nrcansol tcsts.
3) Conrpletclyin contact with thc body that it containsor even partly continuous
with the said body.
4) Always unchangedor undcrgoeschange scarccly observably;thus the placc
in which a plant is produced is the naterial like that plant in which thc sccding
takcs shapclthus thc placc in which a plant srows is all that materialwhoseown sur-
face is in inmediate contact with the whole surfaceof the plant. consistingat timcs
of carth and air, at tinrcs of carth and water, at times of earth, water, and air. at
times only of rock and air. in the way in which I have often observedroots of small
plants, totally brrc of soil covcr, in undcrgroundrcgions.clinging contpletelyto the
surtaceof tufa; thus the place where the orange grows after its blossom has fallen
is partly thc pcdunclc continuouswith it and partly the air in contact with it; thus
the place where the initial development of an animal occurs is partly the an'rniotic
fluid in contactwith it and partly thc unrbilicalvcssels,djffusedthrough the chorion,
which arc continuouswith the aninral.
III.
If a solid body was produccd according to thc laws of nirturc. it was produccd
from a fluid.{o
In the production of a solid body both its first outlincsfi and its growth should
bc considered;but just as I acknowledgcfrecly that thc outline of most bodies is
not only doubtful but completelyunknown to nle, so I consider,without any hesi-
tation that almosl all of the following statements about their growth are true.
A body grows by thc addition ol new particles.secretedlrom an external fluid.
to rts owl'l particles;this addition, morcovcr, is eithcr nrade dircctly from cxtcrnal
fluid or through thc medium of one or ntore intcrnal fluids.
Additions made directly to a solid from an cxtcrnal fluid somctimes fall to the
bottom becauseof their own weight, as in the casc of sediments;sometimesthe ad-
ditions are madc from a penetrating fluid that directs material to the solid on all
sides, as in the case of incrustations, or only to certain parts of the sudace of the
solid, as in the casc of those bodies that show threadlikc fornrs, branches,and an-
gular bodies.i: Thcrc it must be noted in passingthat the said processcscontinuc
sonetimes until they fill thc wholc of some spacc, whereby replenishmcntsoccur
which are at times simple, at times formed from crusts, at times from sedimcnts, at
times from angular bodies, at times from various components intermixed in a varie-
tv of wavs.
 The Prodrontus on Solils Tlle Prcd rcDtu! o| Solids 155

n longitudinem cxtensaefibrillac diductis poris apponun- Those particlesthat are added to a solid by an intermcdiary internal fluid either
I intcrstitiis in novae fibrillac figuram a pcrmeante fluido take on the shape of fibres (in so lar as they are partly added through open pores
along the length of the extendedfibril and are partly djstributcd by the pernreating
les replctioncs constituunt. qvibus duobus generibuspar-
fluid through the intersticcsof the fibrils iDte thc shape of a new fibril) or form
conlponuntur.In plantarunranatomenlinus vcrsatus,sint-
simplc rcplenishments;animals and plants are formed in these two ways. As I an]
x. non determinol in aninralibuscertum est, esseibi fluida lessverscd in thr' anatony of plants,I nrake nerdecisionon whether sever;l internal
L'rtunrordinem redigcrcconaber. fluids are presentin plants; in the caseof aninrals.it is certain that various internal
e omnia pernlerns atl nrininrum tria gcncra fluidorunt in fluids are prcscnt.which I shall lrttcmpt to bring into a dcfinite order.
Bcsidcsthc "subtile fluid" perrneatingall mattcr, at least three kinds ot fluid arc
qvorum primunl est extcrnunr; alterum lnternum, ct conl-
observedin animals,the first of which is external,the secondinternal and conlmon,
singulispartibus propriunr. FIuidi extcrni voce illud in ani- thc third internal and spccific to each part. By thc tcrnl "externlrl fluid". I nrean
on solum expositamoculis nostris superficiematmosphae- that fluid in animals which not only surrounds their outer visiblc surface in the
m illud, qvod contingit corporis superficiesrcliqvas omnes. fashion of the atmospherebut also touches all the rcrnaining surtacesof thc body
rjora foramina continuasi ut sunt tota superficiesasperae connectedwith the said outer surfacesby nreansof the larger foramina, such as thc
complcte surface of the wind-pipe that corres into contact with jnspircd air.rr the
nc attractusaijr contingit;tota superficiesviac alimenti, qvo
entire surfilc!'of the alimentarycanal, by which I mean the mouth, the oesoplrrgus,
. vcntriculun et jntestinr intr'lligo; tota superficicsvesicae the stonrachond the intcstines,the complcte surfirccof the bladder and the urethrr.
'ir-s.clvaecunr utcro, saltem pubertrtis annis, comn)unicat;
the cntirc surface that communicatcswith the uterus. at lcast during the ycors of
r irsorumexcretoriorLrrn
lLcapillaribususqvc ad ostia conti- pubertt. the conrplcte surface of all the ercrctery vesselsin continuity from thc
p : r l p e b n r sn.t r c s . L r a u l o i \. l i r n l i r l i | | r c n t o r u l )t1q.s i c : r t t tu. r c - capillarieseven to the orificcs that dischargetheir contcnts into the ears. thc eye-
lids. thc nose. the eyes, the aliment.rrycxnal. the bladder, thc urethra. the utcrus
iux contcntacxccrnunt. qvirrurn particulrris recensioostcn-
and the skin. a scparateenumeration of which would show that nrany are truly
sc lnulta, qvae cornmunitcr intrinseca.imo intinra judican-
external which are commoflly takcn to be iflternal, nay more. to be innlost parts,
andso.
um gcncratosvcrmcs et calculosplcrosqvein externofluido l Most of the worms and stonesproduced inside our body are produced in the
externalfluid.
2. MaDV parts are necessaryto certain aninralsbccausethey are prcscnt and not
rusdan aninralibusnecessarias
esse,qvod ibi sint, non qvod
b c c a u s el h e a n i m a lc a n n o tc x i s tw i t h o u t t h e n r .
possrt.
I call thc iluid which comes into contact with thosc surfacesan extcrnal fluid
p e r f i q i e sc o n t i n { i t .c x l r l n u D ra p p c J l oq. v o d c u n r f l r : i d oa n t - bcclusc it is irr conrnrunicationwith tbe surroundingIiuid by meansof canalsrvith-
i u n a l c sa b s q ! e i n t c ' r n e d i i sc a p i l l a r i b u sv a s i s .i d ( - s tt l r s q ! c out interorediatecapillary vessels.th:lt is without cribration; the result is that while
icct cavitatesdictl tluida continentesinterdum clludaItur. the cavitiescontaining thc said fluid nrav at times be closed,ncverrhelessrvhenever
they arc opcocd, all the fluid retaincd b1' them is dischargcdindiscrinrinatcly.
eriuntur, onrncs rctcnti lluidi piutcs cxccrnunt sinc discri-
I call that fluid internal which is not join€d with the external fluid cxcept by
mcans of the intermediaryfilters of the capillary vcsscls,and so never discharges
td appcllo. qvod cum fluido cxtcrno non comnrunicat,nisi ull its corllponentsnaturally into thc cxternaltiuid without their sep!lriLtion.
'I-he
lm vtsorunr cribra, adcoqve nunqvam partcs suas onlnes internal conmon fluid is that which is contained in veins, arteriesand lym-
ido transfunditsinc discrinrinc. phatic vesse'ls, at least those joining the conglobateglandsrr and veins. I call this
lluid conrnrol becauseit is distrjbutedto all p rts of the body. I make no stateDtent
nrnrune cst, qvod continetur venis. artcriis et lyD)phaticis
irbout the other common fluid which is containedin nerve material. sincc it is less
l9r conglobatasglandulrs ct veltts jntercipiuntur. ConIDu-
undcrstood.{5
qvia vcrsus omnes pades corporis distribuitur. Dc altero A speciticint€rnal fluid is that kind that flows around the capillary vesselsof the
 I h. Prcdnnttt.\ on Solil\
bstirnti.lnervesaconlinetur. utpotc nlinus cognito. nihil da-
priun illud est. qvod fluidi colnmuniscapjllaribusvasiscir-
:rsitatelecorunr diversum cst; aliud eninr est in parcnchy-
n parcncl')ynratisnon sangvineis,aliud circa fibrls n)otrl-
. aliud in substantiauteri. aliud in aiiis locis; nec cnirt ra-
i p n n d e t i l l r o p i n i o , q v a i n m i D i n r a t rql ! l n l l i b c t p a r t i c u l a r r )
:riarunr e\ttenra desinerccrcclitur ld calorctrret nutri[)en-
ed ubiqle c:rvitatcssunt. in q!its secrctaeu sangvlncpartes
ur. indc partibus solidis apponenclle.pariter ac in casdem
lidis paltibus dctritac particulaesangvinidc novo rcstituen-
fluidum cxternunl rcvehantur; harum cavitatum fluidum
inae de llltibus in multis consonutncst. Licet determinare
ris locis ex codem sangvincdiversafluida excernantur;spc-
n i n r n d u n r p x u c a r c s t a r e ,q v a n d o q v i d e ncl e r t u n rs i t , a s a n -
' c . s e di i b i p s i sl o c i s .q \ o r u n r c o n s i d e r r t i oh i s t r i b u s i n c l u d i -
pillariunr vasorun fluidi interni conrntunis.in qva soia oc-
ipcr diversos poros omnia adscribunt, e qvorum numcro
iidi inlcrni proprii. circa qvlrm solanr versantur.qvi cuilibet
m atlribuuDt:qvorum opinio cx pitrtc vera essepotcrit, licet
t i o n i i n n i t l l u r d c s u m p t a ea r c n i n i s p e c u l i a r i .
'li(li sinrularunl partium. circa qvanr praecipuehacrere vi-
et parti fornranr attribucndo. inciicant,sc agnoscereibi ali-
rbis autcnr incognitum, id qvotl. secundurrtillanr matcriae
tenus habemus,aliud cssc neqvit qvam porosa istius solidi
rubtilc illos poros permcans.Extra olealsnimiurl evagarer,
illis cxplicandis.qvae in corpore nostro in dies contingunt
)runt; suffBccrithic innuisse.qvod ilb L'xternefluido variis
ulrc in fluidum internum comnrune.intsrccdentecribratio-
n variis nrodis secrctae.et in fluida intr'rna PrQPriaper no-
missac.partibus solidis appontLnturvel fibrarum. vcl pllren-
rt determinataefuerint ab incognita nobis partis cujuslibct
edictarumrerum considcrationeinclusa.
it solida solidis naturaliter inclusa praedicta methodo in cer-
Th l'rc,lronur on Solid:; 157
conrmon fluid and varies with the variety of places;for it is of one type in bloody
parenclrvnra.{rr of anothcr typc in non-bloody parcnchyma.oi another around mus-
cle fibrcs. of another in thc ovaries.o[ anothcr in thc material of the utcrus.{i and
another in othcr placcs; for the belicl that the ends of veins antl artcries terrninate
in a particlc of the body of the leastpossiblesize.to distributc heat and nourishment
at that place. is in accordanccneither with reason nor experimcnt. but there trre
cavities everlwherc in which parts secrctcdfrom the blood Inix \vith the tluid ot
thrt plircc.rsto be added ncxt to the solid parts, just as partic)esworn fronl thc
solid parts return to thc said cavities to bc rcstored agarn to thc blood. by whose
opcration they are carried back to thc external fluid. Thc fluid of thcsc cavities
agreesin nrany ways with the teachingsof thc great Hippocrltes$ concerning air
takcn into the body.
Although I may be unablc to dcternrinewhy different fluids lrc scparatcdfrom
the same blood in different places, ncvertheless,I hope that little remains to be
determinedabout this matter, in so nuch as it is certain that it dcpendsnot on the
blood;0 but on the placesthemselvcs:considerationof this problcn involves these
t h r e el t e n t s ;
l. Considerationof the capillary vesselsof the internll comnron fluid, the solc
concer[ ()l thosewho ascribecvcrvthing to cribration through various pores!anlong
which nunrbcr I too was countedtor quite some tinre.;l
2. Consideration of a spccific internal fluid, the sole concarn of those who
attributc a special ferment to each part; an opinion which miSht be partly true,
though the term ferment rcstson a corrparisondrawn from a very spccialprocess.s:
3. Considc'rationof thc individual pirrts of a solid. th€ chief adherentsto which
are those }ho. in attributing to each part its form. show that they recognizcthere
sonrcthingspccific to thc part, but utknowr to us, which, accordingto the knowl-
cdge that we have gained up to now about matter,;r can be nothing else than the
poroussurlaceof that solid and "subtilc" fluid permeatingthe pores.
I should wander too far from thc subject if I were to apply the above statements
to an cxplanation of those things rvhich occur in our body every day.5r and can
not be explaincd othcrwise. It will he sufficient to have hinted here that particles
separatcdfronr the external fluid in various ways are carried into the internal conl-
rnon fluid. being sieved in thc proccss, whcnce, having bccn sccrctcd likewise in
various wavs and being transmittcd iDto the specific jnternal fluid tltrough a fresh
sieving proccss.thcy are addcd to the solid parts either in the fornt of iibres or of
parenchynta, as dctenrrined b) rn unknown property o[ anf individual part
included in the considerationof the thrcc statcmentsmade above.
Therelorc if one wishes to rcduce solids enclosed naturally within solids to
definite classes,by the above method, some of them will be found to have been
producecl by apposition from an external fluid, this refers either to sediments such
 Tha Prodronruron Solitls
nt eorum qvocdam producta per appositionemab exlerno
/el rd sedinlenta.ut strata terrae; vel ild incrustationcs.ut
lius. aeiites,lapis bczoar ctc.; vcl ad fila, ut amiantus,alu-
lnera filorum. qvae in fissurislapidum deprehendi;vel ad
nr figurae. qvac in rimis lapidum consplciuntur. nec rrsr
rarnificationesin achatc qvodanl a ntc vrso. (lvorum truncl
cxtcrioris lamellac, ranti vero pcr substlntiam lamellac in-
vel ad angulatacorpora. ut crystalli monliurll, angulatacor-
marcasitae,5eadamantes,amcthysti ctc.; vcl ad replctiones.
rta nrarnrora.granita, dendroitides,conchllia lapidca. cry-
ae. et id gencrispjurinta colpora consun)ptrrrunrcorporunl
r appositionenla fluido interno, qvae refcrufltur vcl ad sinr-
i:r'cdo,callus rupta osseruniens,cartilaginosasubstantiadis-
ns. affusionesviscerunrsubstantian prlteclPucconstltuentes,
tunr in aninralibusivel rd partes librosas. ut sunt fibro-
r aninralibusvero fibrac ncrvosaeet fibrae nrotriccs.qvac
lt. et solidisut plurimum naturaliterincluduntur.
solidunr e uido saltcm incrementahabuit, si corpora sibi
simili ctian nodo producta sunt, si e duobus solidis sibi in-
inro induruit, qvod alterius superficici proprietatessua su-
cilc crit. dato solido et loco, in qvo cst. de loco productict-
:onuntiare.Et hacc qvidem generalisconsideratioest Jolifu
raminandailla e tcrris erutr solida,qvac plurimis controvcr-
nt. praccipuc incrustltiones. sedimenta.ilngulata corpora,
rrum. conchyliorumet plantarum figurae. Ad incrustationes
lapides compositi c lanrellis,qvarum dune superficiespar-
I non in idem planunr extensac.Locus, ubi fiunt incrusta-
ium fluidi ct solidi, qvo fit. ut lamcllarunr seu crustarunrfi-
r d e a t . c t f a c i l e d c t e n l r i n a r ip o s s i t .q v . r e n a me l r u r r r p r i n r l .
;si enim concavusfuerit locus,primo fornrataesunt crustae
interiores; si variis eminentiis majoribus inaeqvalisfuerit
atia lamellis primo factis repleta fuerunt. in spatiis largiori-
ductae sunl; unde facile est omnes figurae varietates expli-
l similium lapidum conspiciuntur,sive venasrotundastrans-
The Ptodrcnus on Solids 159
as the strata of the earth, or to incrustationssuch as agate,onyx. chalcedony.cagle-
stone.;; bczoar,;rtetc.jor to filnments such as amianthus,;7leathery alum.5svarious
kinds of thrcadlikc forrns I have obscrvcd in the fissuresof rocks. or to dendritcs
such as those plant-like shapesobservedin the clefts in r<lcks;only superticial are
certain rlmifications observedby me in an agate which had trunks resting on the
surlacc of thc cxtcrior ltmclla but whosebrancheswere spreadthrough the nliltcrial
of the inner lantella;or to angularbodics such ls rock-crystals.thc angularbodies of
iron and copper. cubes of marcasite.s,dilnroncis, anrethvsts,etc. or to replenish-
nlcnts such as every kind of variegated marble, granites, dendrites,d0petrified
mussels, crystalline materials, metallic plants,61and many bodies of this kind
filling the placesof bodiesthat have been destroyed.
Other solids arc produced through apposjlior from an intcrnal tluid: this rcfcrs
ejther to simple replenishmentssuch as fat. the callus joinin-ubroken bones. the
cartilaginoussubstanccjoining severedtendons,the ftuids that are the chiet constit-
ucnts of thc substanceof the viscera,the marrow of both plants and animals. or to
fibrous parts such as the fibrous portions of plants, in animals indeed the nerve
and nrusclefibres. which are all solid bodies and for the most part are naturally en-
closedwilhin solids.6i
'fherefore,
i[ at ]east all solids have grou'n lroor a fluid. if bodics murua]l],alikc
in all rcspectswere also producedin the same way, if of trvo solidsmutuall].'io con-
tact the first to harden was that which impressesits surface characteristicson the
other surface, it will be easy, given the solid and its location. to make a definite
statementabout the place of its production. And this indeed is a generalconsidera-
lion of t:;olid enclosed bt a solid.
Incrustations.
I proceed to the morc specific examination of those solids dug from the earth
that have given rise to manv disputes,especiallyincrustations.sediments,angular
bodies.shellsof marinc animals, objects with the shapesot mussels,and of plants.
Among incrustationsbelong all the kinds of stonescomposedof layers,the two sur-
faces of which are indeed parallel but are not extended in the same plane. The
place where incrustationsare formed is the whole common boundary betwcen fluid
and solid. so tiat the shape of the layers or crusts corresponds to the shape of the
place, and it is easy to deternrinewhich oI them hardenedfirst and wh;ch last; for
if the ptace was concave. the outer crusts were formed first, if convex, the inner
crust were first to formj if the place was uneven owing to various larger protu-
berances,once the smaller spaceswere filled with the first formed layers, new laycrs
were produced in the larger spaces:from this it is easy to explain all the varietiesoI
form which are observed in sections ol similar rocks, whether tbey show lhe round
veins of a tree cut transversely, or resemble the sinuous winding of a serpent, o.
 Th. Prcdlontttt o,t Soli,ll
rcpraesentant,sivc sinuososserpentun flexus imitantur'
jncru-
inflexae feruntur. Nec nlirum est, achatcsaliasqve
qva supcrficicnl €xteri()renr,saxi ignobilis instar lspcras,
ritatclr1cxtcrnac larrcllae supcrficics exterior imitctur; in
cris incrustationessaepiuscxtra locun] productionisrcperi-
ptura nlirterialoci disjectaiuerit.
o scccrDunturcrustarun particulae solido apponendac'id
rti nullunr ibi locunr esse
:eriicicbus apPoni dictas particulas.qvandoqvidcnl super-
rnac, irlcutvatile.cx pluribus planis varie inciinatis conlpo-
)criantu[.
urn illis inrpcdinrr'ntunrfferrc.
randa substantia.e solido effluens.diversa ab illa substan-
ritat. an irliud aliqvid invcstigandunr.in n-Icdiorelinqvo.
r in codcnr loco deduci poterunt vel a divcrsitateparticula-
fluido sccedunt,pro ut scnsim magis magisqvc idem tlui-
ivcrsis fluidis diverso tempore eo delatis: qvo fit, ut idem
lcm loco intcrdum rcpetatur. ct saepius manifesta vcstigia
ingressumindicantia. Omnis autem lamellarum nlateria vi-
ridibus cxhalanssubstantia.ut pluribus in seqventibusPate-
Jrrac stratapertincnt.
a Dateriu stratorurnnon aliter in illan figuranl redigi potue-
immixta. et proprio pondcre inde excidcns,ciusdem supcr-
cxplanatafuisset.
lis contcnla nrljora corpora ut plurinlunr grnvitatislesesob-
um cujuslibet corporis per sc, tum qvoad situm variorum
:a matcria stratorunl ita se accomodavcritcontentiscorPori-
vasqvecavitatescontenti corporis implevcrit. tum laevorem
rrporis cxpresscritllla sui superficie. qva illud tangit, licct
lacvori ct nitori nrinimerespondeat.
ta, dum contenta in fluido proprio pondere ad fundum dela-
delata fuerint dicta conteDta,sive ab ipsis fluidi particulis
idqve vel in superficie superiori, vel aeqvaliter ab onnibus
The prodronus o,t Solids 16l
follow cLrrvesof some other type in an irregular fashion. Nor is it surprising that
agatesand othcr kinds of incrustationsare observedto be rough like ordinary stones
on the outer surface.since the outcr surfacc Qf the outer layer depjcts the rough_
ness of rhe plac€: in torrcnts, however, incrustationsof this kind are often Iound
away from the place of production becausethe material of the place has becn scat-
tered by the bursting of the strata.
Rcgarding the way in which particles ol the layers that are added to the solid
are separatedfrom the fluid, it js at leastcertainthat:
l. Buovancy or gravity are not involved.
2. Thc said particles are added to surfacesof all kinds, sincc surfaccsthat arc
smooth, rough, flat, curved, and cornposedof many planesinclined in various ways
rrc found overlaid with crusts.
3. The motion of the fluid is of no hindranccto them.
I lcave undecided meanwhile whether the substanceunder considerationthat
flows fronr the soljd is different fronr the substancethat agitatesthe parts of the
fluid, or whethcr somethingelseis to be investigatcd.
Differencesin layers at thc samc place can be produced either by the diversity
ot particlesleaving the fluid in succession,as this fluid is gradually dissipatedmore
and more, or by different fluids being conveyed there at diff€rent times: so it hap,
pens that sometimes the samc arrangement ol layers is repeated in the same place,
and often evident signsexist showing the ingressof new material. But alt the mate_
rial of the layers seenrsto be of a finer substanceemittcd b), the rocks, as the fol-
Iowing will reveal further.
The strataof the earth.
Strata of the earth arc rclated to fluid deposils because:
L The pulverizedntatter of the strata couid not have been reduced to that form
unless, having bccn nixed with sonte fluid, it was extracted from that fluid by
its own weight and was spread out by the motion of the said superincumbent fluid.
2. The larger bodjes contajned in tl]ese sanrestrata obey for the most part the
laws of gravity, not only rvith respect to thc position of any individual body but
also to thc relative positionsof different bodiesto each other.
3. The pulverized matter in the strata has so adapteditself to bodics contained
in it thar it has not only filled the nost minute cavitics in each contained
body but
has taken on the smoothness and lustre of the said body on that part of its
surface
rvhich touches it, even though thc coarse nature of the pulverized matcrjill
seems
incapableof such smoothncssand lustre.
Scdiments then are formed when the contents of a fluid sink under their own
weight regardless of whether these contents have been conveyed there from elsc-
wlrere or have been s€creted gradually from particles of the fluid itself, cither in
its upper surface or from all the particles of fluid.
 The Prodrctnuson Solids
:rustas intcr et sedinrentamagna affinitas intercedat.facilc
od.crustarum superior supcrficiesinferiorj superficiei.ut ut
v e r o s u p ( r i o rs t l -
i h u . . r 5 p c r r e .p u r a l l . ' l l s i t . s c d i m e l ! t . J r u m
llela sit. aut pirrum adnodum inde declinans.Sic in fluviis
:r virides.nrodo arae. rrroclorubescent€s, fundi saxosi inac-
ilrcnarum vcro aut argillae sedimentumontnia plana reddit:
'ac stratis con)pesitiscmstas a sedinrent'sfacile disiinxerin
rrurr scqvcntiirdeternrinaripoterunt:
I lurticulirc omnes ejusdemnaturac,et qvidcnl subtiles.cxsti-
gari poterit, qvin idenr straturn crcirtionistcnlporc produc-
tia tunc tcnporis obvolvcntc.qvo nrodo ctian) C.l//.'.!llltstra-
rren)cxplrcat.
dam alterius strati fra,qmentaaut animaliun] plantarunqvc
tum cst- non esseiiiud stratis uccensLndum.qvae crcatlonrs
' subsedcrunt.
lanr salis nrarini indicia. anintaliun )llarinorunl spoliit navr-
aris sinrilcn substantitntobservavcrimus.certum cst. co locl
ssc. qvocunqvc dcmutn modo. sivc propria exundatione,si-
e. co pcrvencrit.
r r r nj u n t i . g r a t t r i n i sc.o n o m l l tp i n i . l r u n c t ' r u n l r r t m o r u nst i m i -
rm deprehendimus.jurc suspicanur, llunlinis exundationevcl
cptam fuissedictam materiam.
Iam carbones.cineres.pumices.bitunlcn et calclnatacorpora
uidi inccndiunr exstitisse.ccrtum est, idqve co magis,si inte-
crc et crrbonc colrlponatur:qlale cxtra urbem Romanl vidi.
ium materiactfoditur.
:o omnrum stralorum ntarcna cadem fucrit, certum est. flui-
;c diversaenaturac fluida e divcrsislocis diversotenlporecon-
o divcrsa stratorum matcria fuerit, vcl divcrso temporc e di-
rerisfluida eo confluxerunt (sive varietasventorum, sive plu-
impetuosior proiapsus in causa fucrint), vcl in codem scdi-
tatis materia fuit, ita ut graviora primo' mox lcviora fun-
'ietati vicissitudotenrpestatumoccasionempraebcrc potuerit,
solorum aeqvalisinaeqvalitasconspicitur.
:rrae qvaedam saxea strata rePeriuntur, certum est, vel exsti-
Th( I'rcdrcntus on Solids 163
Although there are close sinlilaritlesbctweencrusts and sedinrents,they can still
be distinguishcdcasily bccauscthe uppcr surface of crusts is paralrel to trre rower
onc. no lltattcr hotv unclen this has becomc as a rcsult of large,rprojcctions,rvhiJe
the uppcr surface of sedintentsis parallel to the horizon or deviatesonly sl'ghtly
from the horizontal. Thus in rivcrs. thc alternatinggreen, yellow and rcd mineral
crustsdo not renio!e the unevcnlessof the stony bottotn. while a sand or cllrV
se<ii_
rtcnt docs in lact makc cvcrything lcvcl; bccauseof this. I was ablc to distin.quish
cusilybctrvccncrustsand scdjnlentsjn differentcontpositL, stratirof the earth.
Thc follo}r'inr cln hc det!'rntinedabout the ntatcrialsoI strata:
J. If all particles in a stony stratunl arc obscn,cd to be of the sane naturc and
of finc sizc. it cannot rcasonabll be denied that this strrtum wts produccrl trt thc
tinrc of (lreation front a fluid that then covered all things; Dcscartcs.roo, accounts
for thc origin of lhc carth'sstrata jn this wav.0r
f. If. in a ccltain stratum. fragorentsof anothcr stratum or thc ptrts of plunls
and anintalsare lound. it is certain that thc said stratunrntust notbe countedamong
the stratl)that scttlcdout ot the first fluid at the time of Crcation.
3. ll. in I ccrtain strrtun, rve discoler traccs of scl_salt,the remains of nurinc
rninlals. timbers of ships and substancessintilar to thc sea bcd. it is ccrttin that
l)rc scu \\,as;lt one tinlc in that pl.cc. howel,er it came to be there, whetller bv
its
rrwn overflow or by thc uphcavalof mountains.
4. If, jn a cert.rin strltunr, u'e find a -_ueatabundancc of rushcs. grass, pine
cones. trunks and trce trranchesand sirnilar ob.jccts,wc surnlise correctly
that the
slrd matcri.il was swept thithcr by a river in flood or by a torrentjal
outbreak.
5. If. jn a ccrtrin stratum. piccesof charcoal,ashes.pumicc stonc. bitumcn and
calcinedbodiesare observcd.it is certain that firc occurrcd in the
neighbourhoodof
the fluid, the nrorcso if the entirc strltum is composedof ash
and charcoal only;
sLtchI hrrvcsecn outside thc city of Rome.r'rwherc thc matcrial
of burnt bricks is
dug.
6. If thc nraterialof all the strata in oDe place is the same. it js ccrtain
that the
fluid did not absorb fluids of a cliffcrenrkind flowing
in from various placcs at dif_
fcrcnt tin)es.
7. If the material of strata in the sarnc pitce be diffcrcnt.
eithcr tjifferent kinds
of fluid from different places streamed through
that spot at differcnt trmes (wheth_
cr the causebc a changeof winds or a Dtorc violent
downpour of rains in certain lo_
calitics) or the nritterial in the s:rmesedimentwas
of varying gravlty, so thirt first
the hcavier particlcs and then the lighter oncs sought ttrc
Uottori; changesin weath_
ct ntjght have causedthis diversily, espcciallyin regionswhere
a sinrilarincqvalityof
soil is observed.
8. If stony strata are found between earthy strata, it is certain either that
a
 The Prodrontus on Solids
ci fontem aqvarum petrificantium. vel contigisseinterdum
eruptiones,vel a dcpositosedinrentorccedcnsfluidunl, ubi
)lis .induruerjt,itcrum rediisse.
lvcntia certis annumeraripoterunt:
rlabatur qvodlibct stratunr.fuit sub codenl strato aliud cor-
verulcntaeultcriorcm desccnsunrimpcdicbat. adeoqve,qvo
atorunr infimum. fuit sub eo vel corpus aliud solidum. vel,
iterit. fuit illud tum diversaenaturae a fluido superiori. tum
.) fluidi superioris.
rabatur ununl c stratissuperioribus.stratun inferiusjam tum
cqvrsrvcrat.
nrabatur stratunr qvodlibet, vcl alio corpore solido a lateri-
lum terrae globurn obduxit. Hinc seqvitur.qvocunqve in lo-
lra conspiciuntur. vel eorundern stratorun continuationem
rvcniendum cssealiud corpus solidunr.qvod materiam stra-
L-[et.
n)abatur qvodlibet stratum. materian illi superincunrbentenr
dcoqve.qvo tempore infinlum stratuIn fornrabatur.nullunr c
rtrsse.
:rt. certun cst. qvo tcmpore formabittur stratum qvodlibct,
rcm, ut et lateruflrejus superficics.inferioris corporis et cor-
-ficiebusrespondisse,superiorenrvero superficicmhorizonti.
rit. parallelamexstitisse,adeoqvcstrata omnia. praetcr infi-
rrizonti paralleliscontineri, Hinc seqvitur, strata vel pcrpen-
u, vel ad illum inclinata. alio temporc horizonti parallela
s mutatus stratorum situs et nuda eorundem latera. pro ut
rspiciuntur.qvandoqvidenrmanifcstaindicia ignium et aqva-
nt locorurn exstent.Ut enin a(lva terrcanr ntatcrianrdissol-
.ndcm devehit,tum in supcrficieterrae. tun-lin terrae cavita-
a qvaevissolida rcsolvcns.non ruodo leviorcsejus particulas
interdum pondera e.jaculatur,qvo fit. ut in superficieterrac
ivei, in terrag autem visccribusmeatussubterraneiet cavcr-
occasionestrata terr:rc situm mutare poterunt duobus lno-
'atorum violenta in altum excussio, sive eam producat prae-
The prodrontuson Solids 165
spring or petrifying waters6sexisted in the neighbourhood or that
.ccasional
cruptions of subterraneanvapours took place, or that a fluid, having reccdcd
fronl
the sedimcntthat had been deposjted,rctumcd again whcn the uppcr crust
had be_
cornchardenedby the hcat of thc sun.
The following can be considcredcertain about the position of strara:
l At the time when a given stratum was being formed, there was
beneatl] it
anothcr substanccthat preventedthe pulverisedmaterialsfrom sinking furthcr;
con_
scquendy. when the lowest stratum was bcing formed. either there was
another
solid substanceundcrneath it or some fluid existed there which was
not onlv
different in nature from the fluid above it but was also heavier
than the solid
sedimcntfrom the fluid aboveit.
2. When an upper stralum was bcing formed, the lower stratunr had
alrcadv
g a i n c dt h e c o n s i s t e n col f a s o l i d .
-3. Whcn any given stratum was beins formed. it was either
cncompassedat its
edgc'sbv another solid substanceor jt covercd the whole gCobeof the
earth. Hence.
it follows that wherever bared edgesof strata are seen.eithcr a contjnuation
ol thc
sanrcstrtta nrust bc looked for or anothcr solid substancemust
be found that kept
the nlaterialof the stratafrorn being dispersed.
4. When any givcn stratum was being formed, all the matter
resting on it was
fluid and. thcrefore.when the lowcst stratunt was being fornred.
none of lhc uDper
s lr r t l c ' . i s t c d .
As far as form is concerned.it is certain that when any given
stratun was being
produced. its lowcr surface and its edgescorrespondcd
with thc surfacesof lower
and latcral bodies but that its upper surface was as far
as possjble paraltel to the
horizon; all strata, tlrereforc.exccpt the lowcst. were
bounded by two horizontal
plancs.Hence. it follows that strata tvhich are
either perpendicularto thc horizon or
inciined to it lvcre at one time parallel to the horizon.
Nor arc my stateDrents contradictedby change in the position of strata ilnd tlteir
cxposcded-uessuch as are observedto-day in many placcs.
since obvious traces of
fire and flood lre lo be found jn thc ncighbourhood
of rhose places.lor just as
water in brcaking down earthy material, bears
it down slopcs no1 onlv on the
earth's surfacebut aiso in thc carth's cavities,so fire,
in brcaking Ooruntt,or.-rotila
that oppose it, not only drives out their lighter particrcs
but slmetines hurls out
very heavy milsses;the resurt is that precipices,channels
and hollows rorm on the
earlh's sudace wbile, in the bowels of the earth, subterranean
passagcsand caverns
are produced, in consequenceof which the earth's strata can;lter
position in two
$'tys:
The first way is the vjolent upheaval of strata, wherher this be
due mainly to a
 'llte
Prodrontus on Solicls
or subterrancorutn,sivc idem efficiat violcnta adris clisio
r vicinia ruinas. Hanc stratorunl excussionemseqvitur rla-
.m dispcrsio.matcriuc vero saxcac diffractio in lapillos et
pontancusstratotut'l)superiQrunldr'lapsusseu ruina, qvando
rri. scu funclantcnto.supetiora rinras agcrc coeperint.undc
nl lirrictate varius tiiliractorunl straltorunsitusscqvitur.dtLtn
lllcla mancnt, alia ird illum perpcndiculariafiunt, pleraqve
a constituunt,nonnulla in arcus inflectuntur, materia corum
c rrrutatiocontingere poterit vel in onrnibus stratis cavitlti
busdanlstratisinferioribus.rclictis integis superioribusstra-
itus variarum rerum sic satis difficilium facilem cxplicatio-
set inaeqvalitalisillius, qvac in terrire superficit multis co:r-
racbct. ur sunt nrontcs.vulies.aqvarunrsupcrtorum rcccpt{l-
ocis editis. tunr in dcpressis.sed, ut reliqva taceant.clc nton-
urral'n.
,rum situs praccipua nrctntiunlorigo sit. indc patct' qvod in
unr consplclantur:
qvorundam vertice.
zenti parallela.
eribusstratavaria varie ld horizonteminclinata
ium latcribus ruptortrt))stralorulll facics, matcriae c1 ligurlic
, t i 0 r Dd c n r o n s l r a n t e s .
inrbi.
Cem congerici disruptorunl stratorurl iragmcntl. paftlol ln
per vicinos agrosdisPersit.
tibus saxcis,vcl in corundcnrvicinia, evidentissinlaignis sub-
radnodum circa colles, e strirtis tcrrejs compositos, aqvac
. Et hic obiter notandunt. colles, qvi e strirtis terrcis conpo-
,ro fundamento habcre stratorunrsaxcorunl nrajora fragmt'n-
tuentur imposita sibi tcrrea strata,ne a vicinorum flunrinunr
esolvantur,imo integrassaeperegioncsadversusOceani sac-
d otrtensaBrasiliac tacnil et ubiqve obvia scopulosaJittorir
The Prcdrcktus o Solid.l t61
suddcn flare of subterraneangasesor to Lrviolent explosion of air causcd by other
great subsidenccsnearby. This upward thrust of strata is followcd by the dispersal
of carthy matcrial as dust and the shattering of rock material into pebbk's and
rough fragnrents.
Thc secondway is ir spontaneousslippinu or subsidenceof thc upper strata irfter
they have begun to crack becauscof the witlrdrawal of the underlying subslance
or foundltion; in consequencethc broken strata take up different positionsaccord-
ing to thc variety of cavities and cracks. While sonrc rcrnain parallel to tirc hori-
zontll. others beconrevertical; many makc oblique angleswith the horizon and not
a fe$,are twistcd into curves becauscof the tenacity of their nateriall this change
can tlkc phce either in all thc strata overlying a cavity or in ccrtain lowcr strata.
the upper strirtabcing left unbroken.
Alteration in the position of strata affords an easy explanation of various fairly
difficult problcms.trtHerein may be found a reason for thc unevennessof the
carth's surfacethat givcs rise to so many controversies,as are found in mountains,
vallcys, nltural reservoirs,elevatcd plains and lowJying plains; but, pirssint over
the rest. I shall dcal quickly here with ccrtain pojnts conccrning mountains.
The orgin of mountains.
It is clear that altcration in thc position crl strata is the main sourceof nrountainfor-
rnatjontronr the firct that in any givcn rangeof mount.rinsmtry be observed:
1. Vast level arcason the summitsof sonremountains.
2 . l \ l i r n 1s l r r t u p r r u l l c lt u t h c h ( ' r i z o n .
3. Various strata on the sidcs of nrouDtirinsinclined at different anslcs to the
horizontal.
4. Brokl'n strata. on the opposite slopesof hills showing absolutc agreenrentin
fornr anrl nratr:rial.
5. E\posed edgesof strata.
6. Fragnrentsof broken strata at the ioot of the sanle range prrtly piled into
hills and partly scatteredover thc adjoiningtcrrain.
7. The clearestsigns of subterraneanfire. either in the rocks of the mountains
thcmsclvesor in their neighbourhood,.justas many springs are found around hills
that arc conrposedof earthy strata.And, herc, it nlust be observed,in passing,that
hills fornred of carthy stratahave. for thc lrost part, larger fragncnts of stony strata
as thejr foundation; these.in nrany placcs.kcep thc carthy strata that arc laid upon
tlrem front being swept away by the currfl'lts of ncighbouringrivcrs and torrcnts;
indeed, thel' often protect entire rcgions a-qainstthe violence of the occan, as lhe
spreadingrr'!'fs of BraziltT and cxposcd rocky shorcs cvcrywherc bcar witnc'ss.
Mountains can also be formed in other ways. such as by the eruption of fires that
bclch forth ashesand stoncs together with sulphur and bjturnen, and also by the
 Oti Prcdrcnus ott Solids
oncDr,bre\i certaDt.cognitioncn)acqvircrentusde varietittc
ridi tunr subtilis,tum abientisagitantur.qvae p rs Physices.
vcrarn opcrationum n!lturaliun'texpliclitionemontnibus nc-
turilliter inclusa nullum nr'c freqvcntiusoccunit. ncc ntagis
conchyliorum, qvocirca aliqvanto fusius de illis disseran,
as e mari dcsumptas,inde illas. qvae e ntontibus cruuDtur.
\re ilninlal sibi qvondanr inclusunr hlbuere. scnsibusnos-
Sras rc'sol\i ir1 tcstulas.testults !c'ro resQlviin fila. eaqvc
i. colore. substantiaet loco a sc inviccnt diffcrentia.
ici,,'rrrsuperioreminfcriorcntqvc nil esseDisi filorulr e\tre-
llbi esselatera eorundcnrfilorunt in linlbo tcstulaesitorunl.
pcrficiem intcriore'nrcsse Bander)tcunr superficic interiorc
. t u l . r e .s r r p r . r f i c i c n
ver r o c \ t e r i o r c mc ( ) | | l p L ] s i t t n
( .ts s cc t i s u -
re tsstulilc ct cx superficieomnium lintborunr intcrntedia-
stac in aninralibusproducuntur. seqvcntioevidenterdcmon-
tr sudori aninraliulu in eo similcnr esse.qvod sit humor per
tnirnalisexcretus.
t duobus nodis produci posse,vel in ipsis anintalis poris,
cl rlurn cresccntisaninalis superficies.nrajor iacta superfi-
ac testulae.ab eadem recedit. adeoqve glutinosurnhunro-
rerlicieln contenturn partinr in fila ducit (id qvQclhumori-
t.),partin novi humoris excretioneadau-eet.qvod nulla alia
supcrficiespenetr!re possit.
rrum dependere a pororun diversitate, qvibus anirnalis
. et a diversitatc lnateriae, qvae per cosdem poros cxccr_
Ineris anintalia geminam substantiamin superficic.qvarum
'altera, utraqve fibrosa,
crrjusaccuratiorindago non parum
ni.
si extimanr. seu ntinimant, exceperis,productas esse iDter
rn1 animaliscorpus, adeoqvenon a se ipsis, scd a ioco tigu-
motus animalis et materiaeqvantitasaliqvam in figura va_
is producat. De extima testula dubitari poterit. an superfi_
On Prcdrcn. to Solids 189
of the variety of nrotionwith which the particlesof borh the tcnuousand surrounding
iluids arc agitated;justas this plrt of Physicsis necesslryto all for a rrue explanauon
of thc workingsof natureso alsothere are few who have ensasedin it.
Shellsof molluscs.
Among solids naturally enclosedby a solid, no group occurs nlore frequently. nor
arousesgreater doubt than the shells of molluscs.Therefore I shalt speak at some_
what greaterlength about these,considcringfirst shellstaken from the sea aDd then
thosedug fronl nountains.
Shclls of every kind that at some period of time have encloseda living creature
revealthe foJlowingcharacteristics to our senses:
.l. Thc completeshcllsare divided jnto ,,testulas,,;the testulaeagain, are divided
into filaments, and thesc filaments are reduced to two types. differing from each
other in colour, substanceand location.r0!
2. The upper and lower surfaces in the testulae are nothing else than the
crtremities of filaments. but the lateral surface consistsof the sidesof these sanre
filamentslocatedat thc edgeof the testula.
3. The inner surfaceof thc shell itself is identical to the inner surface of the in_
nrost or largcst tcstula, but the outer surface is cornposedof the outer surface ot
the sn)allcsttestulaand the surfaceof all edgesof the intermediatetestulae.
The followin-gpoints can be demonstratedclearly concerningthe rvay in which
shellsare formed on aniruals:
l. Thc substanceof the filanrentsis like the perspirationof aninralsin tbat it is
l tLuidexcretedthrough the a[irnal's outer surface.
2. Thc shape of the filaments can be produced in two ways, either by the very
pores of the animal through which thcy are c_xcrcted or by the lacr rhat the surface
of thc grewing animal, bccoming largcr than the surtace of the tcstulae that have
hrrrdenedlong aElo.separatesfront this surlace rnd so partly draws the viscous fluid
containcd bctwccn the two surfacesinto fillments, (a process thar rs commonly
nct in viscous fluids), and partly adds to it by excretion of fresh fluid because
no other substancccan cntcr bctweenthe tlvo said surfaces.
3. Difierencesin the filaments depend on a differencein the pores by which the
irnimal surfacc is perfor.tcd and upon a differencein the material trrat is excreted
through the pores; for animals of this kind possessa twofold substanceirl their
surface, of which one is harder and the other softer, both being fibrous; a urore
carefui exanrinationof thesethro{'s no little )ight on tlte investigationof bones.
4. A1l the testulae, cxcepting the outermost or smallest, were produced between
the outer shell and the body of the animal itsclt and have thus not taken their
shape independeutly but as a consequence of their location; the result is that, in

1h( Pt allontus ott Solil\
s fluidun tetigcrit. an vcro ntenlbranaqvadam tecta fuerit;
ul) opinionemsolalmlocultt habcre:1. Qvod oruniuntrcliqva-
) tenrporc concreverunt.a fluido an)bicntc intacta fucrinl.
. t i s! i d c a n l u sn t e n r b r l n a er.e l c t l r i o s i t r l i l cq v i d t c s t a s L ' x t r i n -
' till'rtum non insensibili q!acslio !'st. ct dici potcrit. inlrn
s ! ' P r i | r a c t c s t u l l r cl i l a , q r l t r d o c livt i . ' t l e x p c r i e n l i ac o n s l e l .
or is. non cx putrcclincnirsci.
LtuI:
s coiorunr ct itculeorunl. qvnc in testis. tunl nosttlitlllus.
n nrultorunr merentur; cum aliunde non proccdat qvanl cx
rlusi. Eteninl hic lintbus. dunr cx parvulo scnsinl crcscit ct
tularum oris sui inagirr!'rr rclinqvit; qvandoqvidenrdictat'
hunorc, qvi ex lintbo anintalis exsudat.vel sint ipsi lirllbi
bus narinis dentcs,dc Do\() forsitan succrcscuntin priorjs
nr (lcntiunrinstar vcrsusextcriora sensimevoivulllul
)duclio. tunl eafunr. q\iac. tcstisadhaerentcs.fi-qtlranol] ris-
tunr carunr. qvae. ttbstructisin supcrficiearninlirlispororunl
figuram rotundanl tdipiscuntur: nanqvc intcr nlarllilrita-
um nrargaritifcrarunltcstulasid discrinrinisdunrtrxat ilrtcr
in eoden qvasi plano sitil sint, nargaritilrunl vero corticcs
per eandenr supcrficienr sphaericam. Eleganslll hujus rei
nargaritas Tuo jussu a nle diffractas una pracbult. qvae.
us corpus nigrun jnclud.l'ut, simile -Qranopipcris et q\il
rdinenr,in qvo filorunr allL'[aertrcrnitateccntrunl rcspicieD-
rs erat. ordinesqve.seu sphlerae eorundernfiltlrunl digntts-
: r s i o n c v i d i : 1 . N l a r g a r r r r s! a r i i s t u b c r i b u si n a e q r l l c ' sn i l
p a r v u l a sm a r g a r i t l si i s d c n rc o n r n r u n i b ucsr u s t i si n c l u s l s -f .
multas non solunr in supcrficic cxtima sphacrac.sed iu trtrr-
r.rsllavo colorc tinctases;e. ut adcoqvcdubitare anrpliusnon
m adscribcndurnnlutatis hunroribusanimalis, ct Aethiopcrn
studet,nisi vcl adscititiuscolor fuerit, utpote in collo gcstan-
xtima sphaeraflava fucrit. utpote si anirnalishunrorcsntrn
:mporc interioressphaeraeformabantur. Unde patct illorunr
rtura margaritarun jmitirtiolcnr ex ingenio fingunl. cuD) \'ix
aggressusfucrit, nisi alter Lucullus conchis nrnrgaritileris
in ipsis animalibusmodos cas multiplicandi inqvisivcrit,vel
Th? Prodto ut: o Solkls l9l
oysters.thc motion of the animal and the lmount of substanceoften give risc to
somc variation in forn].
Regardinethc outcrmost tcstula, there can be some doubt whcthcr the surround-
ing fluid toucheclthe outer surface or whethcr it was protcctcd by sonre kind of
nrembrane:J should think. howcvcr, that onll thc latter view is corrcct bccause:
L The fil nrenls of all thc rcmainin{ testulaewere untouchcd by tbe surround-
i n g f l u i d o t t h c l i n ' r cl h e y w e r ef o r n ] e d .
l. We see in prickly cockLes(r.lrrar hit\ulu t|.at a membrane or sonrcthinglikc
a skin covcrs thc oulsidc of the shells.But the problcm is about rlatrer that is all
but inrpcrccptible,and it can be statcd thlt thc filaments of the first tcstuhc hld
tulll
alreadv hardencdwithin thc cgg, sincecxperienceprovcs that oystcrsand crthcrtcs-
taceaarjsc Irom eggsand not fron.ldecayingnr1ttcr.r10
Fronr what has becn statcd,it is casyto explain:
l. All lhe variety of hues and pricklcs which arousesthe wonder of nran) in the
casc not oDIv of nirtivc but also of foreign shells; tor this divcrsity has no othcr
origin than the edgeof the aninralencloscdin tl.rcshell.And indeed this cdgc. grt,* -
int and crplntiing graduirlly from sonrethingexceedinglysmall, lelves rls rn)print
on each nrrrgin of the testulae;sincethc said nrirrginsc'itherlorn fronr thc fluid thlt
is excr.'tctlfronr the oulcr cd-qcof tlrc aninral or ar!' in lact the aninrll's outer edges
gro$:ins anew. perhaps,like the teeth Lrf the shark- in thl: place of an earlict cdge
and. like thosesauteteeth.bcing thrust gtrdually outwards.
2. Thc li)rnlation of pearls; not onh, those that, adhering to the shells.are not
quite rtrund in form, but also those that, aftcr thc openingsof the porcs in thc ani-
nral's suriace have closed. acquire a round shape within thc porcs thenrsellcs;for
thc dilferencebctwcen the jntcgumentsof pcarls and the testulaein shclls of pearl-
bearing nrolluscsis nrerely that thc filanlcnts of the shellsare located as it rverc in
thc san)eplane but the integumentsof pearls havc thcir filaments distributed over
thc snnresphericaisurface.An clegant cxanrple of this was providcd by cne pearl
l t n ) o n qt h o s L ' t h r t I b r o k c a t v o u r c o r ) t n r a n d ; ' r ' l h i sp e a r l . a l t h o u g hc x t c r n a i l ) i r
g)ittcling rvhite.enclosedwithin itself a black body tbat rescnrbleda r.:rrrinof peppe'r
both in colour aud sizc, in rvhich thc.placinn oi thc filanlents.',vithonc cnd tcnding
t(r\\'ardsthc ccntrc. u'as verv clcar. lnd thc rons ol sphcresof thc sanretila rents
c o u l db c d i s t i n g u i s h e d
A.t t h c s n r n ct i n r c .I s i r w r r t: h t t :
I The unequalexcrcsccnccs on various pearlsare nothing but various very sntall
I pcarls enclosedin thc sanleconllnon crusts.
2. Many pcarls of a yellorv huc arc tinged with yellow pigrrent not only in the
outcrmost surface of the spherebut in all the inner sphercs;and so it is no longer
possiblelcl doubt that thc colour must bc attributed to the changing fluids of thc
aninral,and thlt hc who seeksto wash it ciean u,ashcslln Ethiopian,rlr unlcsscilltcr
tbc colour bas been acquired,for instancc,front wearing natural pcarls on the neck.
or the pearl rvas ycllow in the outcrmost sphere onl5,.as might bc thc clsc if tl)r'
fluids of th€anintal had changedwhen lhe inner sphercswere bein! formed.
 The Prodrontus on Solitls
-m Naturae laboresimitandi.Non negaverim,posscarte con-
ticibuscompositos,sed cosdemcorticesa filorum sibi mutuo
tare, unde nativus ille margaritarum splendor dependet. id
judicavenm,'15
rutae latent, ad tria gencra reducuntur:
r est, qvac modo descriptisadco similes sunt, ut ovum ovo;
testacin testulasresolvantur,et testulac in fila, filorumqve
r situs sit.Has testasanimalium qvondam in fluidoviventium
i tcstaceamarina nunqvam visa fuissent,ipsius tcstaeconsi-
:olrcharumbivalvium exemplopatebit.
rutae Ilrtent,ad tria generareducuntur:
n laevem. (]t poris innumeris pertusam. duplicemqvediver-
ien, et rninusduram ipsa testa.
m ambicnte matcria communicavit, ab altera partc nullum
:iun.
parte illa. qva negatum ipsi erat commercium cun materia
rrtem. ubi liberum illi commercium erat cum eademmateria
tervalla apcrire pro amplitudine illius anguli, qvcm cardincs
runl ctevlt.
)onfectaetestulaesunt. per sui substantiamtransmjsit.
;has anbiens: l. Si non omnino fluida exstitit, s.rltemrnino-
uit, qvarn erat vis dilatandi se in materia intra conchascon-
)stantian fluidam aptam conficiendis inde testularum filis;
terni. tum externi conditionesin ipsa Dissertationeargumen-
.tae satis evincunt, intra conchasanimal, extra conchasflui-
'unr tcstarum est, qvac, modo descriptiscaeterosimiles.solo
is diffcrunt; durn qvaedan levioresjusto, aliae justo graviores
hi poros habeant succo adscititio repletos, illarum pori le-
;ione arnpliati sint, de qvibus nihil amplius subjungo. qvod
re animalium vel pctrefactae,vel calcinatac.
n est, qvae sola figura similcs sunt nrodo descriptistestis,re-
ifferunt; cum nec testulaeibi, ncc fila, multo nrinus filorun]
Jarum aliae aEreaesunt; aliae lapideae, colore vel nigro, vel
The P' odlonlus on Solids 193
Thcre emerges clearly from thesc fircts the error of those who, without knowing
their naturc attempt the clcvcr jmitation of pearls,for hardly anyons could attcmpt
this feat succcssfullyunless another Lucullus should replcnish his aquaria with
pcarlbearingmolluscsrrrand eithcr seek in the aninrals themsclvesthe means of
multiplying then or lcarn fronr this the diificulty of imitating the works of Nature. I
would not dcny that it is possibleto nrakc, artificially, globulesforned of various
intcgumentsbut I should considerit indeed most difficult to arrangethcse same in-
tegumcntsfrom a serics of filantents added one to the other, upon which process
thc natural lustre of pcarlsdepcnds.l'5
Shellsthat lie buried in the earth rnay be reducedto three classi:s:
The first classconsistsof those that arc as like tbc shcllsjust describcdas an egg
resenrblesan egg, since the shells themselvesare resolved into testulae,thc tcstu-
Iac inlo filaments and therc is the sanrc diversity and position of lilaments. Even if
marine tcstaceahad never been observed,exanination of the shell itself would
provc that thesc shells were parts of aninralsthat lived at one tinrc in a fluid. as
will appearfrom the exampleof bivalvenrussels.
At the time when bivalve nrusselswerc formed, the material containedwithin thc
lllusscl:
;
1. Had a smooth surface pierced with innumerablepores and had two varieties
ot pore.
2. Was a pliable substancelesshard than the shell itscll.
3. Comnrunicatcdon one side with surroundingmaterial; on the othcr side had
no colnmunicationwith it_
4. Withdrew gradually from the side where conmunication witlt outer material
was denicd towards the side where it had free communicationwith the said mate-
rial.
I
1 5. Was able to open itself at intervals accordingto the size of the angle allowcd
by the hingesof the shclls.
6. Grcw fronr a small to a large size.
7. Transmitted through its own substancethe material that made up the testu-
lae of thc shell.
Re-qarding the outcr matcrial surroundingmussels:
1. If it were not completelyfluid, at least irs power of rcsistancewas less than
thc pow(]rof expansionof the substancecontainedby the shells.
2. It coltaincd a fluid substancesuitedto the formation of filantcntsof the testu_
lae of the shell; all theseconditionsof both the jnner and outer regions,demonstra-
tcd by arguments and drawings in the Dissertation itself, show sufficiently that
there was an animal within the shellsrnd a fluid outsidc_
The sccond classconsistsof those shellsthat are in other rcspcctslike those just
dcscribedbut differ lrom them only in colour and wcight; while some arc lighter
than usual, others arc hcavier tha[ usual bccause they have their pores filled with
added fluid; I say no more about those whose pores have been enlarged by ejection
 I
f he Prodrcnluson Solids
i aliae cNstallinae; aliae alterius materiae.qvarun omniunr
modo cxplico:
m succorumpenetrandi vis dissolverit'iitlcm succi vel terra
rum spatia vacua (qvae cgo testasaercas appello) vel' no-
Iterati pro ejusdem nraterilc varietate,cadem testarun spa-
rarn)ore.vel lapidc implevcre: unde ortum habct ntarmoris
r. qvanr Ncphiri appellant,qvaeqvealiud nihil est qvam se-
generis testisplenunl, ubi. consumpta tcstarum substantia'
:um cjus successit.
qvac
nrci brclitas. ut afferalrlonlniun illorutll dcscriPtionenl,
terris erutarunl gcneribus notalu di-gnl observavi;qvocirca'
tia huc tclcrllm:
itifcraDrin Etruria rcpertanl. adhacrcnteipsi conchaenlarga-
najoris pilrtcm, ubi. consumptabysso.color b.\'ssirenansit in
e ccrnchamrcplevcrat.
: nragnitudinistestac, in qvibus plurcs cavernaeobiongiLca
untur. illis onnino similcs.qvas inl:0 lapiclcAnconitano' Ne a-
unr genus concharum inhabitat; qvae lapidum cavitatcs' nisi
rcanlibusc luto fornratac fur-rint (qvod rix crcdidcrinr' ctttll
rti1l. ubi nullae cavitltes rePeriuntur.cildenr sit culll stlbstan-
rncs circa superficieshacrent),a vermibus crunt excsae.cunr
illud svadcat,et in multis cavitatibusrcpertun] corpus ex fi-
rontcxtunrcviocat, qvod iPSicavitati magnitudinc(]t figura re-
:onchis,ncc circa conchasfactac sunt' curl organis acl roden-
encris testi(cea,nec tcstarulll figurac ulln cavitas respondeat'
:xposilasaxa conchl'liorum ovis a mari expulsisreceptaculunt
Ltatibus,cum earum nullarn hactcnusviderim manifestoc\itu
vis dixerit. a succo lapidescentecirca certa corpora concreto
as fuisse.qvacdam cavitatescadem materil undiqve obductae
lac fuisscnt.
ex partc consuntptant.ubi adesacsubstantiaejacturtrm crus-
it, variis balanis tecta; ut adcoqve certo concludereliccat' a
testam,secundoin mari deportatam,iterum novo sedimento
relictamfuisse.
i, et turbitresvix nis.roculis microscopioarmatis conspiciendi.
Th. Prcdro'nu.t on Solid.l 195
of lighter pilrts bccauscthev are nothing elsebut the shellsof aljmals that are either
pclrilic{l or calcined.
The third classconsislsof shclls that arc similar to those just describcdin shape
only, for the rest differing completcly,since oeithertestulaenor filaments arc found
in them, nruch lessa varietv of filaments.Someof theseare contposedo[ air. others,
either biack or yellow in colour, of stonc; others of nrarblcl others of crysltl and
still othcrs of other material; I account for the lormation of all of thesc in the fol-
l o w j n gr v a y i r r r r
Whcn thc penctra'lingforcc of thc fluids dissolvcdthc substanccof a shell. these
lluids were either drained away by the earth, leaving empty spacesin the shells.
(thcsc I crll shclls conrposcdof air).ttr or werc changcd by the addition of new
nraterial.filling the said spacesin the shellswith crystalsor n:arble or stone. lccord-
in_c1r)lhc varir'ty of n)atcrial: thc most bciutilul kind of marble. that kno\rn as
Ncphiri.ll' has its or;gin in this source; being nothing else than a deposit of the
sca. filletl rvith shells of cvery description,in which a stonv nlaterial has replaccd
thc dcconrpQscd substanceof thc shclls.
The brcvity of my plan does not allow nte to give an accourt of all the things that
I havc consideredworthy of note in parricular kinds of shells dug from the earth;
\!'herr'lore.passingbt'othcr nritttcrs,I shall rctcr hcrc onlv to thc fQllow'jn,r:
l. A pslrl-lgnling shcll, found in Tuscany, in which the pearl was clin-qingto
thc shell itself.
2. The largcr portion ol' a marinc pinna. where thc colour of the byssusl'0per-
sistedin thc carthy matcrial that had tillcd the shcll after dccompositionof the bys-
sus.
'lhcrc
-1. arc shclls of oysters, of rcmlrkablc size, in rvhich are found severai
oblong u(rrnr-caten cavities'r0in all respectslike those that are inhabited by a
ccrtain t)pe of shellfishin the rocks of Ancona, Naples and Sicily.r,l Unless thcy
wcre fornred by insects building a ncst from nud, (which I can scarcelybelievc
sincethc substancaof thc nliddle portion of the rock, in which no cavjtiesarc found,
is idcntical to the subsranccof thc cavitics, thcse bsing garbercdwholly about the
surfitccrc'gions),thcscca\.itieshave been etten out by wornrs,sincethis is both con-
firnred by thc surfaceol the cavity and proved by the discoveryin many cavitiesof
a bodv, nrade up of thicker filaments, that conforms to the cavity itsclt in size and
shtpe.lr: Assurcdly, the cavities were made neither by nor around shellfish,since
testaccaeof this kind lack or.gansfor gnarvjtg and no clvity correspondsto thc
shapc of their shells.Nor js it surpr.isinlthat rocks exposedto the sea afford a rest-
ing place, in thc said cavities,for the eggsof shellfishcast up by the sea,for I havc
not yct observedany of thcse cavitieslacking an obvious outlet, But if it is stated
that the cavitics were Dade by a petrifying tluid that hardcncd around certain
bodics. sorne cavities would have becn found envelopedon all sides by the sane
nratcriul,and lacking an openilg.
4. A shell, partly destroycd internally, in which a marble incrustation,covered
 7lrc Ptolnnx\ on Solids
, et conchrs bivah'asnon crystallo tectas,scd tota substantia
rum tubulos vrrios.
n est, idcm de aliis partibus animalium ipsisqvcanimalibus
. c qvoru|r nunlcro sunt dentes canum ruarinorum, dcntes
c piscium, onrnis gcneris piscesintegri, crania, cornua' den-
ia animalium terrestriutl. qvandoqvidcm llaec omnia veris
onrnino sinrilia sint. \ L'l solo ponderc et colore ab illis diffe-
f i g u r a r ]et x t e t n a n rc. u n r i l l i s n i h i l c o n r n t u n ch a b c - a n t .
n] nlovet innunlerus ille nunrerusdentiunt, qvi singulis an-
cxpi)rtantur;cum vix navis ulla co appulcrit, qvin illius nt-
sccum revchllt. Scd huic ego difficultati lliam responsioncllr
Ovod singuliscanibus sexccntiet plures dentes sint, ct toto
videantur' 2. Ovod ventis agitatum
novi dentes subctr-scere
a vcrsusuDuD)aliqvenl locunl profudcre ct ibidcm accumu-
rncs marini -qrcgltin)inccrjant.adeoqvceodc'nlloco pluriunl
potucrint. 4. Qvod in glcbis \Iclitensibus huc allalts' praetcl
)runr canurrr,etiilnr varia conchylia rcperiilnlur, ut adcoqvc'
adet, productioncm eorum terrac adscritlcndamesse,corun-
,t in singulisaninralibuscopia. tcrra fundo ttlaris similis. alia-
Jcm loco rcpcrta contrariaeopinioni favcant.
lovct nragnitudofr'nlotunt, craniorun.tct dcntium aliorumqve
:uuntur; sed ncc tanti cst hacc objectio, ut qvantitas. solitae
unr Naturae viribus superioren infcrrc debcat. qvandoqvi-
visa sint corpora hominum facic adntotlunt procera.2 Cer-
'ando nronstruosaemagnitudinishomincs. 3. Sacpiusitiden.I
rabcantur, qvac aliorum animalium ossa siot. 4. Idcttt sit,
um verc fibrosorum productionenl,ac dicere,posscNaturin,
honrinisrnanumproduccre.
itas temporisreliqvoru|n ilrgumentorun)!it-n !'vcrterevidctur,
roria constct, inundationesco adsccndisse,ubi tnuita ntarina
rtur, si diluviunt univcrsalc excepcris.undc ad nostra usclvc'
) anni praeter proptcr nul)lerantur; ncc rlttont consonunl
injuriis restitisseanimalis corporis partcm, culn vrdeanlus
'um spatio e:rde[) corpora in totun destrui. Sed huic dubio
rm a soli varietate id totum depcndeat; strata enim ex
t he Pr<tdrontu.son Solids t91
by various balanojds.lt3had rep)acedlhe substanceeaten alvly: thus it is possib)e
lo concludc with certaint\ that the slrell had bccn left upon land by the sea. then
carricd down into thc sca, covered again b1' a new deposit and abandoncdbl thc
sca.
5. Vcry small cggs and helical shells which can hardly be dJstinguishedcxccpl
with the aid of the microscope.
6. Pectincs,helical shells and bivalve molluscs, not coycrcd with crystal but
wholly crvstriline in thcir substancc.
7. Various tubes ol seawonr)s.
Other parts of animals.
What his bcen said about shells should be said also about parts of aninrals and
aninralsthcr selvesburied in thc !'arth, among which may bc reckoned the teeth
of sharks.the tecth of caglc-fish,ri{the backbonesof fishes,and all kinds of whole
fish, the crania, horns, teeth, femurs and other bones of terrestrial anirnirls.since
all of rbese either resembletrue aninral parts in every wav. or ditfer front thcm
onl! in crrleur and weight, or havc' nothing in conrmon rvith them !'^rcpring Iheir
out\\'irrdshapeal()nc.
Great difticulty is caused b) the countlessnumber of teeth carried away each
l,ear fronr th(] island oI Malta..r:t sincc scarccly a singlc ship calls thcrc rvithout
bringing back sonreproof of this marvel. But to this difficulty I can find no other
answerthan:
l. That lhcre are more th.ln six hnndred teeth to each shark. irnd that ncw tccth
ser-l)rto grow throughoutthL'rvholcrrl thc shark'slifcspan.
2. Thrt th!- scr. whipped rrP bt the rvinds. tends to push bodic'sjn its piith to-
$urds r -qivcnplace and to hclp thctn up therc.
'that
,1. shilrks gtther jn prcks and so mirny sharks tecth could bc left in thc
sanreplace.
4. That in lumps of carth brought here from Malta, besidcsvarious tceth fronl
various sharks. arc found also various shciltish, so that if the number of teeth
pcrsurclcsus to ascribetheir production to the earth, the constructionet tltc tceth
and fheir abundancein each animal. the sirrilarity of the eanh to the sea betl, and
thc othcr nlarine bodiesfound in thc-santc'placefavour thc oppositeoplnron.
For others, dilficulty aris€sfronr tha size of thc fcmurs. crania, teeth, and oLher
bones that arc dug from the earth; but there is not nruch either in this objcctitrn
that unusualsizc shouldsuggcsta nlethodbeyond thc porlcrs of Naturc. sincc:
1. In our age,nen of very largc staturehave been observcd.
2. It is certain that there existedat one time men of giganticsize.r:d
3. Oftcn the bones of other animals are mistakenfor the bones of human bcings.
4. To attribute to Naturc the production of truly librous boncs is on a par with

Tlu Prctlronws t'n Sttli.l s
idi, qvae onnia sibi inclusa corpora tenuitate succi resol-
rtrata plurinra obscrvavi, qv.re onlnia sibi connissa integra
'erinrentolicerst in cognitioncDlvsDirc illius succi, qvi soli-
.)d vcro certurnsjl. Drultorun conchvljorun, qvae hodie rePe-
Ld tcmpon cum universali diluvio coincidentia reterendam
argumcntunl.Ccrtum est, ante jacta Romanac urbis funda-
urbem jam tum viribus potentcn exstitisse;at vcro in saxis
c qvibusdam in locis ibi reperiuntur (murorum antiqvissimo-
neris conchylia rcperiuntur. ct non ita pridem in medjo foro
rchis striatis refertissinrunr;ut rdeoqve certum sit. hodie irl
nchas jaln ttLnrproductasfuisse.qvo tempore muri Volater-
nc qvis dixerit, solas testasin lapidem conversas,r'el lapidi
rre nullum damnum passasfuissc,totus ille collis, cui urbium
na supentructa cst, ex maris sedimcntisexsurgit, sibi invi
lnti parallelis,ubi nrulta strata non lapidea veris conchis. et
onem passisabundant; ut adeoqvc certo pronuntiare liceat.
imus, non iolmutatas conchasab hinc ter mille annis et am-
Ab Urbe condita ad nostra usqve tempora numeranrusbis
linti annos.ct qvod exccdit: ct qvis non largictur, plura sccu-
inro horninesco sc'dessuastranstulerunt,usqvedunr in illam
rit. qva vi-qebrttcnrporc conditac Urbis'l Qvibus seculissi il-
rus.qvod intercessita jacto prinlo scdimentocollis Volatena-
:undcnr collenr.confluentesqvceo alienigenas.facilc ad dilu-
adscendemus.
.horitasdubitare vetat, qvo minus pracgrandiailla ossa.qvae
'uuntur, mille nongentorumannorunr saeviticircstiterinti ccr-
ia jumentorunr.qvae ibi reperiuntur. non esseex hujus coeli
: femora illa ingentiaet praelongaescapulae,qvae ibidcm re-
est, transiisseillac Hannibalcm, anteqvam ad lacunr Transi-
confligeret.3. Ccrtun est, exstitisscin ipsius exercitujumen-
ae magnitudinisElephantesturrigcros.4. Certum cst. dunr a
:sc€nderet,niuria aqvarum alluvie periissein locis paludosis
rlium oneribusvehendisdestinatorum.5. Cartunr est, Iocunl,
ssa, ex variis stratis congestum €sse, qvae plena sunt saxis a
)rrentium impetu devolutis; ut adeoqve cuilibet loci et ossium
TIrc Protlronus on Solids 199
sayin!: that Nature can produce the hand of a man without the rcrnainder of the
nlan.
Tllcrc irrc thosc to whom the length of time seems to destroy thc force of the re-
maining arcuments, since there are no recolleclionsin any age to confirm that
floods have risen to the placeswherc many rDarinebodies are found to day, it the
univcrsaldclugc is excepted.fronr which tint€ it is estinlatedthat 4000 years have
clapsed up to the present:r:7flor does it seenr in accordancewith reason that n
part of an aninal body has rcsistcdso many ycars oi wcar, when rve observeoften
over the space of a few years the conlplete destruction of the same bodies. But it is
easy to reply to this disbelief.since the outcome dependsentirely on the variety of
soil;for I havc obscrvedstratalrom a certain type of clay which dissolvedall bodies
cnclosedby it. owing to the thinnessof its juice; I haYeobservedmany other strata
of sand rvhich prcscrvcd rvhele all that lodged thercin. By such cxpcrimcnt it nay
bc possiblcto come to a knowledgeof that juice, which dissolvessolid bodies; but
the following argument providcs to our satisfactionthat it is certain that the pro-
duction of many shellfishfound to day is to be reckonedas coincidentwith the ages
of thc universaldelugc.It is ccrtain that bcforc the foundationsof the'city of Rome
were laid. the city of Volterra \vas already porverful; but shellfish of every kind
lre tound in the huge stonesthat are found in certain placesthere (the remains of
the oldcst walls), and not so very long ago a stone filled with striatcd shcllfish was
lrcrvnfronr the middle of the forum; and so it is certain that shelllishfound to day in
the srid stoneswcre alrcady produced at the time when the walls of Volterra were
ercctcd.r:6And lest some say that only shells,converted to stone, or enclosedby
stone, havc suffercd no damagc from thc gnawing of time, the whole hill on which
the oldcst of the Etruscan cities js built riscs fron'r narine sediments,laid on top of
othcr. parallel to the horizol, in which there are many non-stolly strata which
abound in true molluscs that have sufferedno changein any way, and so it is pos-
sible to say with certainty that the unchanged molluscs that are extractcd from
thcnr today rvere produced more than 3000 ycars ago. From the founding of the
City to the present day wc rcckon more than 2420 years have elapsed;and who
will not -srantthat nany cenlurieshave elapscdsincc the first nlen transferredtheir
honre'sthere uDtii it €rcw ro rhe sizc that flourishedat the t.imeof the founding of the
City') It rve add to thesecenturicsthe time rvhich elapsedbetweenthe laying down
of the first sediment of thc hill oI Volterra and the withdrawal of the sea from the
sanre hill, when strangers flocked to it, wc shall easily go back to the time of the
universaldeluge.
The saDrcauthority of history forbids doubts that the huge bones that are dug
trom the fields of Arezzo have resistedthc ravagesof nineteenhundred years, for
it is certrin that:
l. The skulls of pack animals found there are not of animals of this clime, as
neither are the huge femurs and very long scapulae found in the same plain.
2. Hannibal crossed thither before fighting the Romans at the Trasumene Lake.
 )
The Prc.lrcnlus on Solids
onfercnti evidens in omnibus consensuslatere amplius non
.-orumqvcpartibus dictum cst. plantis et partibus plantarum
itratis tcrreiseruantur,sivc intra saxcan substantiamdelites-
.ntis plantarumqvc partibus omnino similes sunt. qvtlcs Ia-
I colore ct pondcre ab illis ditfcrunt, qvae frcqventiusoccur-
cxustae,modo lapidcsccntesucco impregnatae;vcl sola fi-
'alium nragnacopia variis in locis exstat.
.neribus,qvin verae plantae olim exstitcrint. dubitare rlini-
sorunr corporum fabrica. ncc repugnantenatura loci. undc
:, Jn acdcs translatam terram successutcnrporis i[ ]ignum
crficie terrac lignonr includentcid assererepotcrunt; ubi ex-
errlr ct in pulverem delapsa inclusum sibi lignum detexit;
ligni poris rcpcrta fila metallica, cu|n ipse e terra truncunl
rum et cortice plantam tcstatum,cujus lissurae materilr mi-
)ssctct hinc rnineraliumdoctrinaenon parum lucis irccedere,
gni inqvirerctur. qvid illa mineraliul'nproductioni conlcrre
ulta vciriunt. qvae nil nisi carbonescssc.Iibrarunr cluctuset
) un t .
m parit tcrtium genus plantarum, seu figurae plantarunr la-
id gencrisfiguras obscrvcmusin pruina. arborc ncrcuriali.
s, substantiaalba in aqvam resolubili, qvae in vasis vitreis
rum interius accrcscit,sed interdum e nedio iundo in libe-
I rite omnia pcrpcndcntinihiJoccurfctaliatisopiniorribuscon-
gcncra referuntur inscriptae saxis plantaruln figurae: qvae-
rinrarum hacrcnt, qvas absqvc vcra plantii. licct non absqvc
conccsscrim;aliae non modo in supcrficierinrarun consis-
pidis substantiamqvaqva vcrsus rarlulos suos diffuntlunt;
pore produccbaturdicta planta. sivc aliarum plantarulrrtno-
ialis nrodo factum id sit, ipsam substantian lapidis nondunr
ise: id qvod amplius confirmat non modo ipsa mollior con-
]m angulatacorpora in dendroitideIlvensi frcqvcntia,qvalia,
rn concrescunt. Sed qvid aliis argumentis opus est, ubi ipsa
aria loca uliginosa, tum aprica, tum subterranea lustravi, ubi
Thc Prolrontus on Solids 201
3. There wcrc in his army African pack animals and turret-bearingclcphantsof
i n r m c n s cs i z c .
4. While he was coning down from the nountains of Fiesole, a large section of
thc aninlals sclectcdfor carrying packs perished in thc Darshy regions owing to
excessivefloods.lil'
5. Thc placc from which the said bones are dug was built up from vtrious strata
that are lilled with stores rolled down from the surroundingnlountainsbv thc force
of torrents; so that the obvious agreernentin all details can no longer bc hidden
from an1'one rvho comparcs the nalure of the place and of the bonEs uith thc
historicairecord.
Plants.
What has been said about aninlals and thc parts of aninlalsholds cquallv for plants
and thc parts of plants, whcthcr dug Iron the strata of the earth or lying hidden in
the substanceof rock; for either thcy resembletrue plants and parts of plants in
every respect,which is a rare occurrcncc,or thcy diffcr from thcm enly in colour
and wcight. which is a conlmon occurrence.sometimesburnt to charcoal, somc-
times impregnated with petrifying fluidlro or they correspond only in their shape,
there being a great abundanceof such casesin various placcs.Thcre cannot be the
lcast doubt that the first two classeswere once true plants, in that the structure of
their bodics forces us to this conclusion, and thc naturc of thc placc lrom which
thcv are dug is not inconsistentwith it. Those who object, with the view that eartlr
traosferrcdto housesbecarncwood in thc courseof timc, can affirm this only about
thc surfaceof the earth enclosingthe wood. where the earth, dried up with time and
crumbled into dust, discloscdthc wood within; nor do the metallic filanrcntsfound
in thc pores of the said wood weigh againstus. sincc I ml,sclf have drawn from the
carth :r trunk. witll knots on its branches and a bark rvhich testified to its plant
origirt. whosefissureswere filled with mincral material. Front hcncc, no snrall light
might be thrown on thc doctrine of ninerals, if an investigationwcre ntade of wood
and the location of the wood to find what thcy could have contributed to the pro-
duction of nrinerals.Many things are called bitunen that are proved to be nothing
but charcoal by thc channcJsin the fibrcs and the ashesof parts that are burned.
With thc third class of plants, or plant shapesinscribed on stonc, a grcatcr dif-
ficulty ariscs; since we observc shirpcsof this kind in hoar-frost, in the mercury
trec,lrrrjn various volatile salts. in a white substancethat is solublc in water.13:
which in glassvcssclsnot only grows on the jnncr sidcsof the vessclsbut sontetimes
risesup from the middle of the basc into the free air. But if everythingis considered
properly, nothing ariscsto oppose thc opinions expresscd;for the shapcsof plants
inscribedon rocks may be reckonedin two classes;some adhereonly to the surfaces
of cracks, which I should concede were produccd easily without a truc plant, though
not without a fluid; others not only appear on the sudace of cracks but spread their
 Tltc Pt odrcnus ott Soli.lr
lapis novo tllusco varll gene-
lraetcrlabenteaqva arccrcsccns
llr corpora reccnsui,qvoruDrlocus, in qvo reperiuntur,nlul-
lm productionis corundenl ct eadem occasionesubindica-
cl insensibileest. ccrtum qvid cx sensibiliconcluditur.
lcujus rci stalusstatunrprreteritunrejusdemrei detcgit,prae
, Elruria evitlcnter declarat, in cujus hodicrna facic obviae
a diversarunr nrutationunr indicia in se continent, qvas
r a novissimaad primlm regredicndo.
r inclinatunr A in codern plano fuit cum plano horizontali
rni A ita elevatilimbus, ut et limbus plani horizontalisaltio-
i fuerunt. sive planum horizontaleinferius D in eodcnrpla-
rrizontalibus altioribus B. C, sive aliud corpus solidunr ibi
orum nuda latera fulciens; scu. qvod iden est, qvo loco ho-
ities depressae.
praecipitiaet plrna inclinata inter collcs are-
linr plana onrnia exstitcre.eoqve tcDporc aqvae onnes, turl
n, vel ipsanr iiianr pialiticnr inundabanl. vel sub planitie
)i aperuerant:saltenrsub stratis superioribuscavitatescraqt.
nabatur planum B. .A. C, et itli suppositaalia plan^. totunr
tectun fuit; seu, qvod iden est, supra colles arenaccosut
elevatumfuit.
etur planum B. A, C, plana F, G. I eundem situn habeb.rnt.
:u, qvod idem est. anteclv m formarcntur collium .rrcnacco-
:is profundaevallcsexstitcrunt.
I inclinatum I cum planis horizontalibusF et G in coden'l
'um I et C nuda latera vcl ulterjus continuata fuerunt, vel
t, eademnuda latera fulciens,cum dicta plana formarcntur;
The Prolrcntu: ou Solids 203
branches cverywhere through the stony substance itself; whence it follows that at
the timc when the said plant was produced, whether it was made in the manner ot
othcr plants, or in the fashion of a mcrcury plant, the substanceof the stonehtd not
yct given up the nature of a fluid; this is confirmed further not only by thc softer
consistenc_vof tht: stone itself but also by the angular bodies that occur frcquently
in the dcndritesof Elba, such as forrn only iD a free fluid. But what is the need for
othcr prool rvhcn experienceitself speaks?I huve examined various n)oist places.
sonrecxposed to the light, sonreunderground,where, becauseof rvater fiorving by,
l rock growing into moss and other pllnts was being covcred with new mossesof
another kind.
I have, previously, reviewed the chiet bodies for which the place of discovery
has causednany to be indecisiveabout their place of production; and I have, on
the sanleoccasion,indicatedhow from that which is perceiveda definitc conclusion
nraybe drawn about what is imperceptible.trr
Different changesthat have occurred in Tuscany.
How thr'pre'sentstate of anythin-qdisclosesthe p st state of the sanrethinp is n)ade
irbundantlyclcar by the exanlple of Tuscany,tr{above all others; obvious incquali-
tics in the present surfacc contain $ithin thcnrselvesclear indications ot various
changcs,which I shall revicw in inverseorder, working back from the nost recerlt
to the tirst.
1. At one time, the inclined plane A was in the sanreplanc as the higher hori-
zontal plane B, and the cdgc of the same plane A so raised, as also the edge of the
higher lrorizontal plane C, were continued further, whethcr the lower horizontal
plane D wirs jn the samc plane as the higher horizontal planesB and C. or anothcr
solid body existedthere, supporting the exposedsidesof the higher planes;or what
js thc srnrc. cvcrything was once level in the region where, today, rivers, swirDps.
sunkenplains. precipices,and inclined plrnes betweensandy hiils are observcd.and
rt that tinrc all thc waters,of both rains and springs,were inundating thrt piain or
had opened up subterraneanchannelstor themselvesunder the plaini at least thcre
lvcrecavitiesunder the upper strata.
2. At the time when plane B A C was bcing formed, and the other planes under-
neath it, thc whole plane B A C was covered with water; or what is the same
thing, the scawas once raisedabovethe sandyhills no matter how high.
3. Before thc plane B A C formed, the planes F G I had the same position that
they hold now, or, what is the sane, before the strata of the sandy hills were formed
deep valleyscxistedin the sane places.
4. At one time the inclined plane I was in the same plane as the horizontal
planesF and G, and the exposedsidesof the planesI and G were either continued
further, or another solid existed there supporting lhe said exposed sides when the
 I h.' Pt oJrcntr oi Solil.\ The PrcdroDtus on,toltd:t 205

L o c oh o d i c .i n t c r a l t i s s i m o r u nnrr o n t i u r rp l a n o sv c r t i c r s .v a l - plancs rcferred to were fonlred; or, what is tlre s{me, rvhere vallcys appear today
betweenthe tlat tops of the highestmountains,thcrc was, at onc time, one continuous
ndo una continua plrnities erat. sub qva ingcntescilvitates
plain. undcr which huge cavities wcrc formed before the collapse of thc uppcr
orunl superlorumruinas.
strata.
- a ; l o r n r i l b a t u rI.l u i d u n a q v e u n r ; i l ij n c u n r b e b a ts:c u .t l r o d 5. Whcn the planc F C was formed, an aqucousfJuid lay over it: or. what js the
; s i r n o r u nrrl ( r n t i u n rp l u n i v c r t i c e s{ q ! i s t c c t a f u e r u r l t . sanrc.itt onc time the flat tops of the highest nlountains wcrc c()vercdwith watcr.
Etruriac llcici l-nnoscirnus.clunt his fluida. bis plilttt ct Thus. rve recognizesix distiflct aspectsof Tuscany,1,r" two when it was fluid, two
d c1vod.ut mLlltorunra me inspcctorunrlocorunr incluctione whcn flat and dry. two whcn it was uneven; what I demonstrateabout Tuscany by
induction from many places examined by me, so I confirm for the rvhole earth from
.c dc Lrtrivcrsa tcrra vrrioru]n locorunl dcscriptiotribusa va-
thc descriptionsof many placcs set down by various writers. But lcst anyone be
: o n f i r m o .N c r e r o a n o v i t a t ep c r i c u l u n tq v i s q v i u nD t c t u a t .
afraid of the dangcr of noveltv, I set down bricfJy thc agreementbetween Nature
: ( ) n s e n s l l lp) a u c i se x p o n a n rr. e c e n s c n dpt rr a c c i p u a sd i i fi c u l - and Scripture. reviewing the nrain difficultics that can be raised about indivjdual
i tcl-firc Iacrcsrllovcfl potcrurlt. aspectsof thc carth.
: in eo ScripttLraet Niltura censfntiunt. qvod aclr'isornnta With rceard to the fjrst aspect of the earth, Scripture and Naturc agrec in this
vcro. ct qvando cocpcrit. ct qvllnto tclnpore talis cxstiterit. respect.that everythingwas covered with water; but of how and when it began.and
how lon-{.it lastcd as such, Nature saysnothing. while Scripture speaks.That therc
oqvitur. Ovod autem fluidum aqvcurn fuerit qvo tcrrporc
was aqueousfluid. howevcr,at a time when animalsand plantshad not yet appeared,
t a c r c p c r i c b a n t u re.t q v o d f l u i d u n ri l l u d o n n i a t c x c t i l .r ' D o n -
al]d that thc' fluid covered everything, is proved conclusively b) t]te strata of
corporc dcstitula evincullt; qvoruDr fi-luftr
rni betcro-qcrrr'r' lhe hiqhcr nrountainsu,hich are frce fronr all heterogcneoDs material; the outline
r i l r r r h s c t t t i : r \t ot tr P u r u t r rh c t c r ( r l c t l c ( r r u rt cr rs t i l l u r .r l l . l t ( r i J C of thcsc strata testifiesto the p1g5sr.aof a fluid; their matcrial bcxrs witnessto the
Lnrct irb inviccn renrotorummontiunr strirtissinrilitudoflui- absenccof hetcrogeneousbodies; the similarity in materials and outlines of strata
ronstrat.Qvod si qvis dixcrit. contentain illis stratisdiversae lronl dit'ferent mountltins that arc widely separated proves indeed that the fluid was
universrl. If it should be said that solids of different kinds containedin thcse strata
temporis consuDlptafuissc. ncgare nrinime poterit. conspi-
rvould be destroyedin thc courseof time, it is difficult to deny that a clear difference
'sctvandirnrfuissr'jnter strati nriltcrirr et rnalcrillrlrper stril
$,ould bc rrbservedthere between thc material of the stratun) and Droteriallhat
lorunrq!c consunrptorumspati2rr('plcrltcm.Qvod si \cro su- pcrcrrlatedthrough thc poresof the stratuntto fill the spaccsleft by decayedbodies.
lvibusdanl in lQcis alia strata rL'perirenturdiversis corpori- But i[ in certain places othcr strata filled with various bodies are found above the
on scqveretur.qvirm supra stratirprin)i fluidi ab alio iluido strata lormed by the filst fluid, nothing follorvs from this except that new strata
sse.qvorun n)ateria itidenr rcplcrc potucrit a prinro lluido have been deposited by another fluid on the strata of the first fluid, the material of
rnas; ut adcoqvc seluper eo rccu[rqndunrsit. qvo t!'n]porc wbich could in likc manner fill thc ruins of the strataleft by the first fluid; and so we
must always return to this, that at the tine wlten the strata of unn)ixcd material,
eriae. ct in orDuibusnlontibus ob!ia fornrabantur. r!'liq!il
, s e do n r n i at c c t l l u i s s cf l u i d o . p l a n t i se t a n i m a l i b u sa l i i s q \ , . I obvious in all lnountl)ins.werc being fornrcd, the rest of the strata did not yct exist,

II
but evcrythirg was covered with a fluid devoid of plants, aninals, and other solids.
rata cum cx illorum genercsint. qrac nenlo nellare potcrit, Sinceno one can dcny that thc strata arc of thc kind that could have been produced
lotuerint inrnrcdiatc esse producta. n]anifcstul'ltScripturac immcdiatelyby the Fjrst Mover, we recognizelrom this the obviorrsagrccmentbe-
inde agnoscimus. twccn Scriptureand Nature.
cic, qvae plana ct sicca fuit, qvatdo ct qvonodo cor'pclit. ff When and how the second aspectof the earth. rvhich was flat and dry, began,
Nature is likervisesilcnt, whilc Scripturc spcaks;nroreover,Nature's a$sertionthat
fiptura loqvjtur; cactcra, qvod talis tclrac fzrcicsltlic|lndo
such an aspectof the earth did exist at onc time is confirmcd by Scripture wher it
rturan Scriptura confirnrat. dum. ab uno fontc scaturicntes teachesthat waters gushing from one source overspreadthe whole earth.l3d
isse, docet. When the third aspectof the earth, which is believed to have been uneven, be-
, qva aspera statuitur, qvando coeperit, nec Scriptura nec gan, ncithcr Scripture nor Nature determines; Naturg shows that the unevennesswas
 T|rc Prodrcntu! on soli.lt
nam illam fuisse inaeqvalitatem.Natura derDonstrat.mon-
<Jiluviitemporc Scriptura facit; caetera qvando producti
Jm Scriptura ibi nlcminit. fucrintne illi rrlontcsiidenr curl')
itne i[itjo diluvii ea profundilasvalliunr. qvle hodic. ln vc-
,'rficiem excrcscentiunlaq\aruDl trovac stratorum rupturae
nt. nec Scripturancc Natura deterDlinilt.
I onrnia nare erant. plus ncgotii faccsserevidetur. licct rc
ccurlat. Exstitissenrirre altius. qvant modo est. colliuol c
io tcstatur.idqve non nrodo in Etruria, scd in plurimis ltrcis
uncle vcrsus nrare Mctliterraneunl aqvae dilabuntur; qvin
Cceanunraqvae dcfluunt. Qvanta illa naris altitudo fucrit'
nanti Natura non rcpugoilt: qvandoqvidem: l. Certa vcsti-
i plurcs ccntcnospcdcs supra maris superficienlclcvatis 2
. ut omniir terrac solida initir'rrerunr fluido aqvco tecta fuc-
'run tegi potucrirrt.cum reruln Daluraliunl mutiltio qvidcnl
r nirturrlis in nihilunr reductio. Qvis aut!-nlpL'netraljun)ter-
lltri-
LSest. ut ncgareitusit. posseibi ingcntia spatia !'xstaLre.
irco plena. 3. Inccrturrr onrnino sit. qvae vallium profundi-
it: ratio vero svadeat-prinlis mundi seculisab aqva et igne
s fuissc. adcoqvc ninus profundas stratorunl ruinas indc
s autenr altissimi, qvorum Scriptura meminit, altissini
. qvi tunq tenrporis reperiebantur. non autcnr eorurD.
Si animalis motus id agere peterjt. ut pro arbitrio ntodo
cddantur. modo novis aqvis obrulrntur.qvidni primo rcrurn
I libertatem easdemqvcvirc's ultro concedcrcmus?De tenr-
Historiae Sacrae onrniu minutinr recensentihistoril pro-
iqvae urbes Etruriae natalessuos ultra ter mille lnnos cx-
llae in collibus a nrari productis exstructaesunt; in Lydia
uor mille annos accedirnus,ut inde colligere liceat. tcnr-
-a terra fuerit, convenicnsessetempori. cujus Scriptura nrc-
rscentium aqvarum spectat.varitn affcrre possemusNatu-
;. Qvod si qvis dixerit, in terra ccntrum gravitatisnon sem-
o figurae,sed modo ab una. modo ab altera cjus partc rccc-
ubterraneaevariis locis creverint. facilcm rationen) afferre
rerum omnia tegenscerta loca arida rcliqverit, itcrunrqve
la. Eadem facilitatc universalediluvium explicatur. si circa
The PrcLlruntl\ o Solids 201
of somc rnagnitude;Scripturc, nloreover. mentions mountains at the time of the
delugc;for the rest, neither Scripturenor Nature determineswhen those mountains,
of which Scripture nrakesmention, were produccd, whethcr those mountains were
the same as thc mountainsof today, wbcthL'rat the bcginning of the deluge therc
were vallcvs as deep as today, or whether new clrasmswere openedby new brcaks
in the stratato lower thc surfaceof the rising waters.
Thc fourth aspect.rvhen all was ocean. seenrsto causc more difficulty, though
in truth it is not difficult. The production of hills frorn marire depositstestiticsthat
the sca was higher than it is now, lnd this not only in Tuscany but also in very nrany
places flr enough from thc si:a, fronr lvhich waters flow to the Mediterrancan; in-
deed jn thosc placcsfrom which waters flow into the ocean,Naturc does not contra-
dict what Scripturcdctcrminesabout how high the sca was,since:
l. Definitc tracesof the sca appcar in placesthat are raiscd severalhundreds of
feet abovr.sealevel.
2. It caDnotbe denied that as all thc solids of the earth were in the beginningof
things colerl-d by aqucousfluid, so they could have bccn covcred again by aqueous
fluid. sincechangeis;ndeed continual in thr'things of nature, but nothing in Dature
is totally destrovcd.But who has investigatedthc structure of the interior of thc
earth and \'ill dare to denl' the possiblccristencetri hugc spaccsthcrc. at time'sfilled
rvith lquc'ousfluid. at othersfilled with an acrealfluid?
-1. It is completelyuncertain what the depth of the valle),swas at thc beginning
of the dcluge; but rcason persuadesus that, in the first ccnturies of the world's
existence.cavitieswere gn.rwn out by water and by fire, so that slightcr collapses
of stratir followed from this; however, the highest mountains, of which Scripture
nrirkcsmention, wcre the highcst of the nrountainsthen found, but not the hi-shest
of tlroseobservedin the presentday.
4. If thc activity of a living creaturc cil|'l bring it about that sontetimesplaces
floodcd rvith waters are made dry by its decisjon.and somctimesarc floodcd *,ith
new waters. \hv should we not willingly concedc to the First Mover of all things
the samc'frccdr.rrn and the sarnepowers?r!;with reeard to thc tirnc of the univer_
sal deluge,sacredHistory, revie'.r'ingever!'thingin detail, is nLrtopposcdb1,sccular
history. The ancientcities of Tuscan1,.srrmcof which are built on hills produccd by
thc sca. werc founded morc tltan three thousandyears ago; in Lydia. howcvcr. we
ceme ncarcr to four thousandyears, so that it is possibleto reckon front this fact
that thc time at which the earth was abandonedby the sea is in accordancewith
the time of which Scripture makes nrentioo.lrsRegardingthe nanner in which the
waters rese, we can put forward various agrcementswith the laws of Nature. It it
should be said that thc ccntre of gravity ol tlle earth does not always coincidc with
the centre oI jts figure, but somctimesDovBs away from one side, sometirnesiron.l
the otl'ler.accordingto the fornration of subterraneancavitiesin diffcrcnt places,it
is possibleto put forward a rcady reasonwhy the iluid that covered cverything jn
the beginningof !hings left ccrtain placcs dry, and returned again to occupy tbem.
 '1he
Prodronus on Solitls
aqvarurr sphrcra. aut saltem ingentiareceptaculaconstitue-
ntri rnotu. inclusaezrqvaecffusio dcduci poterit. Sed et facilis
us mihi videtur. qvo et valliunl nrinor profunditaset sufficiens
intur. nuil.l habita ratiollc centri, vel figurae' vci gravitatis
imus, 1. Frrgmcntis qvorundam stratorum delapsisobtura-
qvos in terrac cava penetrnflsmarc ad fontium scaturigincs
or visceribusterrae inclusanr,nulli nortalium dubiam, vi ig-
s noti prlrtinl versusfontcs aclan. partim per terrae nondum
adrenrplopulsam fuisse; illanr \:cro aqvafil! qvlc tum aeri
rrledicto rrrodoilli inrnriscebatur.Pluviarunl speciede)apsam
ris ob ditatatuscavernassubtcrraneaselevalunr.4. Rcliqvas
,itatcs repletasfuisse terrcna matcria ab altioribus locis con-
su abrasa.5. Ipsam terrae supcrficiem minus inaeqvalem
:iniorcnr; nihil nec Scripturae,nec rationi, nec qvotidianae
m aclnriserinrus.Qvid in terrac suPerficie contigerit, dum
riptura nc'cNatura dcclarat;id soluttrex Natura asseretePos-
:s tulrc tclnporisproductasessc: l. Qvod igniunt subtetraneo-
litac clvitatcs majoribus ruinis locum praebuerint. 2. Qvod
rt rcditus in profundiora terrae. 3. Qvod hodie in locis a mari
lcs conspicianturreplctac pluribus sedimcntisnarinis.
iterum sicca reddita terra, ingentesplanities nronstrabat.ex-
,lllura dcDrLrnstrat.
Scripturanon refra€tanle,caclera.an illico
an vero labentibusseculisnovae voraginesapcrtae novis re-
casionempraebucrint,cunl Scripturasileat. et gcntium histo-
r seculisipsis gcntibus dubil ct fabulis plena crcdita fuerit,
crminarc licet. Id qvidem certun est, nagnam tcrrirc qvanti-
:fcrri in nrare (ut fluminum aDplitudines ct longa per Medi-
cra torrcntlumqve tnnumerum numelum, paucrs.oDlnla ter-
Inti f.rcilc obvium est), adeoqvedcvectasa tlumilibus tcrras
rin dics novasterras relinqvcrc novis habitationibusaptas; id
vorunr opinio, qva integras regionescognominunrfluviorum
:Craccorum traditio, dum referunt, homines sensima Dlonti-
itima loca ob nimiam humiditirtr'msterilia, successutemporis
isse.
The Prodrontus on Solids 209
The utrivcrsaldeluge may be cxplained with the sarneeasel3e if a sphereof waters,
or at least huge reservoirsof water, are arranged around the fire in thc middle of
the earlhi whencc, without movemcnt of the centre, the outpouring of the enclosed
watcrs could bc derived, but thc foliowing method also seens quitc easy to nte; by
which both a lesserdepth of vallel,sand a sufficientquantit)' of tvater are obtllined
without considcring the ccntrc, cither of the figure or of grirvit],. For if we
should allow that:
l. Passagcsthrough which thc sea pcnctratesinto hollows in the earrh to supply
water to the sources of bubbling springs were blocked by the slipping of lragments
of certain strata.
2. Watcr. undoubtedly cnclosedby rhe boweis of the earth, was driven by the
lorcc of lhc rvcll-known subterraneanfire partly towards thc sprin-qsand partly
ejectedinto the atnosphere,through the pores of the earth that were not yet covcred
with water; thcn the water, not only that which is always present in the air but
also that which was mixed with it bv the method describedaboye.fcll in the form of
rain.
3. Thc bottom of the sea was raised up by expansionof subtcrraneancaverns.
4. The rentainingcavitieson the earth's surfacewere filled with earlhv Datcrial
erodedfron higherplacesbv the contiDuousrainfall.
5. The surface of the crrth itself was less uncven since it was nclrdr in time to
its original state:
If we allow these points, thcn wc allow nothing contrary to Scripturc. to rcason,
or to evcrvdayexperience.Neilher Scripturenor Nature makesclear what happened
to the sudace of the earth while it was covered with water; front Nature, we can
put forward only this, that decp vLrllcyswcre produced at that time, bccausc
l. The enlargement of the cavities throu-eh tbe force of subterraneNnfircs
pror rdt-da plircefor greaterlzrndslips.
2. A rcturn passagewtyle^dirg into the deeperparts of the earth had to be opcn-
cd li)r thc-waters.
3. foday, in places lar lrom the sea, deep valleys are tound filled with many
nlarrnedcposlts.
With regard to the fifth aspcct.in which huge plains rvererevealed,the earth bc-
ing nradcd11'aqrin. Nature demonstratesthc cxistcnccof thosc plainswhile Scripture
docs not contrrdict their existcncc;moreover. nothing certain can be determined
about $hether the sea recedcd completely and irrrmediately,or whethcr, indeed,
in thc course of centuries,ncw chasms opened to provide an opportunity for the
discovcryof new rcgions,sincc Scriptureis silent, and the history of nations rcgard-
ing the first agesafter the delu-gcis rcgarded as doubtful by the nations tllemselves
and is considercdto bc full of fables.What is certain ildced is that a greirl quanr[y
of earth was carried down to the scir every year (ls is readily ob,"iousltl irnlone
who considersthc breadthof rivcrs and their lengthycoursesthrough inland rcgions,
and the innumerable torrents; in short, all the downward slopes ol the earth), so
 on Solid:
The Prodrotrlus
sensibusobvia est, qva dictae planitics aqvarum pracciptlc
v.rlleset praecipitia tran-
Fiunl exustione,in varios canales,
€s t .a p u d H i s t o r i c o sn o n l c g i .q \ o t e m p o l eq v a e l i b e n
t lutatio
:nim a diluvio seculorumconfusa est et dubia historia apud
rro scculisillustrium virorum facta, non autem Naturae mira-
JnlpscruDt.Desidcramusnihilominus citata Scriptorittusn)o-
in variis locis factarunl mutationum historiam conscrrpsere;
ts, qvorum scripta conservata sunt, singulis tantum non anflrs
l c r r r e m o t u s ,e l e r r i se r u m p e n t e isg n e s .l l u m i n u r ne t m c r i u n l
rtet, qvatuor mille annis multas et varias lllutationescontlgrs-
n crrent illi. qvi in scriptis Antiqvorum nrultos errores accu-
currnt rb hodiernaGeographiadissona.Nollem ego fabulctsis
i b u s f a c i l ef i d e m a d h i b c r c ;s e d e t m u l t a i b i o c c u r r u n t q
' vibus
. Ex illorum enim generemulta ibi deprchendo,qvorum falsi-
a s m i h i d u b i a e s s er i d e l u r ; u t s u n t n r a r c M e d i t c r r a n c u r na h
jn-
p a r a t u n r :c t D a r iM e d i t e r r a n e oi n m a r e R u b r u n t t r a n s t t u s :
rrsio; vnriorum locorunt in itineribusBacchi' Triptolemi. Ulis-
'e descriptiovera, licet rebus hodie occurrcntibusnon respoo-
.rtationun, qvae in Etruria contigerunt toto spatio, qvod Ar-
intercipitur, evidentesdemonstrationesin ipsa Dissertationc
non possit.il)a tamcn ex
us. qvo singulaecontigerint,assi-enari
rnta lfteranr, ut nullum ulli dubium relinqvatur'
:ta, ne dicam tumultuaria,relatio est rerum praecrpuarum.qvae
tum distinctius,turn fusius exponeredecrcveram'addita loco-
singulaobservavi.
The Prodronus on Solids 211
that the earth carried down by thc rivers and added daily to thc shoreslcft new land
fit for new settlenents;this is confirrned by the judgment of the ancientsby which
they called whole regionsthe gifts of rivers having the sane name as the regions,'{0
and by the tradition of the Creeks, whcn they relate that nen, desccndinggradually
from the nountains. inhabited maritime regions that were sterile from cxcessive
moistureand were made fertile in the courseof time.1r1
The sixth aspectof thc earth is obvious to thc scnses,in which the said plains rvere
changed into various channels. vallcvs lnd precipices. nrainly through crosion
by the watcrs, and sometimcsby fiery conflagrations;nor is it to be wondered at
that there is no accountby historiansof the time when any given change occurred.
For thc history of the first ccnturiesafter the delugeis confusedand doubtful among
sccularwriters; indeed,with the passingof lhe centuriesthey took it on thcn)seives
to cclebratethe deedsof illustriousnen but not the miraclesoi nature.Neverthelcss,
wr: lack thc records,nentioned by writcrs, of thosewho wrote thc history of changes
that occurred in various places;and in so far as thc rcmaining authors,whose writ-
ings havc been preserved,report almost every year among thc marvels,earth movc-
ments, eruptions of fires from the earth, flooding by rivers and seas, it is easily
shown that nrany and various changeshave occurred in four thousand years;'r! so
that those who point a fingcr at lhe Dany errors in the writings of the ancientson
the groundsthat various things are found there which do not agrccwith presentday
gcography,arc much mistlken. I should not wish to attach a ready faith to the fa-
blcs narratedby the ancients.but many things are found therein in which I would not
deny beliei. For in their accountsI find many things whose falsity rather than truth
seem to nte doubttul, suclr as thc separationof the Meditcrranean Sea fron the
Western Ocean. the passlge joining the Mcditerranean Sea to the Red Sea.:4,the
submersionof the island of Atlantis;1! the description of various regions in the
lourneys 6[ Bacchus,Triptolemus, U]ysses.Aencas an others, may be true, though
it docs not correspond with things as they occur in the present day. I shall put for-
u'ard in the dissertationitself clear proof of the many changesthat have occur-
red in Tuscan.v.over its whole area betweenthe Amo and the Tiber, and thouch it
is not possibleto fix the timc at which each changeoccurred, I shall, nevertheless,
put forward argumentsfrom the history ol Italy, so that no one will be left in any
doubt.lrI
And this is a succinct,not to say disordered,account of the chief things that I
had resolved10 set do\r,'nin the Dissertationitself, not only ntore distinctly,but also
at -{treaterlengtb, with in addition, a descriptionof the placeswherc I havc observed
eachitCnr.!,i6